CALCULATORS

Amandeep Singh

Abstract: -

In this paper, a general calculator is discussed for arithmetic operation. The displaying technology used in this paper is seven segment display and the internal structure is based on ICs. The analysis of internal working of calculator has been done with block diagram as well as with internal structure. Impact of calculator technology is discussed. Its comparison with computers is done.

Index Terms: - DIL (dual in line), SIL (single in line), ALU, BCD, Adder, Subtractor.

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1. INTRODUCTION
A calculator is a small, portable, usually inexpensive electronic device used to perform the basic operations of arithmetic. Modern calculators are more portable than most computers, though most PDAs are comparable in size to handheld calculators. Pocket-sized devices become available in the 1970s, especially after the invention of microprocessor developed serendipitously by Intel for a Busicom calculator. Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, credit-card sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid 1970's as integrated circuits made their size and cost small. By the end of that decade, calculator prices had reduced to a point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools. In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets; for example, there are scientific calculators which include trigonometric and statistical calculat ions. Some calculators even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, or higher dimensional Euclidean space. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the worlds general purpose hardware capacity to compute information. This diminished to less than 0.05% by 2007.

2. HISTORY OF CALCULATOR
The idea of calculator came from the arithmetic calculation Abacus. We had to wait until the 19th century and the Industrial Revolution to see a real and quick development and diffusion of adding machines and mechanical calculators. These two devices (2-operations and 4-operations machines) were considered absolutely different since the origin until 1950s. But it wasn't until 1902 that the familiar pushbutton user interface was developed, with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, developed by James L. Dalto. The Curta calculator was developed in 1948 and, although costly, became popular for its portability. This purely mechanical handheld device could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division The Curta calculator was developed in 1948 and, although costly, became popular for its portability. This purely mechanical handheld device could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. In 1940s to 1970s came the development of electronic calculator by using vacuum tubes and transistors in logic circuits. The main invention during this period was the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator ANITA (A New Inspiration To Arithmetic/Accounting).This machine used vacuum tubes, cold-cathode tubes and Dekatrons in its circuits, with 12 coldcathode Nixie tubes for its display.

The first handheld calculator was developed by Texas Instruments in 1967. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape. In 1970s to mid 1980s the calculators were large and heavy desktop machines due to their use of hundreds of transistors on several circuit boards with a large power consumption that required an AC power supply. There were great efforts to put the logic required for a calculator into fewer and fewer integrated circuits (chips) and calculator electronics was one of the leading edges of semiconductor development. U.S. semiconductor manufacturers led the world in Large Scale Integration (LSI) semiconductor development, squeezing more and more functions into individual integrated circuits. In this period came many pocket calculators like Sharp QT-8B by Canon Pocketronic together with developments in display technology (such as the vacuum fluorescent display, LED, and LCD), lead within a few years to the cheap pocket calculator available to all. The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B, measuring 5.2 3.0 1.5 in, came out in the fall of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red LED display, for $240, while in August 1972 the four-function Sinclair Executive became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring 5.4 2.2 0.35in and weighing 2.5 oz (70g). It retailed for around

$150 (79). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than $10 (5).

Internal circuit with twelve Nixie tube display elements inside a 1960s desktop calculator

Then came the programmable calculators allow the user to write and store programs in the calculator in order to solve difficult problems or automate an elaborate procedure. Programming capability appears most commonly (although not exclusively) in graphing calculators, as the larger screen allows multiple lines of source code to be viewed simultaneously (i.e., without having to scroll to the next/previous display line). Originally, calculator programming had to be done in the calculator's own command language, but as calculator hackers discovered ways to bypass the main interface of the calculators and write assembly language programs, calculator companies (particularly Texas Instruments) began to support native-mode programming on their calculator hardware, first revealing the hooks used to enable such code to operate, and later explicitly building in facilities to handle such programs directly from the user interface.

The first calculator capable of symbolic computation was the HP-28C, released in 1987. It was able to, for example, solve quadratic equations symbolically. The first graphing calculator was the Casio FX7000G released in 1985. The two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released increasingly feature-laden calculators during the 1980s and 1990s. At the turn of the millennium, the line between a graphing calculator and a handheld computer was not always clear, as some very advanced calculators such as the TI-89, the Voyage 200 and HPg49G could differentiate and inte grate functions, solve differential equations, run word processing and PIM software, and connect by wire or IR to other calculators/computers. The HP 12c financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with few changes. The HP 12c featured the reverse Polish notation mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an

improved version of the HP 12c, the "HP 12c platinum edition" which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry. Calculated Industries competed with the HP 12c in the mortgage and real estate markets by differentiating the key labeling; changing the I, PV, FV to easier labeling terms such as "Int", "Term", "Pmt", and not using the reverse Polish notation. However, CI's more successful calculators involved a line of construction calculators, which evolved and expanded in the 1990s to present. According to Mark Bollman, mathematics and calculator historian and associate professor of mathematics at Albion College, the "Construction Master is the first in a long and profitable line of CI construction calculators" which carried them through the 1980s, 1990s, and to the present. Personal computers often come with a calculator utility program that emulates the appearance and functionality of a calculator, using the graphical user interface to portray a calculator. One such example is Windows Calculator. Most personal data assistants (PDA) and smartphones also have such a feature.

Financial Calculators Printing Calculators Solar Calculators

3.1 Display Calculators Display calculators are the most common and basic calculators available. They perform basic math operations such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. Many display calculators also have a small memory to store the result. These calculators usually contain an LCD display and many are powered by solar cells. Display calculators are inexpensive and generally cost less than $10. 3.2 Scientific Calculators Scientific calculators are more advanced than basic calculators. They perform trigonometric functions and have a larger memory. These calculators usually cost between $10 and $20. 3.3 Graphing Calculators Graphing calculators perform even more advanced functions than scientific calculators. They have larger memories and are able to store and graph equations. As a result, graphing calculators have a larger screen to display the graphs. They range in price from about $40 to $150. 3.4 Financial Calculators Financial calculators are specially designed to perform financial calculations. They usually cost between $10 and $30.

3. TYPES OF CALCULATOR

Calculators come in several different varieties. The most popular types of calculators are listed below.

Display Calculators Scientific Calculators Graphing Calculators

3.5 Printing Calculators Printing calculators contain a roll of paper on which they print the input and results. These figures are displayed on the screen as well. Most printing calculators perform only basic mathematic functions. They generally cost between $15 and $100. 3.6 Solar Calculators Many basic calculators are powered by solar cells rather than batteries. These cells, called photovoltaic cells, convert sunlight into electrical energy. The photovoltaic (PV) cells, which are made of silicon, absorb part of the light that hits them. This releases electrons and creates an electrical current. The current is transferred to the calculator by metal contacts located in the top and bottom of the photovoltaic cells.

Fractions such as 13 are displayed as decimal approximations, for example rounded to 0.33333333. Also, some fractions such as 17 which is 0.14285714285714 (to 14 significant figures) can be difficult to recognize in decimal form; as a result, many scientific calculators are able to work in vulgar fractions and/or mixed numbers.

INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM All computers have Microprocessors (...their brains!) and all Microprocessors have an ALU (arithmetic and logic unit) where simple mathematical operations are performed. Just about any conceivable program you run. from a wordprocessor to computer game needs to add up. This is one function of the ALU. Computers don't add up in decimal as I'm sure most of us are aware but use the simplest number system there is : Binary. Just 1s and 0s.

4. DESIGN OF CALCULATOR

Modern electronic calculators contain keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations. Some even contain 00 and 000 buttons to make large numbers easier to enter.

Decimal numbers can however be represented in Binary by using BCD (Binary code decimal). 4 Binary Bits give a range 0-15. So if you only use 0-9 four bits can represent one Decimal digit. The ALU uses Binary however as this is more efficient, taking numbers (generally 8 or 16 bits) and adding them. An 8 bit number can be 0-255 so if for example you added 150 to 200 the result would be 350 i.e. higher than 255. So the result is stored in one Byte (8 bits) and a carry bit is set in the microprocessors status register (H.Q., mission control?) if the number exceeds 255. This allows a computer program to take account of this on a slightly higher level. The 'Calculator' in the Science Museum worked in a similar way. Two numbers were set as input in the BCD range 0-9. Toggle wheels were used to select them. For those of you who don't know, toggle wheels are finger operated rotary switches with settings 0-9 that output the result via 5 wires. 4 for

the BCD result and 1 to provide logic 1 to these lines where appropriate. My circuit then uses an 8 SIL (single in line) resistor network to provide pull up resistors for both toggle wheels i.e. the output of these resistors from their common is active unless signals from the toggle wheel override it. A further 4 contacts also allow the output to be in negative logic. Useful in some applications where you want to save logic gates by a cleaver fiddle. But I didn't need them in this case. My toggle wheels have gold plated contacts. Gold, Silver and Copper are the best conductors because electrons circle the atom in groups, and the final group in these and only these materials has an outer group of 1 electron making it easiest to detach. Physicists call them shells. You will note their weight goes up in the order Copper, Silver, and Gold. And the price. Gold is the best conductor but also the most expensive due to rarity. The toggle wheels for this

reason cost me about 5 each when I bought them some years ago. Higher weight atoms of similar characteristic could also be theoretically good conductors. Unfortunately they are so heavy they can not hold together and particles shoot off i.e. they are radioactive. Heavy metals are made - when stars go supernova under the extreme conditions that then occur. They then drift in space until captured by a young star forming e.g. the sun and part of the material forms into inner planets. The material must also have been in another former star to turn light elements into medium weight elements that then go to make up part of the second star. Therefore the particles that make up gold have been through two star lives and then been captured by a third. Hence their extreme rarity with the ' process taking billions of years and covering light years of space. Getting back to the subject at hand. The BCD out from the toggle wheels is sent to a 4511 CMOS BCD-to- 7 -segment converter IC. CMOS chips work at 3-15V so can be driven from a 9V PP3 battery. This is all that is needed to power the circuit. The output of the converter is then feed through an 8 DIL (dual in line) I resistor network. Basically 8 resistors in one package: easier to solder. The output of the network goes to a 7segment digital LED display. So whatever the BCD number is the corresponding number appears on the display. The resistors are needed to ensure each segment of the display is of equal brightness. For example is you have 'I'. this uses only 2 segments, `9' however uses 6 segments. But all the segments are sinked through the same line so `1' would be 3 times as bright as `9' as more current would pass through fewer segments. This would give a very bad final effect.

As can be seen any result between 0 and 9 can be dealt with easily. The problem arises when the result is greater than 9 i.e. between 10 and 18. The first thing to do is too find out which case the circuit is currently dealing with. To do this a CMOS 4063 4-bit comparator can be used. `Although the result is 5-bits the 5th bit can be disregarded in the case when looking for a greater than 9 option, as the table shows above. The comparator gives an output (A>B) when the result is 10 or above. This is feed to two further sections of the circuit. One: through a biasing resistor and transistor to driver the 2-segment `1' display (second result digit). It displays `1' for 10 or above :and is blank for 9 or below. The display I used requires a 9V supply so activating it means linking it to OV via the transistor. Two spare resistors from the resistor networks are used to maintain constant brightness as with the other LED displays. Two: A>B goes to a second 4-Bit Binary Adder. It is configured so an active line feeds in 6 to the B input and an inactive line 0. Input A derives from the 4 LSB's of the 5bit result. As the 4-bit result is in hexadecimal (base 16) it has to be converted to BCD (base 10). This is done by adding 6 to the result if it is 10 or other. The `1' has been dealt with above. The 4-bit result is sent to a 7-segment display as above for the inputs.

 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF CALCULATOR

COMPONENTS CALCULATOR

OF

In general, electronic calculators consist of the following components:

Power source (battery and/or solar cell) Keypad - consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands (addition, multiplication, square-root, etc.) Processor chip (microprocessor) contains: Scanning unit - when a calculator is powered on, it scans the keypad waiting to pick up an electrical signal when a key is pressed. Encoder unit - converts the numbers and functions into binary code. X register and Y register - They are number stores where numbers are stored temporarily while doing calculations. All numbers go into the X register first. The number in the X register is shown on the display.

Flag register - The function for the calculation is stored here until the calculator needs it. Permanent memory (ROM)- The instructions for in-built functions (arithmetic operations, square roots, percentages, trigonometry etc.) are stored here in binary form. These instructions are "programs" stored permanently. Permanent memory cannot be erased. User memory (RAM) - The store where numbers can be stored by the user. User memory contents can be changed or erased by the user. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) - The ALU executes all arithmetic and logic instructions, and provides the results in binary coded form. Decoder unit - converts binary code into "decimal" numbers which can be displayed on the display unit. Display panel - displays input numbers, commands and results. Seven stripes (segments) are used to represent each digit in a basic calculator.

WORKING OF CALCULATOR As we know most calculators depend on integrated circuits, commonly known as chips. These circuits use transistors to add and subtract, as well as to perform computations on logarithms in order to accomplish multiplication, division and more complicated operations such as using exponents and finding square roots. Basically, the more transistors an integrated circuit has, the more advanced its functions may be. Most standard pocket calculators have identical, or very similar, integrated circuitry.

Like any electronic device, the chips inside a calculator work by reducing any information you give it to its binary equivalent. Binary numbers translate our numbers in a base-two system, in which we represent each digit by a 1 or a 0, doubling each time we move up a digit. By "turning on" each of the positions - in other words, by putting a 1 in it -- we can say that that digit is included in our overall number. Microchips use binary logic by turning transistors on and off literally, with electricity. So, for example, if you wanted to add 2 + 2, your calculator would convert each "2" to binary (which looks like this: 10) and then add them together. Adding the "ones" column (the two 0s), gives you 0: The chip can see that there is nothing in the first position. When it adds the digits in the "tens" column, the chip gets 1+1. It sees that both are positive, and since there are no 2's in binary notation moves the positive reply one digit to the left, getting a sum of 100 -which, in binary terms, equals 4 . This sum is routed through the input/output chip in our integrated circuit, which applies the same logic to the display itself. Each one of those parts of the numerals can be turned on or off using this same binary logic. So, the processor takes that "100" and translates it by lighting up or turning on certain segments of the lines in the display to create the numeral 4.

concepts into practice more easily. Especially in lower-grade mathematics courses, some instructors still don't allow their use to make sure students truly understand mathematical concepts and learn problem-solving techniques. But for many calculus and trigonometry courses in high school, for example, graphing calculators are a requirement. However, there has been some controversy regarding the use of powerful calculators in class, because some believe that using the devices to do the work that people's brains once did can result in the loss of true mathematical ability. Recent research suggests that advanced physics students, for example, can often be hampered in their learning by an overreliance on mathematical aids. Graphing calculators have even been banned in some classes because of their high memory capability. Students can use their calculators' memory to cheat by storing other information -- like periodic tables or test answers -- in them. Engineers continue to make advancements in calculator technology, and as they become more and more complex, the lines between personal computers and classic calculators may continue to blur. For their current models, some companies are exploring more ecologically sound components, including the development of more efficient and recyclable power sources, and even using materials like recycled cellular phones in their manufacturing. Calculators have even moved online and have a number of practical applications. Here are some specific types of calculators you might find online:

5. IMPACT OF CALCULATOR TECHNOLOGY

The calculator has had a profound impact on the world, making computations quicker and more exact. In the classroom, calculators have given many students the ability to learn about and put complex formulas and

Weight-loss calculators can measure body mass, caloric content and workout impact.

College loan and mortgage calculators that can help you determine the cost and length of a loan according to a wide array of variables. Conversion calculators give you everything from measurements of volume and length to up-to-the-minute currency exchanges. Carbon footprint calculators may help you get an idea of your impact on the environment.

because CORDIC does not require hardware floating-point. Bit serial logic designs are more common in calculators whereas bit parallel designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes chip complexity, but takes many more clock cycles. (Again, the line blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, particularly the Z80, MC68000, and ARM architectures, as well as some custom designs specifically made for the calculator market.)

6. CALCULATOR COMPUTERS

VERSUS CURRENT MANUFACTURES MAJOR

The fundamental difference between a calculator and computer is that a computer can be programmed in a way that allows the program to take different branches according to intermediate results, while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions such as addition, multiplication, and logarithms built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some devices classed as programmable calculators have programming functionality, sometimes with support for programming languages such as RPL or TI-BASIC. Typically the user buys the least expensive model having a specific feature set, but does not care much about speed (since speed is constrained by how fast the user can press the buttons). Thus designers of calculators strive to minimize the number of logic elements on the chip, not the number of clock cycles needed to do a computation. For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement floating point mathematics with code in ROM, and compute trigonometric functions with the CORDIC algorithm

Casio Computer Co., Ltd. (Japan) Citizen Systems Japan Co., Ltd. (Japan) Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P. (U.S.A.) Sharp Corporation (Japan) Texas Instruments Inc. (U.S.A.)

REFERENCES

Hamrick, Kathy B. (1996-10). "The History of the Hand-Held Electronic Calculator". The American Mathematical Monthly (The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 103, No. 8) 103 (8): 633 639. doi:10.2307/2974875. JSTOR 2974 875.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator