QED and Particle Physics.

PHYS 506A Particle Physics I
Understand the structure of the Standard Model Calculate physical observables using Feynman diagrams Symmetries in particle physics Connection between theory and experiment
Grading: 50% Assignments 50% Final exam
Physics 506A
1 - Introduction
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The Standard Model

3 fundamental forces (strong, weak, electromagnetic) in terms of Quantum Field Theory Big Slow Fast Classical Mechanics Relativistic Mechanics
1 3 , , 2 2
Small Quantum Mechanics Quantum Field Theory ... ) quarks and leptons 1 A 1 A
Matter is made up of fermions (spin 0 @ 0 @ u d 10 A@ 10 A@ c s
Quarks:
10 A@ 10 A@
t b
Leptons:
e e
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Matter I
The quarks and leptons are ordered in generations. Consequence of our observations and explained by the Standard Model. Transitions between generations are weak or very rare. For example, we have not observed W e . The quark sector is more complicated. We observe mass rather than weak eigenstates and they are mixtures of the weak eigenstates. We can see W us decays. Recent observations of neutrino oscillations suggests a similar pattern for leptons. The W e is allowed but the mixing is much less and this decay is predicted to be so small it will likely never be observed.
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Matter II
Interesting things to note There are only 3 light neutrino species. Neutrinos have mass but we only know the mass difference between the 3 e mass limit is measured to be around 5 ev species All quarks can form mesons (2-quark states) or hadrons (3-quark states). The top decays to quickly before it can bind with another quark Quarks not observed singly in nature but in 2 and 3 quark states. Hadrons 3 quark systems (q1 q2 q3 ) e.g. neutron, proton Mesons 2 quark systems (qq) e.g. , K
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Forces
Forces are mediated by bosons (spin 0,1,2, ...) The electromagnetic force is mediated by the photon () The weak force is mediated by the W and Z 0 bosons MW = 80.4 GeV and MZ = 91.2 GeV The strong force is mediated by gluons (g) Finally, the Higgs boson is responsible for providing the W and Z with mass. MH > 114 GeV
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The Electromagnetic Force

Photons couple to any particle with electric charge e
Perturbation theory can be used to calculate the interactions rates if the interaction strength is not strong 1 137
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Example: e+ e scattering (Bhabha)
e+
e+
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The Strong Force

Gluons couple to any particle with color charge Quarks carry color charge... q
Strong interaction S
1 7
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... and so do gluons! g g g
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The Weak Force

The W and Z bosons couple to everything (leptons and quarks) The Z 0 (a.k.a. neutral current) acts a lot like the photon f
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Example: e+ e scattering (Bhabha)
e+
e+
Z Z
e+
e+
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The W can interact with a charged lepton and its neutrino, as well as with an up-type quark and a down-type quark qd
qu
Note that lepton avor number is always conserved but the W mixes quarks from different generations (avour change)
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There are also interactions between the weak force carriers W+ W Y
Z0,
W+
(X, Y ) can be (, ), (, Z 0 ), (Z 0 , Z 0 ), or (W + , W )
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Decay lifetimes
Probability of a particle decay is proportional to the strength of the interaction strong electromagnetic weak (1236) N 0 0 p 1023 s 1018 s 1010 s
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Conservation Laws
In most cases, were inferred from experiments These laws (and, in some cases, their absence) often inspired the theoretical descriptions Many conservation laws are built into the Standard Model via the structure of the vertices What is Conserved in the Standard Model? Energy and momentum, but not mass Angular momentum Charge and color Lepton avor number (and therefore lepton number) Quark number, a.k.a. (3) baryon number, (but not quark avor number) Charge conjugation (C), parity (P ), and time reversal (T ) are conserved by the strong and electromagnetic interactions, but not by the weak interaction (though CP T is conserved).
Physics 506A 1 - Introduction Page 15
New Physics
We refer to any physics beyond the Standard Model as New Physics. The most promising candidate for New Physics is supersymmetry (a.k.a. SUSY). With supersymmetry, every Standard Model particle acquires a partner sparticle of the same mass but opposite statistics. Standard Model Electron Top Quark Photon Weak Boson Higgs e t Wi H Spin 1/2 1/2 1 1 0 SUSY Selectron Stop Photino Wino Higgsino e t Wi H Spin 0 0 1/2 1/2 1/2
Similar sparticles mix, so that we speak of things like sleptons, squarks, charginos, and neutralinos.
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Why SUSY?
Supersymmetry provides an excellent dark matter candidate. The basic idea is that SUSY models often incorporate R-parity, dened in terms of baryon number (B), lepton number (L), and spin (S) by 8 < +1 For SM par ticles 3(BL)+2S Rp = (1) = : 1 For SUSY particles R-parity conservation implies that SUSY particles must be created and destr oyed in pairs. This means that the lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) is stable. The simplest way to add SUSY to the SM is with the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM). The MSSM leads to 5 Higgs bosons: h0 , H 0 , A0 , H + , and H . The h0 is much like the SM Higgs
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Composition of the universe

We do not understand our universe.
SUSY may yield the dark matter candidate.
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Natural Units:
Particle physics uses only
=c=1
Nothing requires us to make everything dimensionless = c = 1, leaving one unit with dimensions
We take this lone dimensional unit to be energy and we express it in MeV Convert energy to length using c 197 MeV fm Convert length to time using c = 3 1023 fm/s Note that cross sections are measured in barns: 1b 1028 m2 100 fm2
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Example
Muon lifetime in natural units:
4 12(8)3 MW = 4 gW m5
Step 1: Multiply masses by c2 to convert them to energies 1/c2 Step 2: With now in MeV1 , multiply by ( c) to convert to length ( c)/c2 (so far) Step 3: With now in fm, divide by c to convert to time /c2 Data: gW = 0.65, MW = 80.4 GeV, m = 106 MeV Substitute data = 3.3 1015 MeV1 Multiply by ( c) 197 MeV fm = 6.6 1017 fm Divide by c 3 1023 fm/s = 2.2 106 s
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Kinematics
Lorentz Transformations Four-Vectors Energy, Momentum, and Mass Collisions Examples
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Lorentz Transformations
Relate coordinates in: S S Derived from the postulates of relativity For motion along the x-axis: x y z t where
v
= = = =
(x vt) y z v t 2x c
1 = p 1 v 2 /c2
Length Contraction: moving objects are shortened: L = L / Time Dilation: moving clocks run slow: T = T
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Application: Cosmic Ray Muons

With = 2.2 s, a muon produced in the upper atmosphere could travel 660 m before decaying The muon lifetime is enhanced through time dilation by a factor of = E/m p ( = 1 1/ 2 ) Supposing 10, this allows a typical muon to travel 6.6 km before decaying. Decay length in laboratory frame is c
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Four-Vectors and Tensors

Write x = (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (ct, x, y, z) so that 0 B B B with =B (x ) = x B 0 @ 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
C 0 C C C 0 C A 1
A four-vector is a four-component object which behaves like x under Lorentz transformations. x is the contravariant and x is the covariant four-vector x = g x where g = diag(1, 1, 1, 1) The invariant I = x x e.g m2 = p p = p p = (p0 )2 (p1 )2 (p2 )2 (p3 )2
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Energy, Momentum, and Mass

Relativistic energy is E = m Relativistic momentum is p = mv Dene the four-momentum by p = (E, p). Then, p2 = m2 is a relativistic invariant. For massless particles, E = |p| = h Classically, we always conserve 3-momentum (p), always conserve mass, sometimes conserve kinetic energy, and always conserve total energy even if we dont keep track of it all. Relativistically, we always conserve 3-momentum (p), sometimes conserve mass, sometimes conserve kinetic energy, and always conserve total energy. More succinctly, four-momentum is conserved.
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Conserved vs. Invariant quantities

A conserved quantity remains the same, in a particular frame, before and after an event. An invariant quantity is the same in all inertial reference frames. Energy is conserved, but not invariant. Mass is invariant, but not conserved.
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Examples
BaBar experiment : Here, a 9 GeV e beam collides with a 3.1 GeV e+ beam.
What are the speeds of the colliding particles? What are the energies of the particles in the center of momentum (CM) frame?
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Speeds
Use E = m and m = 0.511 MeV to determine that = 17600 for the electrons and + = 6070 for the positrons. p Then, with = 1/ 1 2 , we solve for = v/c s 1 1 = 1 2 1 2 2 Using and + , we have ve ve+ = = (1 109 )c (1 108 )c
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In the CM frame, pe = (ECM , pCM ) and pe+ = (ECM , pCM ) so that the (invariant) square of the total four-momentum is: (pe + pe+ )2 = = (2ECM , 0)2
2 4ECM
In the lab frame, pe = (E , p ) and pe+ = (E+ , p+ ) so that (pe + pe+ )2 = = p2 + p2+ + 2pe pe+ e e m2 + m2 + 2(E E+ p p+ ) 2(E E+ + |p ||p+ |) 4E E+
Equating the CM and lab expressions for the invariant, we have p p ECM = E E+ = (9 GeV)(3.1 GeV) = 5.3 GeV
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Fixed Targets vs. Colliding Beams

In BaBar, (9 + 3.1) = 12.1 GeV of beam energy leads to (2 5.3) = 10.6 GeV of CM energy that can be used to make new particles (in this case, the (4S)). How much beam energy would it take to produce this CM energy if the target were xed? Use the total four-momentum as an invariant. The individual four-momenta will be (m, 0) and (E, p), and therefore (pe + pe+ )2 = m2 + m2 + 2 [(m, 0) (E, p)] 2Em
2 With 2Em = 4ECM we nd that E = 105 GeV!
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Fixed Targets vs. Colliding Beams III

Why is the energy of the electrons and positrons at SLAC different? What does this mean for design of the BaBar detector?
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Asymmetric beams for B physics

The asymmetric beam energy results in the BB meson system being boosted from the centre of mass. This allows one to measure the difference in time between the decay of each B meson.
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Two-Body Decays
Consider the decay +
In the CM frame, the nal-state energies are unique The two particles must emerge back to back (to conserve momentum). Four-vectors: p = (m , 0), p = (E , p) and p = (E , p). Conservation of four-momentum:p = p + p leads to p2 m2 E = = = (p p )2 p2 + p2 2p p = m2 2m E m2 m2 2m
Physics 506A
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Similarly, p = p p leads to p2 0 0 E = = = = (p p )2 p2 + p2 2p p m2 + m2 2m E m2 + m2 2m
Notice that m2 m2 2m m2 + m2 2m
E + E
= m
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Three-Body Decays
Consider decays such as n p + e + e and e + e + In the CM frame, the nal-state energies are not unique. The observation that there was a range of electron energies in the two decays above played a large role in the postulate of the existence of neutrinos.
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Mandelstam Invariants
For a scattering process 1 + 2 3 + 4, dene the Mandelstam invariants by s t u = = = (p1 + p2 )2 (p1 p3 )2 (p1 p4 )2
We dene a scattering angle in terms of the direction of 3 with respect to 1.
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Channels
For A + B A + B scattering, the Mandelstam invariants s, t, and u are related to 3 distinct topological channels:
A s-channel
A t-channel
A u-channel
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Symmetries
Conservation Laws Basic Group Theory Angular Momentum Flavor Symmetries
Physics 506A
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What is a Symmetry?
Translate the wavefunction (x) by an amount a: (x) (x + a) Now expand (x + a) as a Taylor series about (x) a2 2 + + ... (x + a) = (x) + a 2 x x 2! x x ! X an n = (x) = U (a)(x) n! xn n=0 where U (a) = exp a x
If our physical system is indeed invariant under translations, then (x)|(x) = = = (x + a)|(x + a) U (a)(x)|U (a)(x) D E (x)|U (a)U (a)(x)
then,U U = 1, or in other words U = U 1 (unitary matrix).

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Hermitian Operators
Recall that in Quantum Mechanics, every physical observable is represented by a Hermitian operator (H = H). Every Hermitian operator has the form U = eiH . Factoring out a couple of constants so that U (a) = exp [iHa/ ] comparing to our previous result of U (a) = exp [a /x], we nd p= i x is a Hermitian operator which generates spatial translations. Invariance under spatial transoformations gives momentum conservation Invariance under rotation transoformations gives angular momentum conservation
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Noethers Theorem
Every symmetry is associated with a conservation law. Symmetry Space translation Time translation Rotation Gauge transformation Conservation Law Linear momentum Energy Angular momentum Electric charge
Sometimes we have conservation laws which do not correspond to a previously known symmetry. (e.g. Lepton avour conservation) If there is no known symmetry then it is possible the conservation law will fail in the future with a more detailed experiment. (e.g. observation of neutrino oscillations means that Lepton avour conservation is not exact)
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Basic Group Theory

A group G is a set of elements with a binary composition law (i.e., a multiplication) such that: 1. Closure: a, b G : ab = c G 2. Identity: e G | a G : ae = ea = a 3. Inverse: a G a1 G | aa1 = a1 a = e 4. Associativity: a, b, c G : (ab)c = a(bc) G is an Abelian group if the group multiplication is commutative ab = ba a, b G. In the SM, we use SU (3)C SU (2)L U (1)Y where S Special determinant 1 O Orthogonal M T M = 1 U Unitary M M = 1 the three groups correspond to the three forces in the Standard Model.
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Angular Momentum
In Quantum Mechanics, we cannot know everything about the angular momentum J of a particle at a given time. The best we can do is the simultaneous knowledge of J 2 and Jz , with eigenvalues: 2 2 J = j(j + 1) Jz = (mj ) Jz eigenvalues must be spaced in multiples of . j is either an integer or a half-integer. This formalism applies to orbital angular momentum (L) as to intrinsic angular momentum or spin (S)
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Spin 1/2 - Spinor Notation

Many of the particles have spin-1/2 (e.g. leptons, quarks, ...) States can be described as a 2-component spinor: 1 0 A =@
For example, the spinors for a spin up and down electron are 1 0 1 0 1 0 A A =@ =@ 0 1
Pauli matrices are 1 0 0 1 A 1 = @ 1 0
2 = @
0 i
i 0
1 A
3 = @
1 0
0 1
1 A
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Fermions vs. Bosons

Particles with integer spin are bosons and obey Bose-Einstein statistics (i.e., symmetric w.r.t. exchange of identical particles). Particles with half-integer spin are fermions and obey Fermi-Dirac statistics (i.e., antisymmetric w.r.t. exchange of identical particles). Interchanging two particles is equivalent to a 2 relative rotation The unitary transformation which effects rotations is i J U () = exp particles with integer spin, U (2) = exp(2ni) = 1 bosons. particles with half-integer spin, U (2) = exp[2(n + 1/2)i] = 1 fermions. For a 2-particle system, (12) = (12)
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Two particle systems I

1 1
| j1 m1 >
| j2 m2 > |j m >
Conservation of angular momentum requires: J = J1 + J2 m = m1 + m2
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Two particle systems II

One must also consider the relative angular momentum in addition to the intrinsic angular momentum. Generally intrinisc anagular momentum (S) is S = J1 + J2 and the total anagular momentum (J) is J=L+S
| j1 m1 >
| j2 m2 > |j m >
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Angular Momentum Addition

If we know J1 and J2 , then we can only x the magnitude of |J| = |J1 + J2 | Hence m = m1 + m2 and |j1 j2 | j j1 + j2 If we know J then we can constrain |J1 | and |J2 | m1 and m2 subject to the constraints m1 + m2 = m, |m1 | j1 , and |m2 | j2 J2
J1
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Clebsch-Gordan Coefcients
The relation between the total angular momentum and the individual momenta can be expressed as
j j1 |JM = Cm m1 j2 m2
|j1 m1 |j2 m2
where the Clebsch-Gordan Coefcients represent the quantum mechanical overlap between the two different descriptions of a coupled system:
j j1 Cm m1 j2 m2
= j m | j1 m1 , j2 m2
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CG Examples I
Two particles with spin 1 and spin 0. Hence J = 1 , 3 with 2 and 4 substates, 2 2 respectively. j j1 |JM = Cm m1 j22 |j1 m1 |j2 m2 m 3 3 2 2 = |11 1 1 2 2
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CG Examples II
r r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 |11 |10 + 2 2 2 2 2 = 3 2 3
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Angular momemtum of a qq state

1 1 q = 1 2 and q = 1 2 2 2 We can form 2 spin states |10 and |00
For a uu system, this corresponds to the 0 meson (J = 0) 0 meson (J = 1) We also need to include the orbial angular momentum L between the quarks There are 2 qq states for each value of L
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Isospin
neutron M = 938 MeV and proton M = 939 MeV n-n, n-p and p-p interactions are identical if EM interaction ignored Consider the (n,p) as components of the Nucleon (N) with I-spin 1/2 1 1 1 1 n= p= 2 2 2 2 Dene a nucleon spinor 1 0 A N =@ where 0 1 A 0 1 A
p=@
1 0
and
n=@
0 1
The strong force is invariant under rotations in this isospin space.
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Isospin Assignments
For any hadrons made up of u and d quarks, construct isospin multiplets: 1 1 1 1 n= p= 2 2 2 2 + = | 1 1 0 = | 1 0 = | 1 1
++ = | 3/2 3/2 0 = | 3/2 1/2
+ = | 3/2 1/2 = | 3/2 3/2
=|00
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p Cross Sections
14 40. P lots of cross sections and related quantities
Cross section (mb)
10
p total
10
p elastic Plab GeV/c

10
-1
1 1.2 2.2 3 2 4 3 5 4
10 5 7 6 7 8 9 10
10
Isospin can help us predict relative cross sections without having to know anything about the absolute cross sections. Cross sections: + p + p and p p
40
s GeV
2
p d
20 20 30
30 40
8 9 10
50 60
10
Cross section (mb)
d total p total
10
If only I=3/2 component contributes then, ( + p) : ( p) = 3 : 1

Plab GeV/c
p elastic
10
-1
10
10
(1236) is an I =
3 2
resonance
Figure 40.13: Total and elastic cross sections for p and d (total only) collisions as a function of laboratory beam momentum and total center-of-mass energy. Corresponding computerreadable data les may be found at http://pdg.lbl.gov/xsect/contents.html (Courtesy of the COMPAS Group, IHEP, Protvino, August 2003.)
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Discrete Symmetries
Parity Parity Violation Charge Conjugation CP Violation Time Reversal The CP T Theorem Lepton number
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Parity
A parity transformation, P , inverts every spatial coordinate: P (t, x) = (t, x) P 2 = I, and therefore the eigenvalues of P are 1. Ordinary vector v. P (v) = v . Scalar from v: s = v v P (s) = P (v v) = (v) (v) = v v = +s Cross product of two vectors: a = v w P (a) = P (v w) = (v) (w) = v w = +a Scalar from a and v: p = a v P (p) = P (a v) = (+a) (v) = a v = p Scalar Pseudoscalar Vector Pseudovector P (s) = +s P (p) = p P (v) = v P (a) = +a
Physics 506A
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Parity in Physical Systems

Two-body systems have parity pA pB (1) P (12) = p1 p2 (1) (12) Intrinsically, particles and antiparticles have opposite parity Bound states like positronium e+ e and mesons qq have parity of (1)+1 . Photons have a parity of (1), and this underlies the = 1 selection rule in atomic transitions. Note that parity is a multiplicative quantum number. This is true for all discrete symmetries. Continuous symmetries have additive quantum numbers.
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Example: uu mesons
By conventions: u-quarks have spin 1/2 and + parity and u-quarks have spin 1/2 and - parity Parity of a uu meson is P = pu pu (1) The intrinsic spin (S) of the uu meson is 0 or 1 but may have any orbital angular momentum (L) value. S 0 1 0 L 0 0 1 JP 0 1 1+ particle 0 0 b1 (1235)
See the PDG for a table of the quantum numbers of the low-mass mesons.
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Parity in the Standard Model

In 1956, Yang and Lee realized that parity invariance had never been tested experimentally for weak interactions.
Wus experiment: recorded the direction of the emitted electron from a 60 Co -decay when the nuclear spin was aligned up and down The electron was emitted in the same direction independent of the spin. Parity is not conserved in the weak interations
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Parity Violation in Decay

Consider the weak decay + + + . Since the is spin-0 and the and emerge back-to-back in the CM frame, the spins of the and must cancel. Experiments show that every + is left-handed, and therefore every is also left-handed. Similarly, in decay, both the and always emerge right-handed. If parity were conserved by the weak interaction, we would expect left-handed pairs and right-handed pairs with equal probability (just as we observe with 0 2). Assuming that neutrinos are massless, ALL neutrinos are left-handed ALL antineutrinos are right-handed
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Charge Conjugation I
The charge conjugation operator, C, converts a particle to i ts antiparticle. C |p = |p In particular, C reverses every internal quantum number (e.g. charge, baryon/lepton number, strangeness, etc.). C 2 = I implies that the only allowed eigenvalues of C are 1. Unlike parity, very few particles are C eigenstates. Only particles that are their own antiparticles ( 0 , , ) are C eigenstates. For example, + C = C | = |
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Charge Conjugation II
The photon has a C = 1 f f bound states have C = (1)+s Charge conjugation is respected by both the strong and electromagnetic interactions. Example: the 0 ( = s = 0 C = +1) can decay into 2 but not 3 C |n = (1)n | C 0 = 0 0 2 is allowed (and observed) 0 2 is not allowed (and not observed < 3.1 108 )
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G-Parity I
C-symmetry is of limited use. Most particles are not C eigenstates The C operator converts + to . These two particles have isospin assignments | 1 1 and | 1 1 . A 180 isospin rotation gives | 1 1 = eiI2 | 1 1 . The charged pions are eigenstates under the G-parity, which combines C with G = CeiI2 a 180 isospin rotation: G-parity is mainly used to examine decays to pions (which have G = 1). G |n = (1)n |n
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G-Parity II
G-Parity of a few mesons Particle (770) (783) (1020) f (1270) JP 1 1 1 2+ I 1 0 0 0 G +1 -1 -1 +1 Decay 2 3 3 2
For example, the (770) has G = 1 which means it should only decay to an even number of pions. Experimentally we nd that 100% < 1.2 104
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CP Symmetry
The combination of C and P (and time reversal T ) have special signicance. The violation of CP is the reason we live in a matter universe CP T is required to be conserved in Quantum Field Theory (QFT) Look at a pion decay example: In the pion decay + + (R) + (L), the is always left-handed (LH) Under C, this becomes (R) + (L), but the is still LH which does not occur in nature. With C and P , though, we get a RH antineutrino. (L) + (R) whiich is allowed in nature
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CP Violation in the Kaon Sector I

Consider the neutral kaons K 0 (ds) and K 0 (sd) These particles can mix via a second-order weak interaction:
s W u W d u
s u W u W
This section will focus on the CP aspects. The details on the time dependence of K 0 K 0 oscillations can be found in most textbooks.
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CP Violation in the Kaon Sector II

Both K 0 and K 0 are pseudoscalar mesons, therefore P = 1. and the K 0 and K 0 are a particle-antiparticle pair. As a result, under CP , we have 0 0 K = K 0 K = K 0 CP CP ` 0 0 K K / 2 ` 0 0 K + K / 2 = = + |K1 |K2
Dening we have
|K1 |K2
= = CP |K1 CP |K2
If CP is conserved, then |K1 can only decay to 2 (CP = +1) |K2 can only decay to 3 (CP = 1).
Physics 506A 4 - Discrete Symmetries Page 13
CP Violation in the Kaon Sector III

K 0 and the K 0 are mass eigenstates and are each others antiparticles K1 and the K2 are CP eigenstates 0 0 1 K = K = (|K1 + |K2 )
2 1 2
(|K1 |K2 )
0 0 KS and the KL are the observed states and are nearly identical to the CP 0 0 eigenstates (KS and KL are not antiparticles) 0 0 K = 1 K = 1 (|K2 + |K1 ) (|K2 |K1 ) S L 2 2 1+|| 1+||
Experimentally we observe KS KL = 0.9 1010 s = 0.5 107 s
0 0 However, we nd about 1 KL + in 440 KL decays
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Other Tests of CP Violation

There are other CP -violating observables that have been measured in the kaon sector. For example, there is an asymmetry between the branching ratios of KL to + + e + e versus + e+ + e Within the last few years, the BaBar and Belle experiments have measured CP violation in the B-meson sector. CP violation should also be observable in the D-meson (charm) sector, though this will be a small effect that will be very difcult to measure. CP violation observed in the K and B mesons is not enough to explain the domination of matter in the universe With the observation that neutrino has mass, it is expected that we will observe CP violation in the neutrino sector
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Why study CP violation?

Sakarov pointed out that it is possible to start from a matter-antimatter symmetric universe and end up in one that is asymmetric This requires that there be some process (or processes) that violates the CP symmetry. The SM does not predict CP violation (it can accomodate no CPV or CPV). However, the SM provides only one source of CP violation (CKM phase angle) which is only possible if there are more than 3 quark generations. The currently observed SM CPV (using K and B mesons) is too small to explain the matter-dominated universe. There is another possible source of CPV within the SM in the neutrino sector analoguous to the CKM matrix. Beyond the SM: CP violation is ubiquitous in theories of New Physics SUSY can provide enough CP violation to be observable at low energies.
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Composition of the universe

The universe is more complicated and it is observed that only a small fraction (4%) of the universe is made of known matter. Observations also show that there is more matter (dark matter) from unknown sources (21%). In addition, there is another component (dark energy) which we know even less about (75%).
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CP Violation in decays
` 0 The goal is to search for direct CP violation in the decay h KS 0 0 There is no charge asymmetry between K 0 and + + K 0
0 0 Experimentally we observe the KS and KL mesons, which are linear combinations of K 0 and K 0 states. 0 0 Earlier experiments have shown that the KS and KL are not exact CP eigenstates. As a result the charge asymmetry is ` ` 0 0 + + KS KS ` AQ = ` + K 0 +K0 S S +
Theory predicts AQ = (3.3 0.1) 103
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Time Reversal Symmetry

Time reversal symmetry, as you might guess, reverses the time component: T (t, x) = T (t, x)
Although we expect the weak interaction to violate T , direct T violation has not been denitively observed yet. Experimentally, one tries to measure the rate of a reaction in both directions A + B C + D but this is not so easy
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The CP T Theorem
The combination CPT is always conserved in any local quantum eld theory. CPT violation in essentially synonymous with a violation of Lorentz invariance CP T symmetry mandates that particles and antiparticles must have certain identical properties, such as the same mass, lifetime, charge, and magnetic moment See the PDG summary tables: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2011/tables/rpp2011-conservation-laws.pdf Examples (fractional differences): M (K 0 ) M (K 0 ) < 8 1019 M (e+ ) M (e ) < 8 109 (+ ) ( ) < 2 105 g(e+ ) g(e ) < 1012
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Lepton Number
There are 3 lepton numbers: Le , L and L Le = +1 for e and e Le = 1 for e+ and e Conserved in the EM and Weak interactions e+ e and + + are allowed whereas + e+ is forbidden Neutrino oscillations imply that lepton number is violated (at a very small level) See the PDG summary tables: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2011/tables/rpp2011-conservation-laws.pdf Examples (fractional differences): (Z 0 e + ) < 106 ( e ) < 1011
( e e e+ ) < 108
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Observables
We want to relate experimental measurements to theoretical predictions Decay widths and lifetimes = h/ (units of energy) Cross Sections is the total cross section d is the angular distribution d d is the energy distribution dE
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Lifetime of an Unstable Particle

The decay rate, , represents the probability, per unit time, of the particle decaying: dN N (t) = = N dt N (0) et
The decay rate determines the (mean) lifetime of the particle: = 1
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Breit-Wigner Resonance
Wavefunction for a particle with rest energy ER and width is (t) = (0)ei(ER i/2)t Fourier transform Breit-Wigner formula : (E)
1 (ER E)i/2 1 (ER E)2 +2 /4
|(E)|2
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Example I
1000 800 600
OPAL
1992 + 1993 data
no. decays / 0.05 cm
400 200
10 3
2
10
10
-2
-1
decay length (cm)
Tau lepton lifetime 288 fs Decay length = c 2.5 mm At LEP the tau has p 50 GeV
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Example II
(nbarns) 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 300
2
OLYA DM124 DM218
23
CMD22
e+ e + cross section as a function of the e+ e centre-of-mass energy
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000 Q2
(nbarns)
10
(770) resonance = 151 MeV = h/ = 4 1024 seconds
10
10
-1
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200 Q2
Note the interference in the upper plot and the interence in the lower plot
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Example III
BaBar decays:
Events / 0.002 GeV/c2)
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62
+ ( ) The natural width of the is narrow (few keV) so the width of the resonance is dominated by detector resolution and is t with a Gaussian distribution. f1 (1285) (f1 + )
Mass (GeV/c2)
Events / 0.002 GeV/c2)
160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
Mass (GeV/c2)
The natural width of the f1 (1285) is comparable (few MeV) to the detector resolution. The peak is t with a BreitWigner (for the f1 lineshape) convoluted by a Gaussian ditribution (for the detector resolution)
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Luminosity
We relate cross sections to observed detection rates, per unit time, by dN = L d
where N is the number of events observed per unit time, L has the dimensions of an inverse cross-section per unit time. For example: Run II at Fermilab: L 1032 cm2 s1 LHC: L 1034 cm2 s1 This integrated luminosity is usually quoteed in papers and corresponds to the size of the data set (measured in pb1 .)
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Luminosity - BaBar/ATLAS
Total Integrated Luminosity [fb-1] 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 28/02 28/03 25/04 23/05 20/06 18/07 15/08 Day in 2011
ATLAS Online Luminosity
LHC Delivered ATLAS Recorded Total Delivered: 2.46 fb-1 Total Recorded: 2.34 fb-1 s = 7 TeV
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Luminosity Example - LEP
At LEP, L = 1031 cm2 s1 The e+ e qq cross section at the peak of the Z 0 resonance is 30 nb. 1 barn = 1024 cm2 or 1 nb = 1033 cm2
Hence L = 102 nb1 s1 and NZ per second is = L = 0.3 s1
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Branching Ratios
If a particle can decay via multiple routes, we have tot = X
i
1 tot
where is the particle lifetime and i is the partial decay width for the particle decaying to the i-th nal state We dene the branching ratio for a particular decay mode as Bi = For example, e 17% 17% 24% 12% i tot
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Cross Section
A particle encounters a potential and is scattered off at scattering angle The scattering angle is a function of the impact parameter b. The smaller the impact parameter, the larger the deection but the function form depends on the properties of the potential.
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Hard sphere scattering

The particle with impact parameter between b and B + dB will emerge with scattering angle between and + d d = D()d D() = d/d is often refered to as the angular distribution. The form of D() depends on the properties of the potential Total cross section is obtained by integrating the angular distibution over all the solid angle d = sindd R = d One can also give cross section a function of the energy of one of the particles d/dE
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Cross section and decay rates

Grifths has changed the section on cross sections and decay rates in Version 2. Other approaches can be found in Halzen and Martin (and QM texts) Focus on the important elements and suggest you work through the derivation in Grifths
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Decay rate 1 2 + 3
Two body decays in the CM frame (No point using any other frame) pf = |p2 | = |p3 | Decay width for a two body decay (1 2 + 3) Z S 4 (p1 p2 p3 ) 2 q d3 p2 d3 p2 = |M | q 32 2 m1 p2 2 + m2 p3 2 + m2 2 3 where S = 1/N ! is a correction factor if there are identical particles in the nal state; 32 2 m1 is a normalization factor related to the initial state; |M |2 the matrix element contains the physics; and the remaining parts are the phase space elements. The phase space elements are proportional to the probability of the particle decaying to the two particle particles in a specic kinematic state.
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Decay rate 1 2 + 3
Decay width d = 1 pf |M |2 d 32 2 m1
Integrate over all angles pf = 32 2 m2 1 Z |M |2 d
For a scalar particle (with mass m) the matrix element M and hence the decay rate is independent of the solid angle and the integral is a constant. =C pf 32 2 m2
where C is a constant that may include momentum or energy dependent terms. The Higgs Boson is an example of a scalar particle with a coupling proportional to the mass of the particles in the nal state.
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Scattering Cross Section (CM Frame)

The frame in which one evaluates the cross section is important. For example, the angle at which a particle emerges relative to the incident particle will be different in the LAB and CM frames p = (E1 , p) 1 p = (E2 , p) 2 p = (E3 , p ) 3 p = (E4 , p ) 4 |p| = |p | = p BaBar collides e+ and e at different energies in order to separate the outgoing B mesons by boosting their momentum.
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Scattering Cross Section (CM Frame)

The cross section can be written as (similar form as the decay rate) Z 4 S 2 (p1 + p2 p3 p4 ) q d3 p3 d3 p4 |M | q = 2 (E + E ) |p | 64 1 2 1 p 2 + m2 p 2 + m2
3 3 4 4
S = 1/N ! is a correction factor if there are identical particles in the nal state; 64 2 (E1 + E2 ) |p1 | is a normalization factor related to the initial state; |M |2 the matrix element contains the physics; and the remaining parts are the phase space elements. One can derive the differential cross section in the CM frame to be 1 S d = |M |2 d (8)2 (E1 + E2 )2 |p | i pf
where |pi | is the magnitude of either incoming momentum and |pf | is the magnitude of either outgoing momentum. |M |2 will likely depend on the direction of one of the outgoing particles
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2-body scattering in the LAB frame
p = (E1 , p1 ) 1 p = (m2 , 0) 2 p = (E3 , p3 ) 3 p = (E4 , p4 ) 4
d 1 S |p3 | = |M |2 d 64 2 m2 |p1 | (E1 + m2 |p1 | cos)
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Examples of cross sections
(e+ e hadrons)
(W e )
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ATLAS jet cross section

Inclusive jet cross section
d/dp [pb/GeV]
106 ATLAS 10 10
5 |y | < 2.8 Systematic Uncertainties 4 NLO pQCD (CTEQ 6.6) Non-pert. corr. anti-k t jets, R =0.4
103 102 10 1
L dt=17 nb
-1
( s =7 TeV)
Data/Theory
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
100
200
300
400
500
600
p T [GeV]
100 200 300 400 500
T
600
p [GeV]
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ABC Theory
Feynman Diagrams Feynman Rules Calculating Decay Rates Calculating Cross Sections Higher-Order Diagrams
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ABC Theory
3 spinless particles, A, B, and C (each of which is its own antiparticle) Only one vertex which must include all three particle types (A,B,C) For example, (A,A,A) is not allowed If mA > mB + mC then A can decay into B and C. B C B C A
A A
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The Feynman Rules

The Feynman rules provide the recipe for constructing an amplitude M from a Feynman diagram. Step 1: Draw the Feynman diagram with the minimum number of vertices. There may be more than one. Step 2: Label the four-momentum of each line (with arrows), enforcing four-momentum conservation at every vertex. B, p3 B, p4 p1 , p2 , . . . external momenta C A, p1 A, p2 q1 , q2 , . . . internal momenta arrows indicate positive direction
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Step 3: Each vertex contributes a factor of (ig) Each internal line, with mass m and four-momentum q, contributes a i propagator of q2 m2 Step 4: Conserve 4-momentum at each vertex (2)4 (4) (k1 + k2 + k3 ) where ki are the momenta coming into the vertex. Step 5 Form the amplitude M = i (vertex factors)(propagators)(momentum conservation) Step 6: Integrate over the internal momenta
1 d4 qj (2)4
Step 7: Drop the extra -function and iM remains.
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Example: A B + C
To lowest order (O(g)), we have just one diagram: B p2 C p3 p1 A There is just one vertex and no propagators, therefore M = i(ig) = g
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Lifetime of A
From Fermis Golden Rule, the decay rate is given by = |p| |M|2 8m2 1
If m1 = mA and M = g g 2 |p| = 8m2 A where |p| is the magnitude of the momentum of either B or C, The lifetime of A is A 8m2 = 2 A g |p|
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A+AB+B
To lowest order (O(g 2 )), we have two diagrams: B, p3 B, p4 B, p4 B, p3
C A, p1 t-channel q = p1 p3
2
C A, p2 A, p1 u-channel q = p1 p4 A, p2
i g2 Mt = i(ig) = (p1 p3 )2 m2 t m2 C C
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A+AB+B
The matrix element for the s and u channel is g2 g2 + M= t m2 u m2 C C Note that M is Lorentz invariant. To convert M to a cross section, we use Fermis Golden Rule In the CM frame, |pf | 1 S |M|2 d = d (8)2 (E1 + E2 )2 |pi | where S = 1/2 because we have two identical particles (B + B) in the nal state. Also, E1 = E2 = E.
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A+AB+B
The cross section can also be written as 1 d = d 2(16E)2 2 g2 2 |pf | g + |pi | t m2 u m2 C C
Assume that mA = mB = m and mC = 0. Then |pf | = |pi | and t = (p1 p3 )2 u = (p1 p4 )2 1 d = d 2 = = 2p2 (1 cos ) 2p2 (1 + cos ) 2
g2 16Ep2 sin2
Note that , just as for Rutherford scattering.
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Higher-Order Diagrams
By considering more complicated Feynman diagrams, we can generate additional contributions to the amplitude: MAB+C MA+AB+B = = gA1 + g 3 A3 + g 5 A5 + . . . g 2 A2 + g 4 A4 + g 6 A6 + . . .
If g 1 (or, more precisely, (g/mA ) 1 in ABC Theory), we can see how each successive term in the perturbation series provides smaller and smaller corrections to the amplitude.
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Corrections to A
We have calculated the lifetime of A due to the vertex diagram B C
A then the leading corrections to will be O(g 4 ). Since M g, There will arise from the interference of the O(g) diagram with a O(g 3 ) diagram in the coherent sum: 2 |M|2 = gA1 + g 3 A3 + . . . g2 ,
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Other Decay Modes

Note that we are only interested in the O(g 3 ) diagrams in which A B + C. If A is sufciently heavy, other decay modes such as A 3B + C and A B + 3C are possible. B B B C
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Incoherent Sums
A 3B + C is a distinct decay mode, hence we calculate separately from that of A B + C As a result, even though M g 3 , g 6 , and so we need not consider these diagrams for a g 4 calculation. The decay of A involves both coherent and incoherent sums. (A anything) = = ABC + ABBBC + ABCCC + . . . 2 X 2 X MABBBC MABC + C2 C1 X 2 +C3 MABCCC + . . .
(C1 , C2 , and C3 arise from Fermis Golden Rule.)
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Third-Order A B + C Diagrams
There is one legal third-order diagram to consider: B A C
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Illegal Loop Diagrams

There are several other O(g 3 ) diagrams that can be drawn for A B + C, however these are not to be calculated using the Feynman Rules. B C A B C B B A C C
A Disconnected
A Reducible
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Corrections to A + A B + B
The interference of the one-loop diagrams (O(g 4 )) with the tree-level diagram (O(g 2 )) provides O(g 6 ) corrections to the cross section. B B B
C A A
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Quantum Mechanics
This section gives the Quantum Mechanics background required to calculate Feynmann diagrams. The introduction to Dirac Equation may be new and will eventually covered in the graduate QM course. Schrodinger equation Klein-Gordon Equation Dirac Equation
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Schrodinger equation
In classical Quantum Mechanics, recall that when we substitute p i Ei t
into the classical expression for energy conservation, p2 +V =E 2m we obtain the Schrodinger equation 1 2 + V = i 2m t
Works well for non-relativistic, spin-0 problems.
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Klein-Gordon equation
The Schrodinger equation does not work for relativistic particles, we use the same approach as done for classical QM Use the relativistic energy-momentum relation: In 4-vector notation p = (E, p) With the covariant substitution p i , m2 2 2 + 2 t ( m2 ) = = = 0 m2 0 E 2 p2 = m2 p p m2 = 0
This is the Klein-Gordon equation is the dAlembertian operator 2 = 2 + 2 t
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Solutions to the Klein-Gordon Equation

Consider a plane-wave solution to the Klein-Gordon equation: (x, t) = eiEt+ipx = eipx ( + m2 ) = 0
Substituting the plane-wave solution into the KG equation returns the energy-momenum conservation equation (consistency check) E 2 + p2 + m2 = 0 For a given p, there are two possible solutions for E: p E = p2 + m2 Notice that there is a negative energy solution
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Problems with the KG equation

The second-order time derivative in the of the KG equation is responsible for both the negative-energy plane wave solutions and a misbehaving probability density. Dirac tried to x this problem by looking for a relativistic equation that, like the Schrodinger equation H = i /t, only contained rst-order time derivatives. The KG equation is good for spin 0 particles whereas the Dirac equation works for spin 1/2 particles
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Diracs Approach I
Suppose a particle is at rest (i.e., p = 0). Then the energy-momentum relation E 2 p2 = m2 can be factored into a pair of (linear) equations: (p0 )2 m2 = = or 0 0 (p0 + m) = 0
(p0 m)(p0 + m)
(p0 m) = 0
Either linear equation leads to a conguration-space equation which is rst-order in time and satises the relativistic energy-momentum relation.
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Diracs Approach II
To extend this factorization for moving particles, we can write (p p m2 ) = ( p + m)( p m) we need to determine the coefcients and . Expanding out the right-hand side, we have (p p m2 ) = p p + m( )p m2 To eliminate the linear p term, we require = . The quadratic term leads to p2 = p p
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Diracs Approach II
We can then write p2 = = = ( + ) = p p (p p + p p )/2 ( + )p p /2 2g
We typically write this last relationship as an anticommutator: { , } = 2g where ( 0 )2 = 1 and ( i )2 = 1 If 0 = 1 and i = i, but then { 0 , i } = 0 which means that the anticommutator equation cannot be solved by any set of complex numbers. The are matricies.
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The Matrices
Diracs idea was to let represent a matrix. Specically, the 4 4 matrices 1 0 0 1 0 0 A 0 = @ i = @ 0 1 i satisfy the anticommutation relation { , } = 2g . This set of matrices is known as the Bjorken and Drell representation and it is commonly used at low energies. Other choices exist, however, the physics is independent of the specic choice of matrices.
i 0
1 A
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The Dirac Equation

Having factored the relativistic energy-momentum relation, (p p m2 ) = ( p + m)( p m) = 0 we can set either factor to zero. In momentum space, the Dirac equation is p m = 0 With p i , we get the conguration-space Dirac equation: (i m) = 0 When we contract with a four-vector q , we can abbreviate this using the q Feynman slash notation q = / With the slash notation, the Dirac equation becomes p / m (i/ m) = = 0 0
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Spinors
Rewriting the Dirac equation (i/ m) = 0
Since the matrices are 4 4, then the must be a 4-component column matrix. We call this a bi-spinor, Dirac spinor, or just plain spinor. 1 0 1 C B B C B 2 C =B C B 3 C A @ 4 It is not a 4-vector - it does not transform like a 4-vector.
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Solutions of the Dirac Equation I

Look for solutions that are independent of position: = = =0 x y z
This simplies the Dirac equation to i 0 m = 0 t
Split the spinor into a pair of 2-component pieces: 0 1 1 0 1 0 A 1 3 A A A =@ A = @ B = @ B 2 4
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Solutions of the Dirac Equation II

This leads to the pair of equations A = imA t whose solutions are A (t) = A (0)eimt B (t) = B (0)e+imt B = +imB t
Evidently, A is a solution with energy E = +m, as we should expect, but B seems to have a negative energy E = m. Dirac had hoped that a rst-order (in /t) equation would avoid these negative energy solutions. Eventually, Dirac predicted the existence of the positron.
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Electrons and Positrons

Dirac equation has 4 independent solutions for a particle at rest: 1 0 1 0 0 1 C B C B B 1 C B 0 C C B C B (2) = eimt B (e ) (1) = eimt B C C B 0 C B 0 C A @ A @ 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 C B C B B 0 C B 0 C C B C B (4) = e+imt B (e+ ) (3) = e+imt B C C B 0 C B 1 C A @ A @ 1 0 for an electron and positron in spin up and down states.
(e )
(e+ )
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Plane-Wave Solutions I
Next we will look for solutions to the Dirac equation of the form (x) = aeipx u(p) where u(p) is a momentum-space solution of the Dirac equation, satisfying (/ m)u = 0 p p / = = 0 p0 p 0 1 0 1 0 0 Ap@ E@ 0 1 1 0 E p A @ p E
Using
1 A
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Plane-Wave Solutions II
0 @ 0 @ Em p p 10 A@ uA uB 1 A 1 A
(/ m)u p
E m
(p )uA (E + m)uB
(E m)uA (p )uB
The Dirac equation (/ m)u = 0 then gives us a pair of coupled equations for p uA and uB : (p ) (p ) uB uB = uA uA = Em E+m These equations can easily be solved by substituting one into the other and noting that (p )2 = p2 1
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Plane-Wave Solutions III

Rewriting the two coupled equations uA = (p ) uB Em uB = (p ) uA E+m
Substituting the second equation into the rst, we have uA p2 uA = 2 E m2
which requires E 2 m2 = p2 , just as we should expect. Again we have two solutions for E: p E = p2 + m2 By picking specic forms for uA or uB (one is constrained by the other), we can construct a set of four solutions to the Dirac equation for a moving particle.
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Plane-Wave Solutions IV
With the normalization u u = 2|E|, we have two particle solutions 0 1 1 0 1 0 B C C B B C C B 0 1 B C C B (1) (2) u =NB u = N B px ipy C C pz B C C B @ E+m A @ E+m A
px +ipy E+m pz E+m
and two antiparticle solutions 0 v (1) B B B =NB B @ 0 1
px ipy E+m pz E+m
1 C C C C C A v (2)
B B B = N B B @
pz E+m px +ipy E+m
1 C C C C C A
1 0
In all cases, N =
E + m and E is positive.
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Spins of the Plane-Wave Solutions

We can generalize the Pauli spin matrices to the 4 4 matrices required for Dirac spinors: 0 1 0 A S= @ 2 0 If the particles are traveling along the z-axis, then the plane-wave solutions u and v will be eigenstates of Sz . u(1) and v (1) are spin up, while u(2) and v (2) are spin down.
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Particles and Antiparticles

In a typical experiment, we are dealing with particles of specic energies and momenta, therefore it is the u and v plane-wave solutions which are of interest to us. The particle states are solutions to the original momentum-space Dirac equation (/ m)u = 0 p The antiparticle states, by virtue of reinterpreting the negative energy particle states as positive energy antiparticles, satisfy (/ + m)v = 0 p
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Big and Small Components

Using the Bjorken and Drell representation of the matrices, we have shown that the plane-wave solution for a spin-up electron is 1 0 1 C B C B 0 C B (1) u =NB C pz C B @ E+m A
px +ipy E+m
Note that at low energies, the upper components are much larger than the lower components.
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Summary
The relativistic energy-momentum relation leads to the Klein-Gordon equation, but a naive examination of this equation leads to problems. Dirac tried to get around these problems with a rst-order equation. The KG problems remained and their solution was to postulate the existence of antiparticles. We now realize that the Klein-Gordon equation describes spin-0 particles and the Dirac equation describes spin- 1 2 particles. The particle and antiparticle plane-wave solutions of the Dirac equation will be used frequently in our formulation of QED.
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Spinors
Eventually we will see that the interactions can be expressed in terms of currents of the form j X
To aid with our understanding it will help to learn about the transformation properties of spinors
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Lorentz Transformations of Spinors

Spinors are not four-vectors, therefore they do not transform via the Lorentz transfromation matrix (dened in an earlier lecture) Spinors transform in the following manner: S
For motion along the x-axis, S=@ where a = and = (1 v 2 )1/2 p ( 1)/2 0 a+ a 1 a 1 a+ 1 A
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Making a Scalar With a Spinor

Under a Lorentz transformation, (S) (S) = (S S)
Since S S = 1 is not a Lorentz scalar. Dene the adjoint spinor: 0 Under a Lorentz transformation = 0 where S 0 S = 0 S 0 S = 0 =
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5 matrix
Dene an additional -matrix by 5 i 0 1 2 3 In the Bjorken and Drell representation, 0 5 = @
0 1
1 0
1 A
Note: ( 5 )2 = 1 and 5 anticommutes with every matrix: { , 5 } = 0 5 = 5
Since S 0 5 S = 0 5 5 is also a Lorentz scalar. This gives us 2 Lorentz scalars: and 5 .
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Parity
Under a parity transformation 0
Since (P ) 0 (P ) ( 0 ) 0 0 ( 0 ) 5 (P ) 0 5 (P ) ( 0 ) 0 5 0 ( 0 ) 5 5
is a true scalar and 5 is a pseudoscalar.
Physics 506A
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Page 5
Bilinear Covariants
There are 16 possible products of the form i j . These 16 products can be grouped together into bilinear covariants:
5 5 where
Scalar Pseudoscalar Vector Pseudovector Antisymmetric tensor i [ , ] 2
1 component 1 component 4 components 4 components 6 components
Physics 506A
8 - Spinors
Page 6
Signicance of blinear covariants?

We have a simple basis set {1, 5 , , 5 , } for any 4 4 matrix The tensorial and parity character of each bilinear is evident. This makes it easy to see why the QED interaction Lagrangian eA leads to a parity-conserving electromagnetic force mediated by a vector (i.e., spin-1) boson. To describe the parity-violating weak interaction, we could (and do) mix vector ( ) and axial ( 5 ) interactions.
Physics 506A
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Page 7
EM and photons
Maxwells equation A ( A ) = 4J where = , A = (, A) and J = (, J) (, A) are not uniquely determined and so we are allowed to make a gauge transformation A A + We can demand the Lorentz condition A = 0 which simplies the Maxwell equations to A = 4J We can make further gauge transformations of the form A A + without disturbing A = 4J so long as = 0. = We choose to set A0 = 0 and work in the Coulomb gauge: A = 0
Physics 506A
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Page 8
Free Photons
For a photon in free space (J = 0), the potential is given by The plane-wave solution is A (x) = aeipx (p) where is the polarization vector and p p = 0 Although has 4 components, not all are independent. The Lorentz condition requires that p = 0 Furthermore, the Coulomb gauge implies that 0 = 0 and p = 0 Since is perpendicular to p, the photon is transversely polarized and there are only 2 independent polarization states. A = 0.
Physics 506A
8 - Spinors
Page 9
Feynman Rules for QED

The Feynman Rules for QED Setting up Amplitudes Casimirs Trick Trace Theorems
Physics 506A
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Electrons and positrons

spinors u(s) and v (s) (s = spin) satisfy the Dirac equation ( p m)u = 0 adjoints u = u 0 and v = v 0 satisfy u( p m) = 0 orthogonality u(1) u(2) = 0 and v (1) v (2) = 0 normalization uu = 2m and vv = 2m completeness P (s) (s) P u u = p + m and s v (s) v (s) = p m s
Physics 506A
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Page 2
Photons
A (x) = aeipx (p) Lorentz condition p = 0 orthogonality (2) = 0 (1) normalization = 1 Coulomb gauge 0 = 0 and p = 0 Completeness P s ((s) )i ((s) )j = ij pi pj
Physics 506A
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Page 3
The Feynman Rules for QED I

The Feynman rules provide the recipe for constructing an amplitude M from a Feynman diagram. Step 1: For a particular process of interest, draw a Feynman diagram with the minimum number of vertices. There may be more than one. e , p 3 e+ , p 4
e , p 1 e+ , p 2
Physics 506A
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The Feynman Rules for QED II

Step 2: For each Feynman diagram, label the four-momentum of each line, enforcing four-momentum conservation at every vertex. e , p 3 e+ , p 4
e , p 1 e+ , p 2 Note that arrows are only present on fermion lines and they represent particle ow, not momentum. Step 3: The amplitude depends on 1. Vertex factors 2. Propagators for internal lines 3. Wavefunctions for external lines
Physics 506A 9 - Feynman Rules Page 5
Vertex Factors
e Every QED vertex,
contributes a factor of ige .
ge is a dimensionless coupling constant and is related to the ne-structure constant by 2 ge = 4
Physics 506A
9 - Feynman Rules
Page 6
Propagators
Each internal photon connects two vertices of the form ige and ige , so we should expect the propagator to contract the indices and . Photon propogator ig q2 Fermion propogator is a bit more complicated i(/ + m) q q 2 m2 The sign of q matters here we take it to be in the same direction as the fermion arrow.
Physics 506A
9 - Feynman Rules
Page 7
External Lines
Since both the vertex factor and the fermion propagators involve 4 4 matrices, but the amplitude must be a scalar, the external line factors must sit on the outside. Work backwards along every fermion line using:
e in u
e out u
e+ in v
e+ out v
in
out
Physics 506A
9 - Feynman Rules
Page 8
Matrix elements I
follow fermion lines backward to give e u(2)ig u(1)
e j = u u is associated with the electron current
Physics 506A
9 - Feynman Rules
Page 9
Matrix elements II
The matrix element is proportional to the two currents in the diagram below. ig [2 (ige )v4 ] v [3 (ige )u1 ] u (p1 p3 )2
e , p 3
e+ , p 4
e , p 1 e+ , p 2
Physics 506A
9 - Feynman Rules
Page 10
And Finally...
Step 4: The overall amplitude is the coherent sum of the individual amplitudes for each diagram: M |M2 | = = M1 + M2 + . . . |M1 + M2 + . . .|2
Step 4a: Antisymmetrization Include a minus sign between diagrams that differ only in the exchange of two identical fermions.
Physics 506A
9 - Feynman Rules
Page 11
Examples
There are only a handful of ways to make tree-level diagrams in QED. Construct amplitudes for Bhabha scattering(e+ e e+ e ) Compton scattering(e e ). Later, we will undertake thorough calculations for Mott scattering (e e ) pair annihilation (e+ e ) fermion pair-production (e+ e f f ).
Physics 506A
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Page 12
Example: Bhabha Scattering

e , p 3 e+ , p 4 e , p 3 e+ , p 4
e , p 1 e+ , p 2 e , p 1 e+ , p 2
Antisymmetrization M = Mt Ms ig Mt = i [3 (ige )u1 ] u [2 (ige )v4 ] v (p1 p3 )2 ig Ms = i [3 (ige )v4 ] u [2 (ige )u1 ] v (p1 + p2 )2
Physics 506A
9 - Feynman Rules
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Example: Compton Scattering

, p3 e , p 4 , p3 e , p 4
e , p 1
, p2
e , p 1
, p2
No antisymmetrization M = M1 + M2 i(/1 /3 + m) p p M1 = i u4 (ige ) (ige )u1 2 3 (p1 p3 )2 m2 i(/1 + /2 + m) p p M2 = i u4 (ige ) (ige )u1 2 3 (p1 + p2 )2 m2
Physics 506A
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Polarized Particles
A typical QED amplitude might look something like M [1 v2 ] 3 u The Feynman rules wont take us any further, but to get a number for M we will need to substitute explicit forms for the wavefunctions of the external particles: u1 , v2 , and 3 . If all external particles have a known polarization, this might be a reasonable way to calculate things. More often we are interested in unpolarized particles as few accelerators produce polarized particles In the 1990s the SLC at SLAC produced polarized electron at 50 GeV
Physics 506A
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Spin-Averaged Amplitudes
If we do not care about the polarizations of the particles then we need to 1. Average over the polarizations of the initial-state particles 2. Sum over the polarizations of the nal-state particles in the squared amplitude |M|2 . We call this the spin-averaged amplitude and we denote it by |M| D
2
Note that the averaging over initial state polarizations involves summing over all polarizations and then dividing by the number of independent E D polarizations, so |M|2 involves a sum over the polarizations of all external particles.
Physics 506A
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Spin Sums I
Lets simplify things even further and suppose that we have M [1 u2 ] u Then |M|2 [1 u2 ] [1 u2 ] u u i h 0 [1 u2 ] u1 u2 u h i 0 [1 u2 ] u2 u1 u h i 0 0 0 [1 u2 ] u2 u1 u 1 [1 u2 ] u2 u u
Physics 506A
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Page 17
Spin Sums II
Rewriting the squared matrix element |M|2 [1 u2 ] u2 u1 u
We can use the completeness relation for u2 u2 X s s ui i ui i = (/i + mi ) p

si =1,2
Summing over the spins of particle 2 gives X |M|2 u1 (/2 + m2 )u1 p

s2
[1 Qu1 ] u
Physics 506A
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Spin Sums III

The right-hand side is just a number, but if we represent the matrix multiplication with summations over indices, we can rewrite it as [1 Qu1 ] u = = = = (1 )i Qij (u1 )j u Qij (u1 u1 )ji [Q (u1 u1 )]ii Tr [Q(u1 u1 )]
Apply the completeness relation once again, so that we get X |M|2 Tr [Q(/1 + m1 )] p
s1
Physics 506A
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Page 19
Spin Sums IV
Starting from M [1 u2 ] u
Averaging over initial spins and summing over nal spins gives D E 1 2 p1 + m1 ) Tr (/2 + m2 )(/ p |M| 2 Particles 1 and 2 may or may not be in the initial state The factor of 1 is from the averaging over initial spins, assuming exactly one 2 of u1 and u2 corresponds to an initial-state particle. If they are both in the initial state (e.g., pair annihilation), the factor is If neither is in the initial state (e.g., pair production), the factor is 1.
1 . 4
Physics 506A
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Casimirs Trick
This procedure of calculating spin-averaged amplitudes in terms of traces is known as Casimirs Trick X p [a 1 ub ] [a 2 ub ] = Tr 1 (/b + mb )2 (/a + ma ) u u p
all spins
If antiparticle spinors (v) are present in the spin sum, we use the corresponding completeness relation X s s vi i vi i = (/i mi ) p
si =1,2
Physics 506A
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Traces
Because of Casimirs Trick, were going to nd ourselves calculating a lot of traces involving -matrices. General identities about traces: Tr(A + B) Tr(A) Tr(AB) Tr(ABC) = = = = Tr(A) + Tr(B) Tr(A) Tr(BA) Tr(CAB) = Tr(BCA)
Physics 506A
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Page 22
Gamma matricies and traces

The two major identities that we will need in order to build more complicated trace identities are g g { , } = = 4 2g
Since = 4 and = 4g . We nd that = = = = (2g ) 2 2 4 2
Physics 506A
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Page 23
Simple Trace Identities

The simplest trace identity is: Tr(1) = 4 The trace of a single matrix is zero The trace of any odd number of -matrices. For 2 -matrices, Tr( ) = = = = Tr ( + ) /2 Tr(2g )/2 g Tr(1) 4g
For 4 traces Tr( ) = 4 g

+g
Physics 506A
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Traces With 5
The vertex factor for weak interactions involves 5 . By inspection, Tr( 5 ) = 0. Since 5 = i 0 1 2 3 (an even number of -matrices), Tr( 5 ) Tr( 5 ) = = 0 0
Also, Tr( 5 ) = 0
Physics 506A
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Page 25
The 5 Trace
Only with 4 (or more) other -matrices can we obtain a nonzero trace involving 5 : Tr( 5 ) = 4i where we recall that the antisymmetric tensor is dened as 8 > 1 for even permutations of 0123 > < +1 for odd permutations of 0123 > > : 0 if any 2 indices are the same
Physics 506A
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Contractions of the Tensor

Since is completely antisymmetric, we will get zero when we contract this with any tensor that is symmetric in 2 indices, such as g or (p p + p p ). 2 1 1 2 Only contractions with another antisymmetric tensor survive: = = = . . . 24
6 2
Physics 506A
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Example 1
One of the traces involved in Bhabha scattering is T = Tr [ (/1 + m) (/3 + m)] p p
We can expand this out to create 4 terms, but 2 of these terms (the ones linear in m) will involve 3 -matrices, and are therefore zero. Thus, T = = Tr( /1 /3 ) + m2 Tr( ) p p ` 4 p p + p p (p1 p3 )g + 4m2 g 3 1 1 3
This result will be contracted with another trace that is covariant (i.e., as opposed to contravariant ) in and .
Physics 506A
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Page 28
Example 2
Consider A = Tr( /1 /2 ) Tr( /1 /2 ) p p p p
Evaluating the traces, A = 4 p p + p p (p1 p2 )g 1 2 1 2 = =
4 [p1 p2 + p1 p2 (p1 p2 )g ] 2 2 2 2 2 16 2p1 p2 + 2(p1 p2 ) + 4(p1 p2 ) 4(p1 p2 ) 32 m2 m2 + (p1 p2 )2 1 2
Physics 506A
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Page 29
Electron Scattering
Electron-Muon Scattering (Mott Scattering) Electron-positron scattering Comparisons with experimental data
Physics 506A
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Page 1
Example: Electron-Muon Scattering I

e , p 3 , p4
e , p 1 Only one diagram , p2
= =
i [3 (ige )u1 ] u
2 ge [3 u1 ] [4 u2 ] u u (p1 p3 )2
ig (p1 p3 )2
[4 (ige )u2 ] u
Physics 506A
Page 2
e Scattering II
2 ge [3 u1 ] [4 u2 ] u u M= 2 (p1 p3 )
Average |M|2 over initial state spins and sum over nal state spins, E D 2 |M| =
4 ge Tr [ (/1 + m) (/3 + m)] p p 4 4(p1 p3 )
Tr [ (/2 + M ) (/4 + M )] p p =
4 ` ge 4 p1 p3 + p p + (m2 p1 p3 )g 3 1 4(p1 p3 )4 ` 4 p2 p4 + p4 p2 + (M 2 p2 p4 )g 4 4ge {2(p1 p2 )(p3 p4 ) + 2(p1 p4 )(p2 p3 ) (p1 p3 )4
+ 2m2 (p2 p4 ) + 2M 2 (p1 p3 ) 4(p1 p3 )(p2 p4 ) + 4(m2 p1 p3 )(M 2 p2 p4 )
Physics 506A
Page 3
e Scattering III
Simplify and combine mass terms E D 2 |M| =
4 8ge {(p1 p2 )(p3 p4 ) + (p1 p4 )(p2 p3 ) (p1 p3 )4
m2 (p2 p4 ) M 2 (p1 p3 ) + 2m2 M 2
This is a very general result that can be applied to electron scattering off of any charged particle, except for another electron or positron
Physics 506A
Page 4
Mandelstem variables
For the reaction 1 + 2 3 + 4, we dene s = (p1 + p2 )2 = (p3 + p4 )2 t = (p1 p3 )2 = (p2 p4 )2 u = (p1 p4 )2 = (p2 p3 )2 s + t + u = m2 + m2 + m2 + m2 4 3 2 1 In the CM frame and neglecting the masses of the particles, we get s = 2p1 p2 = 2p3 p4 = 4p2 t = 2p1 p3 = 2p2 p4 = 2p2 (1 cos) u = 2p1 p4 = 2p2 p3 = 2p2 (1 + cos) s+t+u=0
Physics 506A
Page 5
e Scattering in CM Frame
Ignoring the masses of the particles, the matrix element is |M |
2
= =
8g 2 ((p1 p2 )(p3 p4 ) + (p1 p4 )(p2 p3 )) (p1 p3 )2 8g 2 1 2 (s + u2 ) t2 4 d d pf 1 |M |2 64 2 pi s 2 u 2 + s 2 2s t2 2 (1 + cos)2 + 4 2s (1 cos)2
Hence the differential cross section is = = =
Physics 506A
Page 6
e Scattering in LAB Frame

e scattering is important when we discuss e-proton scattering and the evidence for quarks. The four-momenta are p1 = (E, p1 ) p2 = (M, 0) p3 (E, p3 ) p4 (M, 0)
The momentum transfer is q = (p1 p3 )2
Physics 506A
Page 7
e Scattering Amplitude
The spin-averaged amplitude for e scattering is D |M|
2 4 8ge {(p1 p2 )(p3 p4 ) + (p1 p4 )(p2 p3 ) (p1 p3 )4
m (p2 p4 ) M (p1 p3 ) + 2m M
We can drop the terms in red as m is assumed to be zero After some manipulation E D 4 16ge M 2 E1 E3 q2 |M|2 = cos2 sin2 q4 2 2M 2 2
Physics 506A
Page 8
e Scattering Cross Section

Recall the form for the differential cross section in the lab frame d d = 1 p3 |M |2 64 2 m2 p1 E1 + m2
2 E3 |M |2 2 64 2 M 2 E1 p1 E3 cos p3
Inserting the scattering amplitude into the above formula 2 q2 d E3 = sin2 cos2 2 2 sin4 E d 2 2M 2 4E1 1 2 If protons were point-like objects then the e-proton scattering cross section would be identical to this scattering
Physics 506A
Page 9
Bhabha Scattering I
An important cross section measured by many experiments
e , p 3
e+ , p 4
e , p 3
e+ , p 4
e , p 1 e+ , p 2 e , p 1 e+ , p 2
The matrix element is g 2 g 2 [u3 u1 ] [v 4 v2 ] [u3 v4 ] [v 2 u1 ] M = (p1 p3 )2 (p1 + p2 )2
Physics 506A
Page 10
Bhabha Scattering II
The form of the total matrix element is
2 2 2 M 2 = M1 + 2Mint + M2
where
2 M1
8g 4 = [(p1 p2 )(p3 p4 ) + (p1 p4 )(p2 p3 )] p 1 p 3 )4

2 M1
In the CM frame = 2g
4s
+ u2 t2 + t2 s2
2
Similarly,
2 M1
= 2g
4u
and
2 2Mint
= 2g
4 2u
st
Physics 506A
Page 11
Bhabha Scattering III

The differential cross section in the CM frame is 2 s 2 + u 2 u 2 + t2 2u2 d = + + d 2s t2 s2 st The rst term is the exchange term or t-channel process. The second term is the annihilation term or s-channel process
In full form d = d 2s 2
"
+ cos4 2 sin4 2
1+
cos2 2 2
2cos4 2 sin2 2
Physics 506A
Page 12
e+ e Accelerators
CESR (Cornell) TRISTAN (KEK) SLC (SLAC) LEP (CERN) PEPII (BaBar) Belle SuperB ILC 8+8 30+30 50+50 (polarized) 50+50 (phase I) 100+100 (phase II) 8+3 8+3 8+3 ?? b-quark and physics QED tests Z 0 physics Z 0 physics W W physics b-quark and physics b-quark and physics b-quark and physics Study of Higgs boson and SUSY
Physics 506A
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SLAC
Physics 506A
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SLAC
Physics 506A
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e+ e detectors
Physics 506A
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Experimental results I
Angular distribution from old experiments
Note that cross section is independent on s only. s d = F () d
Physics 506A
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Experimental results II
Total cross section 1 s
Physics 506A
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Experimental results III
Total cross section
At higher centre-ofmass energies, the weak interaction becomes important.
Physics 506A
Page 19
Luminosity measurements
Many experiments measure the luminosity using the e+ e e+ e reaction at very small angles. Recall that d = d 2s 2 " 1 + cos4 2 sin4 2
2
1+
cos2 2 2
2
2cos4 2 sin2 2
At 0.1 radians (7 degrees), sin 2
0, so " # 2 2 d 2 = +1 d 2s ( )4 ( 2 )2 2 and cos
the rst term dominates the cross section at small angles.
Physics 506A
Page 20
Evidence for the weak interaction

We will look at the e+ e f f reaction in the next lecture (f is a fermion). In the CM frame and ignoring the fermion masses, the cross section is d 2 u 2 + t 2 2 = (1 + cos2 ) = 2 d 2s s 2s
One denes the forward-backward asymmetry as R 1 d R 0 d d 1 d d 0 d AF B = R 1 d 1 d d
For the EM interaction, AF B = 0 using the above cross sections, however this is not true for the weak interaction.
Physics 506A
Page 21
Forward-Backward Asymmetry I
Physics 506A
Page 22
Higher-Order Diagrams in QED

The most famous higher-order process in QED is the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron (or muon), arising from the diagram e e
(B) In 1948, Schwinger showed that this modies the electron g-factor from 2 to (2 + /). It is currently known to 4 , corresponding to an uncertainty in ge of about 1012 .
Physics 506A
Page 23
BaBar detector
Physics 506A
Page 24
e+ e Cross section near the resonances
The lower resonances are below the threshold for producing B-mesons. BaBar and Belle experiments take data at CM energies of the (4S)
Physics 506A
Page 25
BaBar Events
Physics 506A
Page 26
Electron-proton scattering
Production of hadrons from e+ e Elastic e p scattering Inelastic e p scattering
Physics 506A
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e+ e f f
f, p3 f , p4
e , p 1 Only one diagram, M = = i u3 (iQf ge )v4
e+ , p 2
ig (p1 + p2 )2
[2 (ige )u1 ] v
2 Qf ge [3 v4 ] [2 u1 ] u v 2 (p1 + p2 )
f f vertex factor is
iQf ge
M (e+ e f f ) = Qf M (e+ e + )
Physics 506A
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Page 2
The Spin-Averaged Amplitude

M =
2 Qf ge [3 v4 ] [2 u1 ] u v (p1 + p2 )2
Calculating the spin-averaged amplitude D |M|

2
4 Q2 ge Tr [ (/4 M ) (/3 + M )] p p 4 4(p1 + p2 )
Tr [ (/1 + m) (/2 m)] p p =

4 ` 4Q2 ge p3 p4 + p p p3 p4 + M 2 g 4 3 (p1 + p2 )4 ` p1 p2 + p2 p1 p1 p2 + m2 g 4 4Q2 ge [2(p1 p3 )(p2 p4 ) + 2(p1 p4 )(p2 p3 ) (p1 + p2 )4
+ 2m2 (p3 p4 ) + 2M 2 (p1 p2 ) + 4m2 M 2
Physics 506A
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e+ e f f
The cross sections for e+ e f f is
Cross Section
42 2 = Qf 3s
Q2 2 d f = (1 + cos2 ) d 4s
For e+ e q q where q is a specic quark avour 42 2 Qq = 3s However if we do not distinguish between quark avours, then (e
+
42 X 2 3 Qi q q) = 3s i
where we take into account the 3 colours of each quark avour. And the ratio X (e+ e q q ) =3 Q2 R= i (e+ e + ) i
Physics 506A
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Ratio of e+ e Cross Sections

R(E) = ` e+ e hadrons (e+ e + ) =3 X
f
Q2 f
Flavor u d s c b t
Mass (MeV) 1.5-4 4-8 80-130 1150-1350 4100-4400 178000
Q
2 +3 1 3 1 3 2 +3 1 3 2 +3
R
4 3 5 3
2
10 3 11 3
Physics 506A
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Experimental Measurement of R
10
3
J/
(2S)
10
10

-1
S GeV
1 10 10
2
10
Expect:
10 3
11 3
Many experiments and accelerators have contributed to the data in this plot. e+ e machines have limited energy range
Physics 506A 11 ep scattering Page 6
High energy e+ e scattering
OPAL was one of 4 experiments at LEP (CERN)
e+ e e e,
Run : even t 4093 : 1150 Da t e 930527 T ime 20751 C t r k (N= 2 Sump= 92 . 4 ) Eca l (N= 9 SumE= 90 . 5 ) Hca l (N= 0 SumE= Ebeam 45 . 658 Ev i s 94 . 4 Emi s s - 3 . 1 V t x ( - 0 . 05 , 0 . 08 , 0 . 36 ) Muon (N= 0 ) Sec V t x (N= 0 ) Fde t (N= 1 SumE= Bz=4 . 350 Th r us t =0 . 9979 Ap l an=0 . 0000 Ob l a t =0 . 0039 Sphe r =0 . 0001 0.0) 0.0)
e+ e
Run : even t 4302 : 75672 Da t e 930717 T ime 225034 C t r k (N= 4 Sump= 72 . 1 ) Eca l (N= 14 SumE= 23 . 7 ) Hca l (N= 9 SumE= 46 . 4 ) Ebeam 45 . 610 Ev i s 121 . 9 Emi s s - 30 . 7 V t x ( - 0 . 04 , 0 . 04 , 0 . 29 ) Muon (N= 1 ) Sec V t x (N= 0 ) Fde t (N= 0 SumE= 0 . 0 ) Bz=4 . 350 Th r us t =0 . 9993 Ap l an=0 . 0001 Ob l a t =0 . 0061 Sphe r =0 . 0006
e+ e q q
Run : even t 4093 : 1000 Da t e 930527 T ime 20716 C t r k (N= 39 Sump= 73 . 3 ) Eca l (N= 25 SumE= 32 . 6 ) Hca l (N=22 SumE= 22 . 6 ) Ebeam 45 . 658 Ev i s 99 . 9 Emi s s - 8 . 6 V t x ( - 0 . 07 , 0 . 06 , - 0 . 80 ) Muon (N= 0 ) Sec V t x (N= 3 ) Fde t (N= 0 SumE= 0 . 0 ) Bz=4 . 350 Th r us t =0 . 9873 Ap l an=0 . 0017 Ob l a t =0 . 0248 Sphe r =0 . 0073
Z
200 . cm. 5 10 20 50 GeV Cen t r e o f s c r een i s (
Z
200 . cm. 5 10 20 50 GeV
Cen t r e o f s c r een i s (
200 . cm. 0 . 0000 , 0 . 0000 , 0 . 0000 )
5 10
20
50 GeV
Cen t r e o f s c r een i s (
0 . 0000 ,
0 . 0000 ,
0 . 0000 )
0 . 0000 ,
0 . 0000 ,
0 . 0000 )
Physics 506A
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R-Measurement using ISR I

Novel approach to expand the range of the R-Measurement at a single accelerator Normally one has to x the centre-of mass (CM) e+ e energy of the accelerator and measure the cross section. Changing the beam energy is not always easy.
ISR is Initial State Radiation The electron or positron has radiated an energetic photon Use the energy of the photon to recalculate the CM energy.
BaBar and Belle are using events with initial state radiation (ISR) to measure the e+ e q q cross section
Physics 506A
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Page 8
R-Measurement using ISR II
Physics 506A
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Electron-proton Scattering I
A beam of electrons with energy E are scattered from a stationary nucleus with mass MN
Virtual photon q 2 = 2 q = 0 Elastic scattering: outgoing nucleus remains intact Inelastic scattering: outgoing nucleus is in an excited state (different mass) or is broken apart
Physics 506A
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Electron-proton Scattering II
Physics 506A
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Some denitions
Initial state: Final state:
pN = (MN , 0) p = (MN + , q) N where Q2 = q 2
= E E = Q2 /2MN
is the energy lost by the electron Q2 is the square of the 4-momentum transfered between the electron and nucleus by the photon
Physics 506A
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Elastic Electron-Proton Scattering

Elastic scattering means the proton remains intact If the proton were structureless, we could user electron-muon scattering:
E D 2 |M| =
4 ` ge 4 p1 p3 + p p + (m2 p1 p3 )g 3 1 4(p1 p3 )4 ` 4 p2 p4 + p4 p2 + (M 2 p2 p4 )g muon
4 ge L L q 4 electron
with q = p1 p3 and
L electron
` 2 p p )g = 2 p2 p4 + p4 p2 + (m 2 4
Physics 506A
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But the Proton Isnt Structureless...

If the proton were a true point particle, then
E D 2 |M| =
4 ge L L q 4 electron proton
Dene K which will represent the proton structure

D E 4 ge 2 |M| = 4 Lelectron K q
proton
e , p3
p, p4
e , p1
Physics 506A 11 ep scattering
p, p2
Page 14
How Do We Calculate
Kproton ?
We know that Kproton is a second-rank tensor.
We can construct tensors from the four-vectors g , p2 , p4 , and q. Since q = p4 p2 , only 2 of these four-vectors are independent, from which we choose q and p2 = p. Thus, our choices are
g p p q q (p q + p q ) (p q p q )
For electromagnetic interactions, L electron is symmetric in and , therefore we need not include (p q p q ).
( this term is required for the weak interaction)
Physics 506A
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Form Factors
Using the four symmetric second-rank tensors, we write
Kproton = K1 g +
K2 K4 K5 p p + q q + (p q + p q ) M2 M2 M2
where K1 , K2 , K4 , and K5 are unknown functions which we refer to as form factors. The form factors can depend on q 2 , the only scalar variable available to us, since p2 = M 2 and p q = q 2 /2.
Using the Ward identity q Kproton = 0 we nd that there are only 2 independent form factors: K2 q q q q + p + p + Kproton = K1 g + 2 q M2 2 2
The goal is then to measure these form factors experimentally and to try to calculate them theoretically.
Physics 506A
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e p Cross Section
Physics 506A
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Parton Model
The Parton Model Bjorken Scaling Parton Distribution Functions
Physics 506A
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Extending the Rutherford Experiment

Recall that based on a surprisingly high number of large-angle events in elastic Au scattering, Rutherford deduced atomic substructure (i.e., the nucleus)
In a similar fashion, one can investigate the structure of the proton in e p scattering, particularly in the deep inelastic scattering regime where q 2 is large. The proton was found to have substructure (SLAC, late 1960s). These constituents came to be known as partons which are now recognized as quarks and gluons.
Physics 506A
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Electron-proton scattering behaviour
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Some denitions
Initial state: Final state:
pN = (MN , 0) p = (MN + , q) N where Q2 = q 2
= E E = Q2 /2MN
is the energy lost by the electron Q2 is the square of the 4-momentum transfered between the electron and nucleus by the photon
Physics 506A
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(, Q2 ) plane
Electron lab energy is 10 GeV (SLAC energy) = E E is the energy transfered from the electron to the proton Q2 is photon energy squared
Physics 506A
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Cross section
Note the weak dependence on q 2 for the DIS scattering where W 2 = M 2 + 2M (E E ) 4EE sin2 (/2) for elastic scattering W = M
Physics 506A 12 - Parton Model Page 6
Parton scattering
The cross section e + p e + X should reduce to e + q e + q (which is identical to e + e + ) 2 42 E3 d q2 q2 2 2 sin ) cos (e e) = ( + 4 ddE3 q 2 2m 2 2m 2 42 E3 d (ep eX) = W2 cos2 + 2W1 sin2 4 ddE3 q 2 2 where = E1 E3 (initial and nal energies) For convenience dene Q2 = q 2 (Q2 is a negative quantity). Relating e e and ep eX cross sections gives
point 2W1
Q2 Q2 ( ) = 2m 2m
point W2
Q2 = ( ) 2m
At large Q2 , inelastic ep scattering is viewed as elastic e-quark scattering off a free quark inside the proton
Physics 506A
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Scaling
The W1 structure function is observed to be independent of Q2 The scaling behaviour was explained by Feynman who said that the proton was made up of point-like partons. Structure functions W F (x) are give the distribution of partons within the proton
Physics 506A
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Parton Distribution Functions

If quarks are truly free within the nucleus for sufciently high-energy probes, the PDFs will be -functions. For the proton then, ( ) 2 1 2 2 mu md p F2 (x) = x 2 + x x 3 M 3 M More generally, we can generalizing the PDFs: ) ( 2 2 1 2 p u(x) + d(x) F2 (x) = x 3 3 The precise determination of u(x) and d(x) is measured by experiment, but these functions must satisfy certain sum rules: Z 1 Z 1 xu(x) dx = 2 xd(x) dx
0 0
(i.e., total momentum carried by u-quarks is twice that of d-quarks.)

Physics 506A 12 - Parton Model Page 9
Constraints on PDFs
Experimental surprise: both sides of the above equation are measured to be 0.36, meaning that only 54% of the protons momentum is accounted for. What happened to the other 46%?
Physics 506A
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Gluons
Since gluons are electrically neutral, they do not contribute to e p scattering, but they are evidently hoarding away some of the proton momentum (and spin too). This leads to a long list of PDFs that will be required to describe the proton accurately: u(x) d(x) s(x) . . . u(x) d(x) s(x) . . . g(x)
Where we once had just one unknown function F2 (x), we now have 13!
Physics 506A
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Relating the PDFs

By distinguishing between valence and sea quarks, we can clear up most of the clutter. Since the sea quarks are all produced by the same gluon-splitting mechanism, u(x) d(x) s(x) s(x) The c, b, and t quarks are sufciently heavy as to be ignored. For u(x) and d(x), we separate the valence and sea contributions, so that u(x) = uv (x) + s(x) d(x) = dv (x) + s(x)
The neutron PDFs are related to the proton PDFs by isospin (i.e., un (x) = dp (x)), so we have many different ways to measure the PDFs. v v
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Proton and Neutral PDFs I

Proton structure function (uud)
p i 1 F2 (x) 4 p 1h p p p = [u + u ] + d + d + [sp + sp ] x 9 9 9
Similarly the neutron structure function (udd)
Using isospin invariance
i 1 n F2 (x) 1h n 4 n n n = [u + u ] + d + d + [sn + sn ] x 9 9 9 up = dn = u(x) dp = un = d(x) sp = sn = s(x)
We get
p i F2 (x) 4 1h = [u + u] + d+d+s+s x 9 9 i 1 n F2 (x) 4h = d + d + [u + u + s + s] x 9 9

12 - Parton Model Page 13
Physics 506A
Proton and Neutral PDFs II

The proton consists of 3 valence quarks (uv , uv , dv ) accompanied by many quark-antiquark pairs u = uv + us d = dv + ds
us = us = ds = ds = ss = ss = s The quark distributions must give the correct quantum numbers Z [u u] dx = 2 Z h i d d dx = 1 Z [s s] dx = 0

p F2 (x) 1 = [4uv + dv ] + x 9 n F2 (x) 1 = [uv + 4dv ] + x 9
So that
4 s 3 4 s 3
Physics 506A
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Comparison with experiment I

p F2 (x) 1 4 = [4uv + dv ] + s x 9 3 n F2 (x) 1 4 = [uv + 4dv ] + s x 9 3
The ratio F p tends to F 1 if s dominates 4 if dv dominates 1 if uv dominates 4
Physics 506A
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Comparison with experiment II
Difference between proton and neutron functions

p n F2 (x) F2 (x) =
x [uv dv ] 3
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Physics 506A
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Parton Distribution Functions

x f(x)
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Physics 506A
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Breakdown of scaling
At high momentum (high Q2 ) the partons are free indicating that the scattering of the parton does not affect the other partons. At smaller values of x, there is a strong violation of scaling.
Physics 506A
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Electron-proton scattering at HERA

The DESY Laboratory in Hamburg operates the HERA e-proton collider.
Physics 506A
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HERA
Physics 506A
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Zeus and H1 experiments
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Deep inelastic scattering DIS
Physics 506A
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Electron proton cross section

The differential cross section for the neutral current process e N e X can be written as
42 d2 = (s M 2 ) dx dx Q4 M 2 xy 1y s M2 F2 + xy 2 F1
Physics 506A
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Neutral current DIS
Physics 506A
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Charged current DIS
Physics 506A
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Kinematic reach of HERA
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F2 structure function
Physics 506A
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Parton density functions (PDF)
Physics 506A
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Why is this important?
Physics 506A
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QCD
Describing Color The Feynman Rules Some Simple Examples Hadron collider physics
Physics 506A
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Quark Color
Recall that we have inferred the existence of 3 quark colors from the hadron production rate (e+ e hadrons) R= (e+ e + ) Denoting the three colors as red, blue, and green, we will need to append a color vector, c, to every external quark wavefunction (u or v): 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 C B C B C B B 0 C B 1 C B 0 C cg = @ cb = @ cr = @ A A A 1 0 0
Physics 506A
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8 Gluon Colors
When a gluon interacts with a quark, the quark color might change. This means that the gluon carries one unit of color and one unit of anticolor QCD is based on an SU (3) color symmetry, so there are 8 gluons Explicitly, 3 3 = 8 1 means that we have a color octet |1 = (r + b)/ 2 b r |2 = i(r b)/ 2 b r |3 = (r bb)/ 2 r |4 = (r + g)/ 2 g r |5 = i(r g)/ 2 g r |6 = (b + g g b)/ 2 |7 = i(b g b)/ 2 g 2g)/ 6 |8 = (r + bb r g
and a colour singlet
|9 = (r + b + g)/ 3 r b g
Physics 506A
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The Gell-Mann Matrices

The 8 gluon states can be regarded as 3 3 matrices in color-space. These are the Gell-Mann matrices:
B 1 = B 1 @ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 C C A 1 C C A 0 0 i B 2 = B @ 0 0 0 i 0 i 0 0 0 0 0 1 C C A 1 C C A 0 1 B 3 = B 0 @ 0 0 0 0 0 1 C C A 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 C C A 1 C C A
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0
B 4 = B @
B 5 = B 0 @ i 0 i 0 1 C C A
i 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
B 6 = B @ 0 1 0 0 0
B 7 = B 0 @ 0
1 B 8 = B 0 3 @ 0
The Gell-Mann matrices will appear in the quark-gluon vertex factor for QCD. The Gell-Mann matrices are the SU (3) counterparts of the Pauli matrices i for SU (2).
Physics 506A
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Gluon Wavefunctions
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C A
B B B B B B B B |1 a = B B B B B B B B @
The gluon wavefunctions will consist of a polarization vector ( ) and an 8component color vector a :
Physics 506A
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Page 5
Vertex Factors
The basic QCD vertex, q
g, ,
q contributes a factor of igs 2
gs is a dimensionless coupling constant and is related to the QCD version of the ne-structure constant by
2 gs s = 4
Physics 506A
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Gluon Self-Couplings
Just as photons couple to particles with non-zero electric charge, gluons couple to particles with color. Photons are electrically neutral, so they do not couple (directly) to other photons. Gluons have color, therefore they can couple directly to each other :
O(gs )
2 O(gs )
Physics 506A
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Propagators
Each internal gluon connects two verticess of the form and , so we should expect the gluon propagator to contract the indices with and with . ig Gluon propagator: q2 Internal quarks have the familiar fermion propagator, Quark propagator: i(/ + m) q q 2 m2
The sign of q matters here we take it to be in the same direction as the fermion arrow.
Physics 506A
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External Lines
As in QED, the external line factors must sit on the outside in order to make a number out of the amplitude. Work backwards along every quark line using:
q in uc
q out u c
q in v c
q out vc
g in a
g out a
Physics 506A
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Example: The Quark-Antiquark Interaction

Assuming that the quark avors are different, we have just one diagram: 3 4
1 From the Feynman rules, we have
h i ig ig s [u1 c1 ] i u3 c 3 2 (p1 p3 )2 h i ig s v2 c2 [v4 c2 ] 2
Physics 506A
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Page 10
The Origin of Color Factors

M f = =
2 gs f u v 2 [3 u1 ] [2 v4 ] q 1 c2 c4 c c1 4 3
This QCD amplitude looks just like the QED amplitude for e + scattering except that we now have a color factor of f . This means that, insofar that s is sufciently small to justify perturbative QCD, we will have a Coulomb-like potential Vqq (r) = f s r
Physics 506A
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Colour factors
Octet Conguration 1 1 c2 c4 = c3 c1 f = 4 6 Singlet Conguration 1 4 f = c2 c4 = c3 c1 4 3 With the color factors we have calculated, the q q potentials are: 8 < 4 /3r (color singlet) s Vqq (r) = : +s /6r (color octet) This means that the quark and antiquark are attracted to each other in the singlet conguration but repelled in the octet conguration. This explains why mesons are color singlets.
Physics 506A 13 - QCD Page 12
Feynman diagrams
The calculation of QCD processes that can be compared to experimental results cannot be done with the Feynman rules alone. We can calculate the e+ e q q process but quarks do not exist outside the proton. In high-energy collisions, quarks hadronize into other hadrons (e.g. pions, kaons, ...). If the quarks are relativistic, then the associated hadrons are seen to be part of jets.
Physics 506A
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Page 13
Jets
In e+ e collisions, it was observed that the particles tended to be in collimated streams or jets.
The jets are postulated to be correlated with a hadronizing quark. The e+ e q q should follow a (1 + cos2 ) angular distribution. 3-jet events were seen as evidence for the gluon
Physics 506A
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Hadron Collider projects

CERN Fermilab CERN 1980-1990 1990-2000 2008-2020 SPS Collider pp (discovery of W and Z) Teavtron pp Large Hadron Collider (LHC) pp
UVIC participated in UA1 and UA2 Large UVIC group in the ATLAS collaboration (LHC)
Physics 506A
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Quark-quark collisions I
How can one see the actual collision between the two quarks when there are four other spectator quarks? The spectator quarks hadronize in the forward regions of the detectors, producing many mesons (primarily pions) that are parallel to the beam axis.
Physics 506A
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Quark-quark collisions II
The trick learned by the UA1 and UA2 experiments in the 1980s is to look for tracks with a large amount of momentum in the direction transverse to the beams (transverse momentum).
Physics 506A
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Quark-quark collisions III

Observation of 2 and 3 jet events in the UA1 experiment. Calorimeter energy deposits ( versus )
Physics 506A
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Physics 506A
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Quark-antiquark scattering at Fermilab

Fermilab collides protons and antiprotons.
Physics 506A
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CDF detector
D0 event
Physics 506A 13 - QCD Page 21
Inclusive jet cross section

Fermilab collides protons and antiprotons.
Physics 506A
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ATLAS 2 and 3 jet events
Physics 506A
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Page 23
ATLAS inclusive jet cross section

d / dp [pb/GeV] 106 anti-k 10
5
jets, R=0.4, |y | 2.8

jet
L dt=17 nb
-1
( s =7 TeV)
104 103
Systematic Uncertainties
NLO-pQCD (CTEQ 6.6)+ Non pert. corr.
102 10 1 ATLAS Preliminary 100 200 300 400 500 600
Data/Theory
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
pT [GeV]
100 200 300 400 500
T
600
p [GeV]
Physics 506A
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Page 24
Weak Interactions
Discovery of the W and Z Feynman Rules for the W Bosons Muon Decay Fermis Effective Theory of the Weak Interaction
Physics 506A
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Page 1
Intermediate Vector Bosons

Like QED and QCD, the weak interaction is mediated by spin-1 (vector) particle exchange. Unlike the photon and gluons, the weak mediators are massive: MW = 80.425(38) GeV MZ = 91.1876(21) GeV
This means that the longitudinal polarization mode is available, for a total of 3 independent polarizations. Evidence for the W (charged current weak interaction) is indirectly obtained from the observation -decay The Z 0 was indirectly observed in 1973 in the Gargamelle experiment at CERN via the processes + e + N + e + X
Physics 506A
Page 2
UA1 Experiment
The W and Z 0 were directly observed in 1983 by the UA1 and UA2 detectors at CERN via proton-antiproton collisions. UA1 and UA2 experiments (UA = underground area) were the rst large 4 detectors with a large volume tracking chamber and a magnetic eld. A 4 detector allows one to measure the neutrino or missing energy in an event, needed for the observation of the W e decays.
Physics 506A
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First proton-antiproton collider

The accelerator used active feedback to reduce the transverse motion of the antiproton beam. The development by van der Meer won him the Nobel Prize.
Physics 506A
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Vertex and Propagator for the Bosons

The W bosons mediate charged current (CC) weak interactions. They couple to leptons via
igw 2 2
(1 5 )
This interaction mixes vector ( ) and axial vector ( 5 ) terms. We call this a V A interaction and it leads to parity violation. The propogator is i g q2
q q M2 M2
Physics 506A
Page 5
Example:
+ e + e
Start with + e + e which is experimentally possible and then evaluate the muon decay rate e + + e 3 : e W 4:
1:e 0
2 :
q q 2 MW
i u3
i g B igw (1 5 ) u1 B @ 2 q 2 MW 2 2 igw (1 5 ) u2 u4 2 2
1 C C A
Physics 506A
Page 6
II:
+ e + e
2 gw u3 (1 5 )u1 u4 (1 5 )u2 2 8MW
2 For low momentum transfer q 2 MW , the matrix element simplies to
Averaging over initial state spins and summing over nal stste spins, we get !2 D E 2 1 gw |M|2 = Tr (1 5 )(/1 + me ) (1 5 )/3 p p 2 2 8MW Tr (1 5 )/2 (1 5 )(/4 + m ) p p Note the leading factor of
1 2
(electrons have 2 spins and the has 1 spin).
Physics 506A
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III:
+ e + e
5 )/ (1 5 )(/ + m ) We need to evaluate the traces Tr (1 p2 p4 Bring the (1 5 ) factors together rst: (1 5 )/2 (1 5 ) p = = = (1 5 )/2 (1 + 5 ) p 2(1 5 )/2 p (1 5 )(1 5 )/2 p
The m-dependent terms do not contribute to these traces, so we have E D 2 |M| = i 4 gw h p1 p3 p1 p3 + p1 p3 (p1 p3 )g i 4 2MW
where
4 2gw = (p1 p2 )(p3 p4 ) 4 MW ` = 2

[p2 p4 + p2 p4 (p2 p4 )g i p p ] 2 4
Physics 506A
Page 8
IV:
+ e + e
We need to evaluate the two dot products. In the CM frame and neglecting the mass of the electron, (p1 p2 ) = (p1 + p2 )2 p2 p2 /2 2 1 = (2E)2 0 0 /2 = (p3 p4 ) = = = = 2E 2 (p3 + p4 )2 p2 p2 /2 4 3 (p1 + p2 )2 0 m2 /2 2 4E m2 /2 m 2 2E 2 1 2E
This gives D |M|2 E = m 2 4 8gw E 4 1 4 MW 2E
Physics 506A
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V:
+ e + e
d d E D 2 S |M|2 |pf | 1 8 (E1 + E2 )2 |pi |
We can convert this to a cross section: =
One can show that
m 2 |pf | = 1 |pi | 2E
The angular distribution is d d = 1 2

2 gw E 2 4MW
!2
m 2 2
2E
Note that the cross section has no angular dependence.
Physics 506A
Page 10
Muon Decay e + + e
Muon decay has been studied for decades and continues to be studied today as a means for testing the Standard Model and search for evidence of New Physics 3 : 2 : e 4:e
W 1:
2 Again, working in the limit of q 2 MW , the amplitude is
2 gw 5 5 u3 (1 )u1 u4 (1 )v2 2 8MW
This is identical to the amplitude in the previous example, except for u2 v2 , p but both either spinors give us /2 in the trace (since m = 0)
Physics 506A 14 - Weak interactions Page 11
Muon Decay II
We have the identical spin-averaged squared matrix element as e scattering D E 4 2gw 2 (p1 p2 )(p3 p4 ) |M| = 4 MW Since the kinematics of decay are different from those of e scattering, we will need to start our work here. In the muon rest frame, (p1 p2 ) = m E2 , and (p3 p4 ) = (p3 + p4 )2 p2 p2 /2 4 3 = (p1 p2 )2 0 0 /2 2 2 = p1 + p2 2p1 p2 /2 = m (m 2E2 )/2 The spin-averaged squared matrix element simplies to D E 4 gw 2 |M| = m2 E2 (m 2E2 ) 4 MW
Physics 506A 14 - Weak interactions Page 12
Muon Decay III

Since |M| the decay rate from scratch with Fermis Golden Rule: E D 2 |M| d3 p2 d3 p3 d3 p4 d = 2m (2)3 2E2 (2)3 2E3 (2)3 2E4 (2)4 4 (p1 p2 p3 p4 ) D
2
(via E2 ) depends nontrivially on , we will have to work out
Rather than list the derivation in the lectures, the reader is encouraged to review it in Grifths
Physics 506A
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Muon Decay IV
The derivation of the matrix element yields valuable kinematic information max{E2 , E4 } 8 > > < > > : <
1 m 2
<
1 m 2 1 m 2 1 m 2
(E2 + E4 ) 9 > > = > > ;
E2 < E4 < (E2 + E4 ) >
Since all three nal-state particles are assumed to be massless, energy and 3-momentum are the same. The sum of the momenta for the 3 nal-state particles must be zero, therefore no single particle can have more than half of the available energy and no two particles can have less than half of the available energy.
Physics 506A
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Electron energy spectrum in muon decay

One can measure the lifetime of decay width of muon decay Often one measures the momentum spectrum of the outgoing electron The following equation describes the electron-energy spectrum of muon decay. d dE = gw MW 4 m2 E 2 2(4)3 4E 1 3m
Physics 506A
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Electron energy spectrum data
Physics 506A
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Muon Decay Rate

Integrating over the electron energy, we obtain the muon decay rate: Z m /2 4E gw 4 m2 dE E2 1 = MW 2(4)3 0 3m gw 4 5 1 m = 6144 3 MW
2 In the limit of q 2 MW , our results always depend on the ratio of gw and MW , and not the two constants separately.
Hence we can dene the Fermi coupling constant GF , by GF = This allows us to write the muon lifetime as 192 3 = 2 5 GF m
2 2gw 2 8MW
Physics 506A
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Fermi Coupling constant

We can use the measurement of the muon mass and lifetime to measure the Fermi coupling constant 192 3 = 2 5 GF m Muon mass and lifetime (2007 PDG) M = 105.658369 0.000009 MeV = (2.19703 0.0004) 106 seconds Using and m , we can determine GF from this equation: GF = 1.16637(1) 105 GeV2
Physics 506A
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How Weak is the Weak Interaction?

The muon lifetime and mass measurements give 2 2gw GF = = 1.166 105 GeV2 2 8MW We can use the W mass measurement MW = 80.4 GeV to determine gw . gw = 0.65 w
2 1 gw = = 4 29
The weak interaction is inherently stronger than the EM interaction!

2 It is only the suppression factor E 2 /MW which makes the weak force seem so feeble.
Physics 506A
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Twist experiment at TRIUMF I

The electron energy spectrum is measured by the (active) TWIST experiment at TRIUMF. Since this experiment uses polarized muons, the direction of the electron is no longer arbitrary, and a distribution in E and is created. if the systematic uncertainties are made sufciently small, one can look for evidence of physics beyond the Standard Model (e.g., right-handed charged-current interactions via WR bosons).
Physics 506A
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Muon production at TRIUMF

Muons are directed into the detector where the electron momentum is measured.
Physics 506A
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Physics 506A
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Michel parameters
Experiments such as Twist measure the angular and momentum dependence of the outgoing electron Rather than assume the nominal form of the weak interaction V A, we can test for scalar, pseudoscalar and other tensor components Michel spectrum (see section in PDG) 1x 2 d x2 3(1 x) + (4x 3) + 3 x0 dxdcos 3 x 2 (4x 3) x2 P cos 1 x + 3 where x = E /W , x0 = me /W and W = (m2 + m2 )/2m e In the Standard Model, = = 0.75, = 1, and = 0
Physics 506A
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Charged Weak Interactions

Neutron Decay Pion Decay The CKM Matrix
Physics 506A
15 - Charged Weak Interaction
Page 1
Neutron Decay
Ignoring neutron substructure, we could model neutron decay as a weak interaction process much like muon decay: 2 : e 3:p 4:e
W 1:n
In muon decay, all 3 nal-state particles ( , e , and e) are essentially massless.
Physics 506A
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Kinematics of Neutron Decay

In neutron decay, the proton mass is obviously quite large. In addition, the mass of the electron (0.5 MeV) is a signicant fraction of the neutron-proton mass difference (1.3 MeV), so we cannot ignore me . As a result, the phase-space calculation for neutron decay is more difcult than that of muon decay. Consult Grifths if you would like to see the details. Using a pure V A vertex factor, we obtain a neutron lifetime of n = 1316 s
The experimentally measured value is 885.7 0.6 s (about 15 min) Proton lifetime > 1029 years
Physics 506A
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Pion Decay I
While the 0 (u dd) decays to + via an electromagnetic interaction, the u u charged pions (ud and d) decay to a lepton-neutrino pair through the weak interaction. In some respects, decay can be regarded as a scattering process:
Physics 506A
Page 4
Pion decay II
If were going to have some unknown factor appearing in our results, we should make the rest of the calculation as simple as possible. Lets model decay by:
where the W interaction at the blob is described by the vertex factor igw f p 2 2 the pion is spin 0 so the interaction must be a scalar (no gamma matricies) and it must be a 4-vector (the simplest choice is p of the pion)
Physics 506A 15 - Charged Weak Interaction Page 5
The Pion Decay Amplitude I

We can write the pion decay amplitude is
2 gw f p1 u3 (1 5 )v2 M= 2 8MW
Since the pion is a spin-0 particle, f can only depend on the pion momentum, p1 . The only scalar we can make from p1 is p2 = m2 , so f is, in fact, constant! 1 We call f the pion decay constant, and experiments suggest that f 131 MeV determined from + + decays (PDG 2007)
Physics 506A
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The Pion Decay Amplitude II

M D E 2 |M| =
2 gw f p1 u3 (1 5 )v2 2 8MW !2 2f gw p1 p1 2 8MW 5 5 Tr (1 )/2 (1 )(/3 + m ) p p !2 2f gw p1 p1 Tr (1 5 )2 /2 (/3 + m ) p p 2 8MW
We start by using (1 5 )2 = 2(1 5 ). The m terms will not contribute, as they all involve traces of an odd # of -matrices. The -tensor produced by the trace involving 5 will vanish when contracted with p1 p1 . !2 E D 2f gw p1 p1 8 p p + p p (p2 p3 )g = |M|2 2 3 2 3 2 8MW
Physics 506A
Page 7
The Pion Decay Amplitude III

D |M|2 E = 1 8
2 gw f 2 MW
!2
2(p1 p2 )(p1 p3 ) m2 (p1 p2 )
We can evaluate the various dot products by using p1 = p2 + p3 : p2 1 m2 (p2 p3 ) Similarly, (p1 p2 ) (p1 p3 ) = = = = = (p2 + p3 )2 (m2 m2 )/2 m2 + 2(p2 p3 )
(m2 m2 )/2
(m2 + m2 )/2
|M|2
1 16
2 gw f 2 MW
!2
m2 (m2 m2 )
Physics 506A
Page 8
The Pion Decay Rate I

Recall from an earlier lecture, = |pf | |M|2 8m2
With |pf | equalling the neutrino energy, |pf | = = = E2 (p1 p2 )/m (m2 m2 )/2m gw 4MW 4
2 f m3
m2 (m2 m2 )2
Physics 506A
Page 9
The Pion Decay Rate II

2 f m3
gw 4MW
m2 (m2 m2 )2
f can be extracted from this expression. Lets compare the decay rates to electrons and muons so as to cancel f : ( e + e ) m2 (m2 m2 )2 e e = 2 104 + ) 2 m2 )2 ( m (m Surprisingly, the muon mode is heavily favored in spite of the smaller phase s pace available. The suppression of the electron mode can be understood in terms of angular momentum.
Physics 506A
Page 10
What About Quarks?

For leptons, the W couples within a particular generation: 0 1 0 1 0 1 @ e A @ A @ A e Things are more complicated for quarks, as the W couplings can mix generations: 0 1 0 1 0 1 u c t @ A @ A @ A d s b With the discovery of neutrino mixing, it implies there is mixing between the generations
Physics 506A
Page 11
The CKM Matrix

Instead, the W coupling works within the weak generations 0 1 0 1 0 1 u c t @ A @ A @ A d s b The primed quarks (weak eigenstates) are related to the unprimed quarks (mass eigenstates) by the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) Matrix: 1 10 1 0 0 d Vud Vus Vub d C CB C B B CB s C B s C = B V A A @ cd Vcs Vcb A @ @ b Vtd Vts Vtb b
Physics 506A
Page 12
With Only 2 Quark Generations

The 2 2 mixing matrix is really just a single rotation: 0 1 0 1 10 d cos C sin C d @ A=@ A A@ s sin C cos C s where C 13 is the Cabibbo angle This helps us understand semileptonic decays such as K + . The decay involves a ud coupling = factor of cos C The K decay features a us coupling = factor of sin C .
Physics 506A
Page 13
and K Decays I
The ratio of the decay rates of l to K l should be proportional to the Cabibo angle d
igw 2 2
(1 5 )cosC
W u s
igw 2 2
(1 5 )sinC
W u
( (K
2 f l ) = m3 2 fK l ) = m3 K
4 gw m2 (m2 m2 ) cos2 c l l 4MW 4 gw m2 (m2 m2 ) cos2 c K l l 4MW
Physics 506A
Page 14
and K Decays II
The ratio of the widths (K ( ) = l ) l
2 fK 2 f
m3 m3 K
m2 K m2
m2 l 2 ml
tan2 c
The lifetimes of the and K are 2.60 108 and 1.24 108 seconds Other measurements give f = 132 MeV and fK = 160 MeV. Using the above numbers gives This gives c = 13.1 cosc = 0.974 The branching ratios for is 100% and K is 64%.
The d-quark mass eigenstate is a mixture of the weak d and s-quark eigenstates d = 0.97d + 0.23s
Physics 506A
Page 15
Problems with the Cabibo model

The Cabibbo angle solved many problems, but new ones appeared. The branching ratio for K 0 + is 9.1 109 The predicted decay rate is proportional to sinc cosc which gives a sigincantly larger result than the experimental result. K 0 (ds) state M + sin C cos C
W u d
Physics 506A
Page 16
The GIM Mechanism

Glashow, Iliopoulos, and Maiani (GIM) proposed a solution in 1970 to explain the low incidence of K 0 + decays. This required the postulation of the charm quark. Instead of exchanging a u quark, a new quark (c-quark) is exchanged The cancellation is not exact because the u and c have different masses. One can infer the charm quark mass by measuring a GIM-suppressed process. M sin C cos C
W c d
In 1974 the c-quark was discovered.

Physics 506A 15 - Charged Weak Interaction Page 17
CKM matrix I
Vud Vus Vcd Vcs Vcb Vub Vtb Comparison of + 0 e+ e and + e+ e Comparison of + 0 e+ e and K + e+ e Neutrino induced charm production from d-quarks Charm decays of the W boson B Dl+ decays b ul+ decays t bl+ decays
Physics 506A
Page 18
With 3 Quark Generations

The CKM matrix can be parametrized in terms of 3 rotation angles and 1 CP-violating complex phase. The angles are such that the CKM matrix is somewhat diagonal. The magnitudes of the matrix elements are approximately: 1 0 0.97 0.22 0.004 u C B 0.04 C c B 0.22 0.97 A @ 0.01 0.04 0.999 t d s b
Many experiments have or are measuring the CKM matrix elements There are extensive reviews of each of the values of the CKM matrix (see the PDG)
Physics 506A
Page 19
Wolfenstein CKM matrix

This provides a more intuitive view of the CKM matrix The Wolfenstein representation of the CKM matrix denes = sinc and expresses the other terms in powers of 2 6 6 4 1 2 /2 1 2 /2 A 2 A3 ( A 1 i) 3 7 7 5
A3 (1 i)
The parameters A, and are real numbers.
The complex phase is the only source of CP violation in the Standard Model. The amount of CP violation in the Standard Model is not particularly large and cannot explain the matter-antimatter asymmetry in the universe
Physics 506A
Page 20
Unitarity Triangles I
The unitarity triangles are used to visualize the results from complementary experiments The unitarity of the CKM matrix means that the various rows (as well as the columns) are orthonormal, since V V = 1 leads to 0 {r o o o w w w 1 0 z}|{ r 1} B CB CB o CB C 2} C B w CB CB 1 AB @ 3} |{z} z}|{ r o w 2 |{z} z}|{ 1 r C 0 o C 1 C C B w C=B 0 C @ C 3 C 0 A |{z}
B B B B B {r B B @ {r
0 1 0
C 0 C A 1
In b physics, we use the 1st (d) and 3rd (b) columns, so that
Vud Vub + Vcd Vcb + Vtd Vtb = 0
Physics 506A
Page 21
Unitarity Triangles II
The most commonly used unitary triangle arises from
Vud Vub + Vcd Vcb + Vtd Vtb = 0
The sides are normalized to Vtd Vtb
The verticies of the triangle are (0, 0), (1, 0) and (, ). If the complex phase is zero (or ), the unitarity triangle will have zero area CP violation can be established either by measuring all three sides or at least one of the angles
Physics 506A
Page 22
Unitarity Triangles III
Physics 506A
Page 23
Unitarity Triangles IV
A variety of measurements provide complementary information that can limit the values in the (, ) plane.
Global ts to the data yield = 0.2272 A = 0.818 = 0.221 = 0.340
Physics 506A
Page 24
CP Violation with leptons

CP violation in the universe cannot explained by CPV we see with quarks Another source of CPV could be the lepton sector (none yet observed). SuperK and SNO have shown that neutrino mix e and e which means neutrinos have mass and lepton number is no conserved There may be a CKM-like matrix for neutrinos 1 0 0 Ve1 Ve2 Ve3 e C B B B C = B Vu1 Vu2 Vu3 A @ @ Vt1 Vt2 Vt3
10
where e are the mass eigenstates and 1 are the weak eigenstates
1 C CB C B 2 C A A@ 3
Physics 506A
Page 25
Neutral Weak Interactions

The Z 0 Boson: Feynman Rules The Weak Mixing Angle Resonance in e+ e Scattering
Physics 506A
16 - Neutral current interactions
Page 1
Fermis Theory
Recall that Fermi modeled the weak interaction as a four fermion contact interaction with a coupling of GF : f3 f4
f1
f2
GF 5 (1 5 )f2 GF E 2 M = f3 (1 )f1 f4 2 From quantum scattering theory, one has a problem if |M| 1 This is known as the unitarity bound. For the Fermi model, we can state that it will not work beyond E 300 GeV. This is resolved by incorporating a W -boson (MW 80 GeV) into the theory of weak interactions
Physics 506A 16 - Neutral current interactions Page 2
Unitarity Bounds I
Even after we incorporate W bosons into a theory of the weak interaction, another unitarity bound is encountered The amplitude for the e+ e W + W process is a problem assuming that it proceeds by the Feynman diagram: W W+
e e e+
Physics 506A
Page 3
Restoring Unitarity
In order to make the weak interaction self-consistent, we require two additional contributions to the e+ e W + W scattering process: W W+ W W+
Z0
e+
e+
We require two neutral bosons, the and the Z 0 to x the unitarity problem
Physics 506A
Page 4
Discovery of the Z 0
The Z 0 was indirectly observed in 1973 in the Gargamelle experiment at CERN via the processes + e + N + e + X
The forward-backward asymmetry (AF B ) in e+ e + also indirectly showed the need for the Z 0 The Z 0 was directly observed in 1983 by the UA1 and UA2 detectors at CERN via proton-antiproton collisions. The Z 0 is slightly heavier than the W , with MZ = 91.1876(21) GeV
Physics 506A
Page 5
The Weak Mixing Angle

Many of the parameters of the electroweak interaction are related to each other. The masses and couplings are related by weak mixing or Weinberg angle (w ) For example, the masses of the W and Z bosons are related by MW = MZ cos w The vertex factor (gZ ) for the Z 0 is related to the W vertex factor (gW ) gz = gw cos w
Both gw and gz are related to the QED coupling constant ge gw = ge sin w gz =
ge sin w cos w
This is why the weak force is inherently stronger than the electromagnetic force. Experimentally,
Physics 506A
sin2 w (MZ ) = 0.23120(15)

16 - Neutral current interactions Page 6
Feynman Rules for the Z 0

The Z 0 propagator looks just like that of the W : q q i g M 2
Z
2 q 2 MZ
The Z 0 bosons mediate neutral current (NC) weak interactions. They couple to fermions via f
igz 2
(cV cA 5 )
Z0
Physics 506A
Page 7
Fermion Couplings to the Z 0

The vector and axial couplings cV and cA are specied by the GWS model: f qu qd cV
1 +2 1 2 + 2 sin2 w
cA +1 2 1 2 +1 2 1 2
+1 2 1 + 2
4 3 2 3
sin2 w sin2 w
Note that the Z 0 does not change the lepton or quark avor. The Standard Model has no avor-changing neutral currents (FCNC) at tree level.
Physics 506A
Page 8
Gauge Boson Self-Couplings

Just like QCD, the electroweak bosons can interact with each other: W+ W X
Z0,
W+
where (X, Y ) can be (, ), (, Z 0 ), (Z 0 , Z 0 ), or (W + , W ). Consult Appendix D of Grifths for vertex factors.
Physics 506A
Page 9
Compare and Z 0 diagrams

The Z 0 couples to every charged fermion, just like the photon does. ff Zff
The similarity between the and the Z 0 made it difcult to detect the Z 0 2 because at low energies. The QED effects dominate due to the (q 2 MZ )1 factor in the Z propogator. For example, the forward-backward asymmetry became more pronounced as the centre-of-mass energy became larger Unlike the photon, the Z 0 also couples to neutrinos. Z
Physics 506A
Page 10
Example: e+ e f f
We now have a new diagram for the e+ e f f process
3:f
4:f
Z0
1 : e
2 : e+
Physics 506A
Page 11
The Scattering Amplitude

The amplitude is M = i g 6 igz f (cV cf 5 ) v3 6 i u4 A 4 2 2 q 2 MZ igz e (cV ce 5 ) u1 v2 A 2 2
q q 2 MZ
3 7 7 5
2 At low energies, q 2 MZ , the Z 0 -mediated diagram is similar in structure to 2 the QED diagram. The amplitude would dominate as q 2 MZ
Physics 506A
Page 12
2 Scattering amplitude at q 2 = MZ : I
If q 2 is not small, we can no longer simplify the Z 0 -propagator. Keeping the full propagator, M =
2 gz
2 4(q 2 MZ ) v2 (ce ce 5 )u1 A V
i h f 5 f u4 (cV cA )v3
q q 2 MZ
If we can neglect all fermion masses, the
q q 2 MZ
part of the propagator will
contribute nothing, since we can write q as either p1 + p2 or p3 + p4 .
We can write q as either p1 + p2 or p3 + p4 then the / factors lead to combinations like u4 /4 and /3 v3 , q p p which, by the Dirac equation, are u4 m4 and m3 v3 .
Physics 506A
Page 13
2 Scattering amplitude at q 2 = MZ : II
The scattering amplitude can be written as M = i h 2 gz f 5 f u4 (cV cA )v3 2 4(q 2 MZ ) v2 (ce ce 5 )u1 V A " #2 i h 2 gz f 5 f 5 f f p p Tr (cV cA )/3 (cV cA )/4 2 8(q 2 MZ ) e 5 e e 5 e p p Tr (cV cA )/1 (cV cA )/2
E D 2 |M|
The traces are best evaluated by rst bringing the cV and cA terms together: (cV cA 5 )/3 (cV cA 5 ) p = = (cV cA 5 )2 /3 p p (c2 + c2 )/3 2cV cA 5 /3 A p V
Physics 506A
Page 14
2 Scattering amplitude at q 2 MZ : III

The cross section for Z 0 -mediated e+ e f f is !2 2E gz 1 [(cf )2 + (cf )2 ][(ce )2 + (ce )2 ] = A V V A 2 3 4[(2E)2 MZ ] Note that this cross section blows up when E = MZ /2. This is much more serious than the innite cross section for Rutherford scattering because this (Z 0 ) divergence can be traced all the way back to the amplitude.
Physics 506A
Page 15
Propogator for unstable particles

The source of the problem is that the kinematics are such that e+ e Z 0 is a physically allowable process even without a subsequent decay to f f . As a result, we need to modify the Z 0 -propagator in order to account for the instability of the Z 0 . Heres what we do: 1. We recall the familiar conguration-space wavefunction of a stable particle: (r, t) = (r)eiEt
2. Since the particle is stable, the probability of nding the particle somewhere is always equal to 1 since the wavefunction i s normalized: Z P (t) = ||2 d3 r = 1
Physics 506A
Page 16
3. If the particle is unstable, we expect the probability of nding the particle to fall off with time according to the decay rate Z P (t) = ||2 d3 r = et 4. In the particle rest frame, this means that (r, t) = (r)eiM t
t 2
5. We then apply the substitution M M i to the propagator of an unstable 2 particle and assume that is sufciently small that we can neglect the 2 term: 1 q2 M 2 1 q 2 (M i/2)2 1 q 2 M 2 + iM
Physics 506A
Page 17
Cross Section
With the modication to the Z 0 propagator, 1 2 q 2 MZ The cross section takes the form 1 2 q 2 MZ + iMZ Z
1 2 [(2E)2 MZ ]2 + (MZ Z )2
This is known as a Breit-Wigner resonance. The height and width of the resonance peak are determined by the decay width Z .
Physics 506A
Page 18
Measurement of the Z 0 Peak : I
The Breit-Wigner shape is modied by higher-order (radiative) effects
Physics 506A
Page 19
Measurement of the Z 0 Peak : II

e+ e f f QED dominates at low energies E 4 Z 2 MZ
The Z 0 -mediated process which dominates near the resonance peak Z 1 MZ 2 200 8 Z
Physics 506A
Page 20
Number of light neutrino generations

Z 0 is allowed Each species contributes to the total width Z Since Z the cross section will depend on the number of (light) neutrino generations
The data shows that there cannot be a 4th lepton generation with a light neutrino.
Physics 506A
Page 21
The Z 0 Peak at CERN

Precise measurements of electroweak parameters (MW , MZ , and sin2 w ) also shed light on other Standard Model parameters such as mt and mH . In the early days at LEP (started in 1989), a number of unusual systematic effects needed to be accounted for in order to measure these parameters accurately: 1. Tidal distortions of the ring 2. Water levels in nearby Lake Geneva 3. Correlations with the TGV
Physics 506A
Page 22
Water levels in nearby Lake Geneva
Physics 506A
Page 23
Tidal distortions of the ring
Physics 506A
Page 24
Correlations with the TGV
Physics 506A
Page 25
LEP-II WW and ZZ results:
Physics 506A
Page 26
Physics 506A
Page 27
Physics 506A
Page 28
ATLAS W and Z results: W e e
Physics 506A
Page 29
ATLAS W and Z results W
Physics 506A
Page 30
ATLAS W and Z results Z 0 e+ e
Physics 506A
Page 31
ATLAS W and Z results Z 0 +
Physics 506A
Page 32
ATLAS W and Z results
Physics 506A
Page 33
ATLAS W and Z results
Physics 506A
Page 34
Electroweak Unication
Glashow recognized that even though the EM and weak interactions appear to be very different, they are manifestations of the same force The apparent disparity in the strengths of the two interactions could be explained if the weak interaction was mediated by a massive particle (a force mediated by a massive particle has a short range) Weinberg and Salam were able to explain why the EM has a massless mediator and the weak force has a massive mediator with the Higgs mechanism (GWS won the Nobel Prize) The structure of the EM and weak interactions (ie. how we calculate Feynmann diagrams) is also very different
Physics 506A
17 - Eelectroweak unication
Page 1
Hiding the V A
Electromagnetism and the weak forces are very similar 1. The is massless, the weak bosons W , Z 0 are massive 2. The QED interaction is purely vector ( ), whereas the weak interaction combines vector and axial terms ( (cV cA 5 )) We can make the V A vertex factor for the W look like a pure vector interaction if we associate part of the interaction with the fermion wavefunction: igw igw 1 5 u u = [ uL ] u 2 2 2 where (1 5 ) u uL 2
Physics 506A
Page 2
5 : Chirality vs. Helicity

5u = 0 0 0 @ @ @ 0 1 uB uA 1 10 A@ uA uB 1 A For m = 0, we see that 5 behaves just like the helicity operator p. b
0 1 A
0 @
(p) E+m (p) Em (p) E+m
uA uB
1 A 0 10 A@ uA uB 1 A
5 is dened as the chirality operator and it is only in the massless limit that helicity and chirality are the same.
chiral refers to the hand-ness of the partitcle
(p) Em
Physics 506A
Page 3
Chiral Fermions
Since 5 acts just like the helicity operator p for massless fermions, b uL
1 (1 2
5 )u
8 < 0 : u
if u has helicity +1 if u has helicity 1
Similarly, we can project out the right-handed part of a spinor: 8 < u if u has helicity +1 5 1 uR 2 (1 + )u = : 0 if u has helicity 1 Adjoint spinors uL and uR ? uL = u 0 = u 1 (1 5 ) 0 = u 0 1 (1 + 5 ) = u L 2 2 uR = u
1 (1 2 1 (1 2
+ 5)
5)
Physics 506A
Page 4
EM and Weak Currents I

Recall the form of the EM current
jEM u u
For the weak current, we can write

jweak u 1 (1 5 )u 2
= = =
1 (1 + 5 ) 1 (1 2 2 uL uL
1 u 2 (1 5 ) 2 (1 5 )u 1
5 )u
using the identity 1 (1 5 ) 2 2 =

1 [1 4
2 5 + ( 5 )2 ] =
1 (1 2
5)
We can think of the charged weak interaction as a pure vector interaction between left-handed fermions.
Physics 506A
Page 5
EM and Weak Currents II

The QED current u u, can be expanded out into 4 currents (u = uL + uR )
jem u u
= =
(L + uR ) (uL + uR ) u uL uL + uR uR + uL uR + uR uL
Since
1 (1 2
1 5 ) 2 (1 + 5 ) =
1 [1 4
( 5 )2 ] = 0
the LR and RL cross terms in the QED current vanish: uL uR = = =

1 (1 + 5 ) 1 (1 + 5 )u 2 2 u 1 (1 5 ) 1 (1 + 5 )u 2 2
This means that only the LL and RR terms survive:

jem u u = uL uL + uR uR
Physics 506A
Page 6
EM and Weak currents III

The charged weak currents, as mediated by the W , couple left-handed fermions together:
j + j
= =
L eL eL L
The electromagnetic current, as mediated by the , couples left-handed fermions together, and it also couples right-handed fermions together:
em j
L eL eR eR e
Physics 506A
Page 7
Weak Doublets
Since the W couples left-handed leptons and their neutrinos together, it seems natural to dene the weak doublet: 0 1 e A L = @ e
L
In terms of L , the charged weak currents

j = L eL + j = eL L
can be written as where 0
j = L L
+ @
0 0
1 0
1 A
0 1
0 0
1 A
Physics 506A
Page 8
A Neutral Current
Suppose we dene a third matrix in order to complete the symmetry: 1 0 1 0 A 3 @ 0 1 From 3 , we can construct a current (with a factor of 1 for consistency with j ): 2
3 j
= =
L 1 3 L 2
1 2 L L 1 2 eL eL
It looks like we have a neutral current describing both the EM and weak interaction. However, this neutral current is pure V A and it only involves LH particles. The Z 0 , conversely, has a more complicated (cV cA 5 ) structure and, consequently, it also couples to right-handed particles.
Physics 506A 17 - Eelectroweak unication Page 9
Hypercharge
Gell-MannNishijima formula This relation connects the charge Q, isospin component I 3 and hypercharge Y , of a quark or hadron: Q = I 3 + 1 Y 2 where the hypercharge is dened to be Y = A + S with A being the baryon number and S is the strangeness.
(one of the goals of the strong hypercharge is to centre the quark model nonents at Y = 0)
Weak hypercharge In a similar manner to the (strong interaction) hypercharge, we can dene a relation for the weak hypercharge Q = I 3 + 1 Y 2 We can then construct a weak hypercharge current:
Y j
= = =
3 em 2j 2j
2 (L eL eR eR ) 2 e
2R eR eL eL L L e
`1
2 L L
1 e e 2 L L
Physics 506A
Page 10
Weak isospin and hypercharge currents

Weak isospin current j = 1 L L 2 3 where j correspond to the W -mediated currents, and j is a left-handed neutral current. In the GWS model, j couples to a triplet of vector bosons W with a coupling strength gw (igw j W )
Y em 3 Hypercharge current j = 2j 2j
which couples with strength
g 2
Y to a singlet vector boson B (i g j B ) 2
The GWS model combines the two currents g Y i gw j W + j B 2 None of the four elds W 1 , W 2 , W 3 , and B correspond directly to the physical particles W + , W , Z 0 , and .
Physics 506A
Page 11
W + and W
One can show that j W
3 2 1 j W 1 + j W 2 + j W 3 ` 1 ` 1 2 2 1 = 2 j + ij W iW ` ` 1 3 2 1 + 2 j ij W 1 + iW 2 + j W 3
1 + j W + 2
1 j W 2
3 + j W 3
We dene the W + and W by

W
1 2
which corresponds to the wave functions representing the W particles
` 1 2 W iW
Physics 506A
Page 12
W + and W Vertex Factors

From the general interaction g Y i gw j W + j B 2 we see that the coupling involving the W is igw j W 2 With
= =
L eL 2 (1 5 )e 1
we nd that the W couples to an e and an e with a vertex factor of igw (1 5 ) 2 2
Physics 506A
Page 13
Weak mixing
The two neutral states W 3 and B mix in the GSW theory 0 1 0 10 1 A cos w sin w B @ A=@ A@ A 3 Z sin w cos w W where w is the weak mixing angle With the electroweak mixing, the interaction terms for the neutral particles are g g Y Y 3 3 cos w j A = i gw sin w j + i gw j W 3 + j B 2 2 g 3 Y i gw cos w j sin w j Z 2
Physics 506A
Page 14
EM coupling constants
Y em 3 We will substitute j = 2j 2j . If A is to represent the electromagnetic eld, then g Y 3 em cos w j = gw sin w j + j 2 ` em 3 3 = gw sin w j + g cos w j j
ge = g cos w = gw sin w
Physics 506A
Page 15
Z 0 coupling constant
Using ge = g cos w = gw sin w the Z 0 interaction term is g ge cos w 3 Y 3 i gw cos w j sin w j Z = i j 2 sin w ge sin w 3 em 2(j j ) Z 2 cos w 3 ige em = j sin2 w j Z sin w cos w This gives gz =
ge sin w cos w
Physics 506A
Page 16
cV and cA
Lets look at the up quark. With 3 em igz j sin2 w j Z igz 2 = Z (L uL ) 2 sin2 w ( u) u u 2 3 1 5 igz 2 = Z u u u 2 sin2 w ( u) 2 2 3 9 3 8 2 > > > > > > 7 = < 1 6 1 igz 6 4 7 5 2 u7 = Z 6u sin w > 5 > 2 4 2 3 2 > > >| {z } | {z } > ; :
cV cA
In this way, we establish the Z 0 vertex factors to Standard Model fermions of the form igz (cV cA 5 ). 2
Physics 506A
Page 17
Couplings to the Z 0
In a similar fashion, we can work out how the other fermions couple to the Z 0 : f qu qd cV
1 +2 1 2 + 2 sin2 w
cA +1 2 1 2 +1 2 1 2
+1 2 1 + 2
4 3 2 3
sin2 w sin2 w
Physics 506A
Page 18
Measuring cv and cA
-0.032
mt= 178.0 4.3 GeV mH= 114...1000 GeV
-0.035
mH
-0.038
ll + ee + +
+
gVl
mt
-0.041
68% CL
-0.503
-0.502
-0.501
-0.5
gAl
Measurements of gv and ga (equivalently cv and cA )
Physics 506A
Page 19
Measuring sin2 W
Afb
0,l
0.23099 0.00053 0.23159 0.00041 0.23098 0.00026 0.23221 0.00029 0.23220 0.00081 0.2324 0.0012 0.23153 0.00016
2/d.o.f.: 11.8 / 5
Al(P) Al(SLD) Afb

0,b
0,c Afb had Qfb
Average
10
3
mH [GeV]
10
(5) = 0.02758 0.00035 had mt= 178.0 4.3 GeV
0.23
0.232
lept sin2eff
0.234
Measurements of sin2 W primarily from LEP, SLD and Tevatron experiments
Physics 506A
Page 20
Limit on Higgs mass
80.5
LEP1, SLD data LEP2 (prel.), pp data 68% CL
mW [GeV]
80.4
80.3
mH [GeV] 114 300 150
1000 175
200
mt [GeV]
Electroweak measurements can be used to estimate mtop or together with the top quark mass, put a limit on the Higgs mass
Physics 506A
Page 21
The Standard Model Higgs

Higgs couples to every massive particle in SM We believe the Higgs (or something) exists because of unitarity. The unitarity argument is only valid if mH < 1 TeV
Physics 506A
18 - Higgs boson
Page 1
Unitarity problem in W scattering

The W + W W + W cross section will diverge ( ) as s
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Higgs as a solution to the unitarity problem

We can resolve the W + W W + W cross section divergence with two additional diagrams
but only if mH < 1 TeV There is also a theoretical lower limit; if the mass is too small then the weak vacuum become unstable, however, experiment gives the current best lower limit.
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Higgs properties: decay width
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Higgs properties: branching ratios
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W boson mass dependence on Higgs mass

The mass of the W boson is sensitive to higher-order corrections that depend on the Higgs mass
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Top quark, W-boson, Higgs dependence

The measurement of mW and mtop can be used to place limits on the allowed values of mH
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Top quark, W-boson mass measurements

Top-Quark Mass [GeV]
CDF D Average 173.0 1.2 174.2 1.7 173.3 1.10
2/DoF: 6.1 / 10
W-Boson Mass [GeV]

TEVATRON LEP2 Average NuTeV LEP1/SLD LEP1/SLD/mt
80
July 2010
80.420 0.031 80.376 0.033 80.399 0.023

2/DoF: 0.9 / 1
LEP1/SLD LEP1/SLD/mW/W
160 170 180 190
172.6 179.2
+ 13.3 10.2 + 11.5 8.5
80.136 0.084 80.363 0.032 80.365 0.020

80.2 80.4 80.6
July 2010
mt [GeV]
mW [GeV]
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SM prediction for Higgs mass

The yellow regions are excluded by direct experimental searches. The blude band is the theoretical prediction using the top quark and W results.
July 2010
6 5 4
mLimit = 158 GeV
Theory uncertainty
(5) = had
0.027580.00035 0.027490.00012 incl. low Q2 data
3 2 1 0 Excluded 30
Preliminary
100
300
mH [GeV]
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Direct measurement at LEP
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Cross section at hadron collider
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Higgs production
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Direct measurement at Tevatron
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Discovery potential at the LHC
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Impact of LHC running at 7 TeV
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ATLAS 2010 Higgs limits
The Higgs boson mass ranges from 146 GeV to 230 GeV, 256 GeV to 282 GeV and 296 GeV to 459 GeV are excluded at the 95% CL
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Neutrinos
spin
1 2
paticle with no electric charge and weakly interacting
e discovered in 1953, in 1962 and in the 1990s neutrino physics is very topical solar neutrino problem, neutrino mixing, neutrino masses T2K project
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e discovery
e discovered by Reines and Cowan in 1953 at Hanford (Noble Prize in 1995) The Water + CdCl detector was situated near a nuclear reactor Neutrino produces neutron from interaction with proton Neutron wanders around and is captured by Cadmium (Cd ) Cd decays to ground state by photon emission
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discovery
Lederman, Swartz, Steinbeger discovered at BNL AGS (Nobel Prize 1988) 15 GeV protons product pion beams which then decay e Electrons are ranged out leaving a neutrino beam Neutrinos are scattered off detector, if electron emerges than neutrinos is e and muon emerges then it is
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discovery
Discovery of lepton in e+ e e+ X requires a otherwise lepton number is violated
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Only 3 light neutrinos

The Z 0 f f is allowed for any fermion with mf < 1 mZ . The decay rate of the 2 0 is dependent on the number of fermions (including neutrinos). Z
Searches for a fourth-generation (massive) lepton result in limits of > 100 GeV.
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Do Neutrinos Have Mass?

As far as direct measurements go: Flavor e Mass Limit m < 3 eV m < 190 keV m < 18.2 MeV
3H
Process 3 He + e + e + 3 +
Theoretically, the Standard Model assumes that neutrinos are precisely massless. There is no fundamental reason (e.g., a symmetry) why m = 0.
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e mass measurement
e mass is measured at the endpoint of the electron energy spectrum
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mass measurement
The mass is measured from pion decay data + + For a pion at rest m2 = m2 + m2 q 2m p|2 + m2
We use the know pion and muon masses m = 139.56995 0.000035 MeV m = 105.658389 0.0000034 MeV
Along with the pion momentum p = 29.79207 0.00012 MeV
This gives an upper limit of m < 0.16 MeV

Physics 506A 19 - Neutrinos Page 8
mass measurement
LEP experiments measured the limit on the mass using 3 2 + decays. M ( ) < 18 MeV
E5 [GeV]
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
m = 0 MeV m = 100 MeV 5+/- Monte Carlo

1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
m5 [GeV]
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Majorana Neutrinos
One of the most important open questions in neutrino physics is the question of whether neutrinos are Majorana or Dirac particles. Dirac neutrinos: particles are distinct from their anti-particles. Majorana neutrinos: particles are identical to their anti-particles Attempts to detect the Majorana nature of neutrinos focus around the double beta decay process (A, Z) (A, Z + 2) + 2e + 2e If neutrinos are Majorana particles, the anti-neutrino emitted by one of the neutrons can be absorbed as a neutrino by the other. The resulting process, in which no neutrinos are emitted, is neutrinoless double beta decay (A, Z) (A, Z + 2) + 2e
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Double Decay
The electron energy spectrum from is continuous whereas the 0 spectrum looks like a 2-body decay
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SNO+ Experiment
The original SNO experiment is not being modied for double beta decay experiments The heavy water is being replaced by liquid scintillator plus a radioative source 150 Nd which has been observed to decay via with a lifetime of 9.7 1018 years
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Solar Neutrino Problem

In 1967, Ray Davis put 100,000 gallons of dry-cleaning uid in a tank a mile underground to try to measure the solar neutrino ux. The measured ux (inferred from 1 Cl to Ar conversion every 2 days) was about a factor of 3 below the theoretical expectations from the Standard Solar Model. Similar neutrino decits were later observed for the atmospheric neutrinos generated by cosmic rays. Bth experiment and theory turned out to be right and these effects are now understood as neutrino oscillation effects.
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Detecting neutrinos
Experiments need to be large as the rates are low deep to reduce the cosmic ray background clean to eliminate the radioactive backgrounds Water Cerenkov detectors are a common choice (eg. Super-K)
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Super-Kamiokande
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Neutrino Mixing
If neutrinos have mass, then we must now allow a mixing between the weak eigenstates and the mass eigenstates. (Just as we have done for the quarks ) The neutrino analogue of the CKM matrix is the Maki-Nakagawa-Sakata (MNS) matrix. Like the CKM matrix, the MNS matrix can be parametrized in terms of 3 mixing angles and 1 CP-violating complex phase. We label the neutrino mass eigenstates as 1 , 2 , and 3 .
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Neutrino Oscillations: 2 Flavor Model

Neutrinos are always produced as weak eigenstates. Suppose that at t = 0 we produce an electron neutrino: |(0) = |e
Neutrinos propagate as mass eigenstates. In a 2-neutrino model, the weak and the mass eigenstates are related by 0 1 0 1 10 cos sin @ e A=@ A@ 1 A 2 sin cos
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Neutrino Oscillations
In terms of the mass eigenstates, our original e is |(0) = cos |1 + sin |2
The two mass eigenstates pick up different phases as they propagate, so that |(t) = eiE1 t cos |1 + eiE2 t sin |2
Going back to avor eigenstates, this is |(t) = eiE1 t cos (cos |e sin | )
+ eiE2 t sin (sin |e + cos | )
The probability of an oscillation from e to is then 2 2 iE1 t iE2 t +e Posc (t) = | |(t) | = sin cos e
Physics 506A 19 - Neutrinos Page 24
Neutrino Oscillations: Posc

Posc (t) = = = 2 iE1 t iE2 t +e sin cos e h i 2 i(E2 E1 )t i(E2 E1 )t 1 +e sin 2 2 e 4
1 2
sin2 2 [1 cos(E2 E1 )t]
With E = m2 /2p and E pc & L tc L t p E
We get Posc (t) = = ` 2 sin 2 1 cos m L/2E 1.27 m2 (eV2 ) L (km) sin2 2 sin2 E (GeV)
1 2 2
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Neutrino Oscillations
Posc (t) = sin2 2 sin2 1.27 m2 (eV2 ) L (km) E (GeV)
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Observing Neutrino Oscillations

The oscillation probabilities depend on , m2 , L, and E. We can either look for the appearance of a different neutrino avor (usually limited by background) or we can measure the disappearance of the expected avor (limited by calibration of source and target). Source Solar Atmospheric Reactor Accelerator Types e e , e , , e , Mode Disappearance Disappearance Disappearance Either Advantage Great distance Variable distance Low energy Control E and L
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Neutrino oscillation experiments

Natural neutrino sources Solar sources: Homestake, SAGE+NO, SuperK, SNO, Borexino Atmospheric neutrinos: SuperK Articial neutrino sources Reactor neutrinos: Chooz (1 km), KamLAND (180 km) Long-baseline accelerator experiments: K2K (250 km), MINOS (735 km)
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Neutrino mixing matrix
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Solar neutrino results
sin2 12 = 0.304+0.022 0.016

Physics 506A 19 - Neutrinos
m2 = 7.65+0.23 105 eV 2 21 0.20

Page 30
Atmospheric neutrino results
sin2 23 = 0.50+0.07 0.06

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m2 = 2.40+0.12 103 eV 2 31 0.11

19 - Neutrinos Page 31
Bound on 13
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Current Status
+0.022 sin2 12 = 0.3040.016 +0.07 sin2 23 = 0.500.06 +0.23 m2 = 7.650.20 105 eV 2 21 +0.12 m2 = 2.400.11 103 eV 2 31
sin2 13 < 0.35 (90% CL)
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T2k Experiment
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T2k Experiment
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QED and Particle Physics.

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QED and Particle Physics.

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PHYS 506A Particle Physics I

Grading: 50% Assignments 50% Final exam

The Standard Model

Matter is made up of fermions (spin 0 @ 0 @ u d 10 A@ 10 A@ c s

The Electromagnetic Force

Example: e+ e scattering (Bhabha)

The Strong Force

... and so do gluons! g g g

The Weak Force

Example: e+ e scattering (Bhabha)

There are also interactions between the weak force carriers W+ W Y

Composition of the universe

SUSY may yield the dark matter candidate.

Application: Cosmic Ray Muons

Four-Vectors and Tensors

Energy, Momentum, and Mass

Conserved vs. Invariant quantities

Fixed Targets vs. Colliding Beams

2 With 2Em = 4ECM we nd that E = 105 GeV!

Fixed Targets vs. Colliding Beams III

Asymmetric beams for B physics

We dene a scattering angle in terms of the direction of 3 with respect to 1.

then,U U = 1, or in other words U = U 1 (unitary matrix).

Basic Group Theory

Spin 1/2 - Spinor Notation

Pauli matrices are 1 0 0 1 A 1 = @ 1 0

Fermions vs. Bosons

Two particle systems I

Two particle systems II

Angular Momentum Addition

Angular momemtum of a qq state

The strong force is invariant under rotations in this isospin space.

++ = | 3/2 3/2 0 = | 3/2 1/2

+ = | 3/2 1/2 = | 3/2 3/2

Cross section (mb)

p elastic Plab GeV/c

Cross section (mb)

If only I=3/2 component contributes then, ( + p) : ( p) = 3 : 1

Parity in Physical Systems

Parity in the Standard Model

Parity Violation in Decay

CP Violation in the Kaon Sector I

CP Violation in the Kaon Sector II

CP Violation in the Kaon Sector III

Experimentally we observe KS KL = 0.9 1010 s = 0.5 107 s

0 0 However, we nd about 1 KL + in 440 KL decays

Other Tests of CP Violation

Why study CP violation?

Composition of the universe

Theory predicts AQ = (3.3 0.1) 103

Time Reversal Symmetry

Lifetime of an Unstable Particle

The decay rate determines the (mean) lifetime of the particle: = 1

1000 800 600

no. decays / 0.05 cm

decay length (cm)

OLYA DM124 DM218

e+ e + cross section as a function of the e+ e centre-of-mass energy

(770) resonance = 151 MeV = h/ = 4 1024 seconds

Events / 0.002 GeV/c2)

Luminosity Example - LEP

Hence L = 102 nb1 s1 and NZ per second is = L = 0.3 s1

Hard sphere scattering