1 Atomic Structure Light/Electron Properties Quantisation of Energy: behaviour of light as a particle. 1eV = 1.6 x 10 -19 J, m=9.

11E-31kg

f=c/(, E=hf; h = Plancks constant = 6.626(1034Js,

KE = 1/2mvmax=hf-(; (=work, p=h/(, p=mv, E=p2/(2m). Wavelength of a particle=> (=h/ (mv). P(x)dx=(2(x)dx. hf=E1-E2 (transition) Photon carries momentum p=h/ and energy of each photon has energy of E=hf. Line spectra implies quantisation. De Broglie hypothesis - = h/p. Electron diffraction and interference: Electrons have wave properties and should produce standing waves. Electrons described by wave function. In any unit volume, there is either one photon or none. Photoelectric effect is energy photons > the work function. 2 Schrodinger Equation Define P(x) as probability density. Wave particle duality: All carriers of energy and momentum, such as light and electrons propagate like a wave and exchange energy like a particle. Atomic transition: Over 100 elements, each characterised by Z (no. protons), Z atomic no. Nucleus protons and neutrons nearly all of mass, Radius of nucleus = 10^-15m, Distance between nucleus and electrons gives size of atoms = .01nm, Chemical and physical properties determined by no. and arrangement of electrons, Total +ve charge of nucleu = +Ze, Electrons are identical particles, Pauli exclusion principle No two electrons in an atom can have the same quantum no. n(principal q no) n = 1,2,3 where each integer represents the number of the electron shell that the electron is found in. l(orbital q no.) l = 0(s), 1(p), 2(d), 3(f).n-1. Where each letter corresponds to the subshell the electron is found in. m(l) (magnetic q no.) = -l, -l+1, ..0, ..l m(s) may also be considered as a q number, being either + or and representing the spin direction (either up or down) of the electron. Example Mg 12 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 Balmers 1/=R(1/nf2-1/ni2), n=energy state. 3 Atomic Bonding in Solids

Electronegativity (a)greater the difference, less likely. 4. Other factors equ. (b) metals dissolve metals with higher valencies. Dipole moment p=ero e=1.6 x 10 -19 J, ro= equili sepera degree of bonding R=pmeasured/pionic. 5 Stiffness of Materials. Low modulus = floppy, High modulus = Stiff.

Stress:- Tensile Stress => =F/A, Shear Stress = =F/A.

Strain( ):=L/L o. Strain is elastic if the object returns to its original size. Hookes Law:- =E [E is the modulus of elasticity, in simple tension this constant is Youngs modulus]. E = / E=S/ro [S=Stiffness of interatomic bonds, ro=interatomic separation]. Bond Stiffness and Elastic Modulus Order (Decreasing) Covalent>Metallic>Ionic>Hydrogen>Van der Walls. Deflection:- =FL3/(3EI) [ =deflection, F=Force, L=Length, E=Elastic Modulus, I=wt3/12 for a rectangle (second moment of area)] Composites:- Ec=EfVf+Em(1-Vf )[Vf , Vm = %Fibre, Em,Ef = modulus] c= cVf+ m(1-Vf) =density. 6 Crystal Structures Face-Centred Cubic, a=22R. R = radius of the atom. a.p.f=(Volume of atoms in a unit cell)/(total unit cell volume)(Al,Cu, Ag, Gold, Pb). a.p.f=0.74. coord # = 12. Body Centred Cubic, a=4R/3, Co-ordination number = 8. apf = 0.68 Hexagonal Close-Packed c/a=12, a.p.f=0.74, coord no.=12. Crystalline: atoms situated in a repeating pattern. Atomic packing factor : no atoms x 4/3*r3 Volume of cell 7 Crystal Structure 2 Density Computations. =nA/VCNA, n=no. atoms/unit cell, A=Atomic weight, VC= Volume of unit cell, NA=Avogadros No. [6.022 1023ato/mo]. Crystal Systems 1. Cubic a=b=c, = = =90 2. Tetragonal a=b c, = = =90 3. Orthorhombic a b c, = = =120 4. Hexagonal a=b c, = =90, =120 5. Rhombohedral (Trigonal) a=b=c, = = 90 6. Monoclinic a b c, = =90 7. Triclinic a b c, . Crystallographic Direction and Planes Negative is denoted by a bar over the number. h,k,l = [hkl] Intercepts = (a,b,c) Anisotropy is the directional dependence of some physical properties. Polymorphism: having more than one crystal structure. Allotropy: Polymorphism in elemental form. Single Crystal: Periodic and repeated structure that is perfect and extends throughout entire specimen. Anisotropic: Physical properties depend on crystallographic direction. [ ] indicates direction, ( ) indicates plane,{} indicates family of planes that have same atomic packaging. No of vacancies(Nv) = NAe^(-Qv/kT), NA= Total atomic sites, Qv=energy required for break away, k= Boltzmans constant( 1.38 x10-23J/K) T=temperature. e^ = Exponential. 8 Crystal Defects. Polycrystalline Materials collection of small crystals/grains. There is grain boundary atomic mismatch where meet. Braggs Law. 2d(h,k,l)Sin (h,k,l)= Vacancy: normally occupied atomic space left vacant. Self-interstitial: atom in a normally unoccupied space. Vacancies(see above equ) and Self Interstitials. A self-interstitial is an atom from the crystal that normally occupies a normally unoccupied position.

Substitutional: impurity atoms replace host atoms. Interstitial: impurity atoms fill voids. Degree of solid substitutional solubility depends on 1. Solid Solutions features determine degree of dissolving 1. Atomic size factor atom radii 15%different good substitution. 2. Crystal Structure must be the same for each. 3. Electronegativity less difference in electo(+) and electro(-) more likely substitutional solid. 4.Valencies a metal will likely dissolve another metal of higher valence than lower. Specification of Composition.

Weight percent = c1 = m1/m1+m2 100. m=mass

FT=FA+FR ET=EA+ER. A=attract R=repulsi Valance electrons are those occupying outermost filled shell which participate in bonding to form molecular aggregates. They are the basis of many physical and chemical properties. Electro-negativity increases from left to right and from bottom to top. Attractive force on atoms depends on particular type of bonding. At equilibrium spacing ro, E is min. and is known as the bonding energy. Solids BE is big, Gases BE is small. Ionic Bonds: Metallic elements give up valance electrons to non-metallic elements to acquire stable config. Bonding Forces are coulombic attract by charge. Is non-directional magnitude of the bond is equal in all directions around an ion. BE range 600 1500kJ/mol, relatively large, high MPs. Ceramics are usually IB and bonding is brittle, hard electrically and thermally insulative. Covalent bonds stable confg. By sharing electrons. Directional. For N valance elect., atom can have 8 N c.Bonds. They may be strong or weak. Caused by Quantum mechanical effect. Metallic bonding: Metals have 1,2 or 3 Valance electrons which are not bound to any particular atom are free to drift around entire material. Atomic nuclei and non-valance electrons form ion cores. Mutual repulsion of cores is shield by v.elect. which holds them together. Non-directional. Can be weak or strong, Mps vary. Good Electrical and thermal conductivity. MP is Fn of interatomic bonding. Stiffness is Fn of F vs r curve. Magnitude of thermal expansion depends on shape of E vs r curve. Youngs mod. Decreases with type of bonding in order of covalent>metallic>ionic>hydrogen>van der Waals. Solid solution: Homogeneous crystalline phase that contains two or more chemical species (alloy). Atomic size factor (a) difference must be < 15% (b)Crystal structure (c) must be same.

Atom(%) = c1 = nm1/(nm1+nm2) 100, Where nm1= m1/A1.(No moles one ele/total no moles) Composite conversions. c1=c1A2/(c1A2+c2A1), c1=c1A1/(c1A1+c2A2), c1=c1/(c1/ 1+c2/ 2) 1000, AVE=100/ (c1/ 1+c2/ 2), AVE=(c1A1+c2A2)/ (c1A1/ 1+c2A2/ 2) =100/(c1/A1+c2/A2) = (c1A1+c2A2)/100. Where A1= Atomic weight, c1 = weight % c1=mass/unit volume, = density, c1=atom % Dislocations. a)Edge Dislocation.(on edge) b)Screw Dislocation. (shear stress) c) Mixed dislocation. (both of above) d)Plastic Deformation. (motion of large numbers of dislocations) stress prop to strain. Dislocation Density = total dislocation length per unit volume. Slip Plane and Slip direction Slip System. Slip in single crystals Process by which plastic deformation is produced is known as slip. Slip plane: plane with highest planer density by which dislocation occurs. Slip direction: direction of dislocation movement, with highest linear density. Slip system: comb. Of above. Planer density = A atoms in plane/A of plane in cell. Linear density = Length of atoms in direction/Length of direction in cell. N.B. Only count atoms if the centre intersects R= Cos Cos , R=Resolved Shear Stress, = CRSS/(cos cos )MAX, CRS=critical resolved shear stress. Minimum stress yielding, when = =45 y=2 CRSS. 9 Mechanical Properties of Metals Slip is the result of movement of line defects called dislocation. Metals deform by slip result sin plastic or permanent deformation. Stress/Strain Curve Elastic region where stress is proportional Hookes Law is obeyed and the slope of the stress-strain curve ( / ) is is equal to Youngs modulus. No permanent deformation. Yielding onset of plastic deformation, where the strain does not recover on unloading. First point of departure from truly elastic behaviour. Yield Strength stress at which yielding or plastic deformation begins used for stress-strain curves that show a sharp transitionfrom elastic to plastic. Proof Stregth stress after a measurable amount of plastic deformation e.g. 0.1% proof stress. Used for materials that show a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behaviour. Work Hardening region of plastic deformation where the metal gets harder (i.e. stronger) with increasing strain. Tensile Strength Also call Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) Maximum engineering stress (max. applied load) achieved during test. Coincide with transition from uniform to nonuniform deformation. Total Elongation to Failure nominal strain to failure, after correcting for any elastic component of the strain. Also known as tensile ductility. Fracture Stress the load at fracture divided by the cross-sectional area.

Necking Uniform deformation, begins at UTS, leads to formation of neck or waist. Since stress is greater in this region of reduced cross-sectional area, deformation is concentrated at the neck, deformation process becomes unstable (plastic instability) rapidly leads to failure. During necking engineering stress decreases (load/orig. area) but true stress increases (load/actual area).

Eng. Stress - =F/Ao, Eng Strain - =L/L o, True Stress T=F/A, True Strain T=ln(LF/Lo), Tot. Elongation to Failure - F=(LF-Lo)/Lo, Tot. Reduction in Area = (Ao-AF)/Ao. Hardness Ability to resist deformation by surface abrasion. Toughness A measure of the amount of energy absorbed by a material as it fractures. Indicated by the area under stress/strain curve. Strength Max. stress before failure. Fracture Stress = True Stress at fracture( T) = load at fracture/AFracture Stress is a result of applied load. Strength property of the material. Indication of how well the material can withstand stress. Ductility (opposite is brittle) is a measure of how much the material deforms before fracture and is given by the total elongation to failure ( T) or the total reduction in area. Ductile materials often have low strengths. Toughness measure of work done in fracturing specimen area under stress-strain curve depends on both tot. elong. till failure and strength of material. F(A)> F(B). A is more ductile than B. Area under A>B A is tougher than B. Polycrystalline Materials. Stronger different orientations of adjoining grains to make it difficult to transmit slip from one grain to another. Fatigue failure of material under conditions of fluctuating load. Fatigue failure prevention: 1) Lowering applied stress. 2) Eliminating stress conditions, including polishing the surface. 3) Hardening the surface carburising, nitriding 4) Changing from a non-ferrous alloy to a ferrous alloy. 5) Rigorous quality control via non-destructive testing for flaws. 6) Providing component redundancy. Creep time dependant plastic strain of a material under load at high temperatures. (above 0.4TM). Creep deformation of polycrystalline materials involves the sliding of grains past each other and the formation of voids (holes) at grain boundaries. Primary just after instantaneous deformation occurs. Secondary Constant rate. Steady creep state. End of secondary, grain boundary sliding begins and void formation accelerating rate of deformation in tertiary stage and failure (creep rupture). Creep Resistant Material requires a) High melting point. b) Stability at high temps. c) High strength at temp. d) No grain boundaries. Eg Jet engine blades nickel based alloy 10 Fracture and Failure Fracture Two types Ductile and Brittle. Brittle Fracture rapid growth of pre-existing crack or flaws. Depends on 1) applied stress ( ) 2) crack size (a) 3) energy (GC) required to produce unit area of crack . GC is a material property strain release rate (J/m^2) and is called toughness of the material. Energy required to grow the crack = GCt a a=increase in crack, t=material thickness Strain released GC=( 2/E) a. Critical combination of applied stress ( ) and crack size (a) at which unstable fast fracture occurs. Fracture toughness of material KC=(GCE) or KC= ( a) is a property of the material. Depends on the mode of crack opening. mode (I)

tension, mode (II) sliding or shear, mode (III) tearing. Preventing Brittle Fracture composites and transformation. Composite fibre-reinforced (factor of 100), Transformation toughening (factor of 6). 11 Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals prevent dislocations from moving. b=Burgers vector(b). (displacement) Dislocation density - =m/V , m=mass, V= volum Grain Size Hardening (Hall Patch Equ. GS= A- o=k/d, d=grain diameter. k=Bolt(1.38 x 1023J/K) Obstacle Strengthening. = (b sin )/L, = shear modulus FOBST>=2T (ub^2) Ororwan condition Work Hardening - WH= b , = shear modulus, = const., in work hardening the obstacles to dislocation movement are other dislocations. Solid Solution Hardening M=mismatch=strain caused by solute SS= f( M)c, degree of mism. -( M) i.e.FOBST=f( M). Best when trap large mismatch in a mat. at conc. much higher than normal. Precipitaion Hardening particles of a second phase are made to precipitate in a matrix and provide a series of obstacles to disloc. movement. Precip. Harden. = P=f(Vf,S,FOBST) or P = A - O Dispersion Hardening Orowan Hardening when particles are impenetrable obstacles =b/L, upper limit of hardening from precipitate particles. 12 Ceramics Range from ionic to covalent depending on elements Ceramics inorganic, non-metallic materials. Usually compounds of 2 or more elements. Tetrahedron co-ord no.=4 and rC/rA=0.225-.414, Octahedron co-ord no.=6 and rC/rA=.414-.732, Cube co-ord no.=8 and rC/rA=.732-1. rC=radius cations, rA =radius anions, co numbe= no anions around 1 cation. Carbon Graphite Layer structure, in layer each carbon is bonded to 3 others, in between layers are delocalised electrons. Diamond All covalently bonded. Fullerenes Buckyballs. (recently discovered carbon) Properties of Ceramics High Melting point Low electrical and thermal conductivity High elastic modulus combined with low density High compressive but low tensile strength and fracture toughness Chemically inert Usually inexpensive and easy to fabricate Mechanical Properties High elastic moduli Not ductile, extremely difficult to deform Very brittle in tension essentially zero ductility Low fracture toughness Conductivity Low no mobile charges carriers. Can conduct heat Thermal Stresses and Thermal Shock resistance Thermal expansion caused by increased potential energy due to vibration of atoms. Materials with very strong interatomic bonds will have lower thermal expansion coefficients than materials with weaker interatomic bonds. Thermal stresses come from restrained thermal expansion or contraction: L= TL, = T, =E T, T=temperature, =coeff of expansion Ability to resist shock Thermal Shock Resistance (TSR) TSR ( Fk)/(E ), F=fracture strength, k=thermal conductivity, E=elastic modulus, =coeff. of expansion. is easiest to control.

13 Materials Processing Metals (easy to process) wrought cast machined powder processed welded brazed soldered mechanically joined (bolting, riveting) Polymers (average to process) extruded moulded glued mechanically fastened welded Ceramic(very hard to proce) powder processing 14 Conductivity V = IR Resistivity = RA/ l = (VA)/(I l) Conductivity = 1/ =V/ l =IR/ l =I /A=Electric Field. J= =Current density V=voltage, A=cross area, l = length, I=current I = Q/T Conductors - =10^7, Semiconductors =10^610^4, Insulators 10^-10 10^-20. Net electron motion.

Drift velocity VD=e , where, e=electron mobility. Conductivity =n| e| e, n=no. conducting electrons/unit vol., e=1.6 10^-19C. Matthiessens Rule TOT= T+ I+ D T=Atomic Thermal Vibration, I=Impurity Atoms Presence, D =Plastic Deformation Effects. T= o+at, linear relationship with temp, constants for each metal.(1/A) (Q/T)=q=k(T/dx), k=thermal conductivity, T/dx=temp. grad., kTOT=kLATT+kELEC, Lattice vibrations + electrons. Band with highest energy electrons is valence band. Band above is conduction band. 15 Band Structure Fermi Energy Energy in highest filled at zero Kelvin. =n| e| e+p| e| n, n=p, =n| e| (e+n). Intrinsic Pure, Extrinsic Doped. =n| e| e n-type, =n| e| n p-type. p=no hole/unit volu, n= no free electrons. n=hole/electron mobility Band Gaps regions of forbidden energy Valence Band contains highest energy electrons Conduction Band next highest energy band Semiconductors Silicon, germanium 16 Van der Waals Bonding Bonding and Atomic Force Microscope. Electrical Dipole: ETOT=kq[4ra/(r^2-a^2)^2] y. a=dista to charge, q=charge, r=radius to p, k= boltzmans. For r>>>a fields almost cancel. E=1/r^3. =qL Potnetial energy. U(r)= 4 [( /r)^12-( /r)^6], Force between atomes = -du/dr. AFM fo=(k/mo)/(2 ) resonance frequency. F=-kd. detect the deflection with atomic resolution, d= displacement 17 Diffusion NV=NAe[-QV/kT],(see 7 for expl) At T=TM NV/NA=10^-3 10^-4, At T=0.5TM, NV/NA<10^6. Ficks First Law of Diffusion J= -D x dC/dx, where dC/dx=concentration gradient, J=flux of atoms moving across unit area, D=diffusion coeff. From high conc. to low conc. Distance x=(Dt) Mechanisms of Diffusion Substitution diffuse by changing place with a vacancy dependent on no. of vacancies. Interstitial interstitial atoms just squeeze in between larger atoms much faster than substitution. Both require energy. Supplied by heat increased thermal vibrations of atoms at elevated temps.

D=DOe[ -QD/(kT)], D=diffusion co-eff, DO=temp. indep. const., QD=activation energy for diffusion, smaller the QD, faster the rate of diffusion. Non-Steady State Diffusion Ficks Second Law C/t=D^2C/x^2, (CS-CX)/(CS-CO) = e[x/2(Dt)], CS=constant surface conc., e[x/2(Dt)]=Gaussian error func., When CX=constant and CO=0 then x/2(Dt) = const. Conductivity increases with temp. Solid Electrolyte ionically conductive ceramics. Devices from oxygen ions moving from high pressure to low pressure EMF is induced. E=((RT)/ (4F))ln(PO2(H)/PO2(L)), R,T and F Faraday constant. Outside hot and inside cold compressive stresses on outside and tensile on inside. Ceramics more susceptible on cooling. 18 Polymers Polymers consist of long covalently bonded molecules. Homopolymer has only one type of monomer, copolymer has 2 or more different mer units (improved properties). C-C bond angle usually 109.5. Different types of copolymers: random copolymers, alternating copolymers, block copolymers, graft copolymers. Linear polymers consist of mer units joined together long flexible chains. Weak VDW forces between chains. Branched Polymers reduces packing efficiency lowers density. Cross-Linked Adjacent chains joined by covalent bonds. Made by synthesis and high temp. chem.. react. Networked Polymers - 3 covalent bonds, 3-D Networks Crystalline Polymers Regular pattern, 3-D, unit cells quite complex. Linear chains more likely crystalline as easier to pack. Increased strength and heat resistance. Mechanical Properties Dissimilar to metals lower elastic modulus high ductility more sensitive to temperature and strain rate 3 different types of stress-strain. Brittle deforms elastically right up to fracture. Plastic elastic, then yielding, plastic deform, fracture. Elastomers properties from untwisted, straightened molecular chains. Must be: amorphous polymer molecular chain coiled and kinked in unstressed state coiled chains can readily straighten out under low stresses by cross-links prevent chain sliding past each other. Semicrystalline Under Stress chains align themselves in the direction of the tensile stress producing a highly orientated structure Necking Necking in polymers - stronger at neck, everything else deforms. Necking in metals only deforms at the neck. Glass Transition High temp. mol. chain of amorphous polymer vibrate so much they can rotate and translate relative to each other. Lower temps. (<TG) this motion slows down, eventually ceases polymer more rigid and brittle. rigidity= cross-linkingglass transition temp. Rigid polymers used <TG. Elastomers used >TG. note: fully crystalline are rigid anyway effect of glass transition small. Factors affecting Mechanical Behaviour of Polymers: Molecular weight small influence however mol. weight tensile strength. Degree of Crystallinity significant through intermolecular secondary bonding, in such regions extensive secondary bonding between chains E and tensile strength and rigidity.

onset of plastic deformation delayed achieved

Tensile Preformation produces orientated structure stronger than original. strength and E along direction of drawing perpendicular to the direction. Heat Treating (Annealing) modifies crystallite size and perfection. Thermosetting become permanently hard on heating formation of covalent cross-links. Excessive heating severs cross-inks. Thermoplastic increase in temp. to point where primary covalent bonds are broken. Viscoelasticity Amorphous Polymer, Low temp like glass, Middle temp (>TG) rubbery solid, High temp viscous liquid = d /dt, =viscosity, d /dt=strain rate. When stress first applied. Creep continuing deformation with time under const. stress. EC(t)= O/ t, O=intit. stress. Stress Relaxation falling stress at constant displacement. ER(t)= t/ O, O= init. strain., ER, drops with increasing temp. in glassy region (10^3,10^4), in leathery region (1-10^2), in rubbery region (10^-2) near TM. 19 Corrosion and degradation of Materials. Electrochemical corrosion occurs in aqueous solutions and moist environments. Oxidation is anodic and reduction is cathodic. Reactivity of Metals Metals with positive electrode potential cathodic resists ionisation. (Cu, Ag, Au and Pt). Negative electrode potential opposite. (Fe, Zn, Al, Mg, Na, K). Galvanic series (EMF series). Top of series cathodic and inert Bottom of series anodic and reactive Contact of dissimilar metals more anodic oxidises therefore corrodes sacrificial anode Corrosion rates increase in conductivity of moisture film increase in corrosion. Forms of corrosion Uniform Corrosion constant Galvanic Corrosion contact of dissimilar metals and electrolyte Crevice corrosion difference in concentration of ions in crevices (screws etc.) Pitting Corrosion occurs at scratches Intergranular Corrosion occurs preferentially along grain boundaries Selective Leaching preferential removal of one constituent in an alloy Erosion Corrosion wear leads to increase in corrosion Stress Corrosion under stress and corrosive atmosphere cracking and eventual failure. Corrosion Prevention

Scission thermal degradation. 20 Light Electromagnetic Waves c=1/((O O)), O=permeability of free space, O=permittivity, O=8.85418 10^(-12)F/M, =4pi 10^(-7)H/M.c = speed of light (3 x 108) E is perpendicular to B which is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. E=cB. Energy the average power/unit area (intensity) incident on a surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Radiation Pressure(Pr) = momentum/(unit time * unit area). I ~/ Amplitude/^2. Pr = I/c. For fixed spaced E = Eo sin ( t+ [phase factor]), f=1/T. f=c, c=w/k. =2f Defining k = 2 f/c, E=Eo [amplitude] sin (kx t + [phase factor]), x=dist. at start. At a fixed point in time: t = 0, = 0 => E = Eo sin kx, [period] = 2 = k x => x= =2 /k At a fixed point in space: x = 0, E = Eo sin t, [period] = 2 = t => T = 2 / = 2 /2 f = 1/f As write = 2 f = 2 fc/c = kc, c = /T = f = /k. Speed of light in a given medium: c(medium) = 1/(( )), n [absolute index of refraction] = c/c(medium) = sqrt( /sqrt( o o))=sqrt(Ke), f (material)=c(material)=co/n => co/fn = /n., n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2. (Snells Law) Refraction For normal incidence - I[intensity reflected] = (((n1-n2)/(n1+n2))^2) * Io, Total internal reflection sin (crictical) = n2/n1. 21 Optics Superposition of Waves Given two waves E1=Eo1 [amplitude] sin (kx1 t + 1[phase factor-let=0]) and E2=Eo2 [amplitude] sin (kx2 - t + [phase factorlet=0]), Total irradiance: E^2 = Eo1^2 + Eo2^2 + 2Eo1Eo2 cos (kx1-kx2). When k(x1-x2) = 0 => maximum intensity => constructive interference. Method of Achieving Interference division o f wavefront and division of amplitude. Division of Wavefront k(x1-x2)=k*d[distance between slits] sin [angle between ray leaving slit and normal to slit]. For max. at P. [point on a screen] waves must be in phase: kd sin = m [0,1 interference order] *2* => d sin = m . Min. occurs at d sin = (m + ) . m = 0,1,2,3,4. Tan = y [distance measured along the screen to the mth bright fringe]/L [length to screen]. For small angles, tan = sin , d sin = d tan = d*y/L = m . For max, y = m L/d, y(max) [distance between two consecutive max], [phase difference between two consecutive slits] = 2 d sin / , I(tot) [total intensity at P] = (I* sin^2(N[no. slits] /2))/sin^2( /2), Intensity max occur when = kd sin = m2 => d sin = m , Considering a slit to be equal to N light sources (with same amplitude at a distance from each other), diffraction phenomena can be treated as interference from N slits. Nd = a [slit width], a sin = m . Diffraction Diffraction due to circular aperture:sin = 1.22 /D [D=diameter of the opening], critical angle c = 1.22 /D. Interference by division of amplitude: The phase difference between two consecutive rays ( ) = 2nd cos 2 /2, max when = p = 2nd cos 2, min when (p + )* = 2nd cos 2. Antireflection coating The layer of suitable material deposited on glass d=thickness mater 2n1d=(p+1/2) d= /(4n1) 22 Fibre optics: Total Internal Reflection Sin C=nOUT/nFIBRE,

Passivation oxide film Coatings plastic, ceramics etc.

Sacrificial

Cathode protection changing potential.

Add EMF of establish galvanic couple (sacrificial) Degradation of Polymers (Not corrosion, not electrochemical ) Chemical Attack ruptures covalent bonds (scission) (Acids, O2, O3) Dissolution physical removal of polymer chain from polymer, doesnt change make-up. Higher molecular weight, more cross-linking and lower service temps reduce it. Swelling When solute diffuses into polymer and absorbed the smaller molecules force the chains apart swelling and decrease in secondary intermolecular bonding increase in ductility and decrease in TG. Decrease in Service temp increase in molecular weight, cross-linking and or crystallinity reduce it. Radiation radiation breaks bonds scission or local rearrangement (cross-linking). Stabilisers protect polymers from this. If no cross-linking however radiation can be good.

Resolving power (lines/mm) = 500/d( m), Information carrier potential => carrier freq./band width. n=refractive index f medium As Pulse propagates through the fibre it suffers both attenuation (loss of amplitude) and distortion (change in shape). Numerical aperture NA= n1*(1-sin^2 c [critical angle]) and must be < 1. Skip distance L [skip distance distance between multiple reflections] = d[diameter] cot [entrance angle] = d ((n1/n0 sin )^2 1). Max modes = *( *d*NA/ )^2. E[mod. of a polymer] = ((f [fraction covalent]/E1) + ((1-f)/E2))^-1. 23 Glass Important in Optics Composition, Structure and Mechanical properties silicates, SiO4 tetrahedral Tg above glass deforms by viscous flow, below it is brittle Coatings on glass to reduce energy loss Flat panel displays -

The type of process used to shape a material determines the final properties of the material This statement is (c) sometimes true A ballon bursts when there is a crack of critical size A coke can doesnt burst because the yield strength is higher then the internal pressure A composite material is tougher then either of the components if crack propagation under stress is limited A critical property that a design engineer always needs to consider in selecting an appropriate material is (d) all of the above stiffness, strength, cost A crystal point defect known as a self-interstitial occurs when an atom occupies a position in the crystal structure not normally occupied by an atom A dislocation is a line defect around which some atoms are misaligned A material with larger interatomic spacing has a small elastic modulus A polycrystalline material contains many crystals with different orientations A solid is said to be crystalline if its atomic positions have a repetitive pattern According to Bohr theory a hydrogen atom does not radiate when it is in a stationary state Aluminium window frames are produced by deep drawing? An Alloy is a mixture of a metal with other elements An electron microscope is welcome addition because shorter wavelength higher resolving power Because it is impossible to avoid fatigue the best way to minimize the probability that fatigue failure in passenger jet aircraft will lead to fatalities is to design them knowing that failure is likely to occur. Because the fracture strength of a ceramic in tension is usually much lower than the yield strength, the yield strength of a ceramic (b) is measured in compression Ceramics are brittle because the strong covalent bonds prevent the dislocations from moving Ceramics generally have lower coefficients of thermal expansion then metals do but are more susceptible to thermal shock because they also usually have (b) high modulus and low fracture strengths Corrosion is caused by a chemical reaction between the metal and its oxide Creep is the deformation of a material under constant stress at a relatively high temperature. Diamond is covalently and therefore is stiff Diffusion in a polycrystalline material is generally faster along a grain boundary than the interior because (b) concentration gradients are generally greater in the grain boundary Diffusion is the thermally assisted migration of atoms down a concentration gradient. Elastic deformation of a material is caused by stretching of the interatomic bonds Fatigue failure can be predicted when the loading conditions are known Fatigue only occurs under dynamic loading conditions Glass is often tempered thermally but can also be tempered chemically, where the network modifier (typically sodium, Na) in the outer surface is selectively replaced by ions which put the surface into compression. The most effective element to use would be (c) aluminium High strength materials are often required in applications where component weight is critical If a baseball, electron, and photon, have the same momentum, which has the longest wavelength all have the same wavelength In fibre reinforced composite materials, the modulus of the fibre is usually greater than that of the matrix. Thus for a given strain, the stress in the fibre is (d) greater than that in the matrix In hydrogen the kinetic energy of the electron in the state n=2 is Eo/4 In order to be readily cast, a metal should have (d) all the above a low melting point, a low viscosity, a small freezing range In the photoelectric effect the current is proportional to the intensity of the incident light In the photo-electric effect, the work function depends on the metal that the light strikes In which of the following applications is creep important (c) steam turbine Increasing the molecular weight of a polymer will (b) not effect the modulus Mechanical forming of metals and alloys is often carried out at elevated temperatures because metals and alloys are softer at higher temperatures Metals have a greater thermal shock resistance than ceramics because plastic deformation of metals is easier than it is in ceramics Most mechanisms which cause a n increase in strength also cause a decrease in ductility because dislocations control the strength and the ductility of metals Most strengthening mechanisms in metals and alloys will also make dislocation movement more difficult Necking occurs during the early stages of plastic deformation of semicrystalline polymers. Plasticisers are high molecular weight liquids such as dioctyl phthalate which are added to thermoplastics to increase their flexibility. They function by increasing the distance between adjacent chains, thereby reducing the effects of intermolecular forces and the tendency to crystallisation. Plasticisers generally: (b) decrease the glass transition temperature Polycrystalline metals are stronger than single crystals because dislocations cannot cross grain boundaries Polymers are characterised by having long molecular chains with a backbone of covalently bonded carbon atoms. Read the following statements carefully: I Diffusion generally results in the migration of a solvent down its concentration gradient II In general the diffusion rate is proportional to the magnitude of the concentration gradient (c) I and II Solid Solution Hardening occurs because The added foreign atoms impede dislocation movement. Some rubber components are vulcanised ( a non-reversible chemical reaction carried out at elevated temperatures in which 1-5% of sulphur is added to form cross links between adjacent polymer chains). Should vulcanisation be carried out (a) before the component is formed into its final shape? The atomic bonding in buckminster fullerine, C60 (carbon bucky balls) is (c) covalent The best way to prevent an external water storage tank from corroding is to: (b) use galvanic protection The best way to strengthen a metallic electrical conductor, such as copper or aluminium is to use (c) grain size hardening The charge carriers in solid electrolytes are usually (a) vacancies The elastic strain of a building is described by stress divided by the modulus The fracture toughness

Kc = a , where (a)

is the applied stress and a is the crack size

The metallic bond is based on the sharing of each valence electron by many atoms The most important feature of a creep resistant alloy is a high melting point The proof stress is (b) the stress to cause a specific amount of strain The reason fiberglass is brittle is there is no mechanism for plastic deformation The total no. of quantum states f hydrogen with quantum no. n=4 is - 16 The toughness of a material depends on the combination of the elongation to failure and the average stress. The toughness of a material depends on the combination of the total elongation to failure and the total fracture stress. The yield strength of a material is (b) the stress at the onset of plastic flow The yield stress of aluminium is not constant When the distance between two ions is very small - there is a strong quantum mechanical repulsion Which is most correct Only tensile stress can cause fatigue Which of the following statements is true: (d) in order to be readily cast, a metal should have a lower melting point and high viscosity Which of these materials has the highest stiffness? Rubber, copper, porcelain, steel Which range of dislocation density are typical for real metals at room temperature and 1 atm. 1014 to 1020 mm-2

Which statement is most correct? Fatigue can be prevented by dispersion hardening, the fatigue life of a component can be increased by avoiding sharp changes in section, steel will not fail by fatigue at stresses above the fatigue limit, only brittle materials can fail by fatigue. Which statement is most correct? Polycrystalline metals are stronger than single crystals because dislocations only occur at grain boundaries, increasing dislocation density makes a metal weaker, heating a material increases the dislocation density, dislocations are difficult to move in ceramics.