Terms for direction and orientation Cephalic/Anterior/Cranial (superior in human anatomy) -head end Caudal/Posterior (inferior in human anatomy)

-the tail end Dorsal(posterior in human anatomy) - the back or the upper side Ventral (anterior in human anatomy) - the under side or lower side -pertaining to the mouth or belly region in some animals Lateral - the sides (sinistral, the left side; dextral, the right side) Medial - middle or midline *usually uses to the limb part Proximal - closest to the center or to a major point of preference or to the point of the attachment) Distal- farthest from the central or from a major point of reference or from the point of attachment --------Peripheral - near the surface of the body or organ Central - near or at the middle of the body or organ Superficial or Ectal - on the outer surface of he body or organ Deep or Ental - inner or below the surface of the body or organ Preaxial - toward the inner or near the axis or median plane 3,3,3,3,2. Postaxial- away or far from the axis or median plane Axes - imaginary lines passing through a certain point of the body Longitudinal or anteroposterior axis - an imaginary lin along the median sagittal plane extending from head to tail. Sagittal or Dorsoventral axis - an imaginary line in the median sagittal plane extending from dorsal to ventral surfaces Transverse or Mediolateral axis - line at right angle to the longitudinal and sagittal axes extending from side to side of the body. Planes of section - imaginary surfaces dividing the body into different regions

Transverse plane - caudal(posterior) and cranial(Anterior) Frontal plane/coronal plane - Dorsal and Ventral - is a horizontal plane through the longitudinal axis dividing the body into dorsal and ventral portions - for a quadrupedal animal, this plane usually parallel to the ground(unless the side animal is lying on its side) Sagittal plane/Median Plane - vertical plane through the longitudinal axis dividing the body into the left and right portions - if it passs through the median plane it is caoled midsagittal plane - planes parallel with but lateral to this planes are reffered to parasagittal plane Symmetry - refers to the repetition of parts so that equal halves are produced by dividing alongna plane or axis A. Bilateal symmetry - only one plane can divide the body into equal and identical halves B. Radial symmetry - similar pats are arranged around a central axis - more than one median plame can divide the body into equal halves C. Asymmetrical - without symmetry - no plane can divide the body into equal or identical halves E.X. Snail The Frog as a Representative Animal 1. Fundamental structures and functions are more or less similar to that of man and to higher vertebrates. 2. Ease of manipulation 3. Inexpensive 4. Availability - in the philippines there are about 23 known species of frogs under the genus rana - rana vittigera is the common species of frog widely distributed throughout the philippines. - their natural habitats are the rice paddles, ponds, canals. And river banks. - usually found together with Rama vittigera is Rana moodlei - the largest frog, Rana magna, may be found along the banks of small mountain streams or rivers - Rana catesbeina - bullfrog (large frog in the philippines)

Classification of the frog Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Amphibia Order: Anura or Salienta Family: Ranidae -soft, non-poisonous, slimy skin. Genus: Rana - highly movable tongue which is attached anteriorly and deeply notched posteriorly; fingers are free while toes are webbed How to differentiate male and female frog 1. Male is smaller 2. With dark pigmented area Nuptial pod - grasping the female during amplexus Anatomy of a vertebrate Different tissues group to together forming organ to perform special function efficiently. Many organs integrate and firm functioning groups called organ systems The 10 organ systems and main functions are: 1. Integumentary S- for protection and body covering 2. Skeletal S. For support and framework of the body 3. Muscular S. For movement and locomotion 4. Digestive S. For converting insoluble food to soluble 5. Respiratory S. - for the exchange of gases. 6. Excretory S. For th elimination of nitrogenous wastes 7. Reproductive S. For the productiom of new individuals of same kind to perpetuate species 8. Nervous S. - for the reception of stimuli transmission of impulses and coordination of functions 9. Endocrune S. - concerned with the secretion of hormones for the regulation of the functions. Integumentary system Refers to the skin or integument, together with its derivatives The integument or skin is the outermost covering of the body Characteristics of frog skin: 1. Thin moist slippery always moist and loosely attatched to the underlyinh muscles. 2. With special thickenings:

A. Dorso-lateraldermal plicae B. Subarticular pads beneath the foot's digits C. Swelling at the base of inner digit of the hand D. Protruberances over the prehaliux(6th toe) and upper eyelids and lips 3. Skin at the dorsal side is slightly thicker and darkly pigmented 3 types of chromatophores Melanophores (black brown) Guanophores (white or refractive granules of guanine) Lipophores (xanthophores and erythophores) 4. Some species have the ability to blend with the immediate surroundings thus, avoiding detection by their enemies (camouflage) Histology of frog's skin Epidermis - superficial - statified squamous epithelium - divided into 2 layers A. Stratum comeum - outer layer - squamous cells - shed off B. Stratum germativum/malpighi - inner layer - columnar cells - actively undergo mitosis Dermis - connective tissues divided into: A. Stratum spongiosum - loose connective tissue with blood vessels lymph spaces pigment cells and glands 2 types of glands 1. Mucous glands - smaller more numerous secreates mucus as protection from drying up 2. Poison glands - larger fewer secreates a watery fluid that can be mildly irritating to very toxic as protection against enemies B. Stratum compactum - contains the dense CT and few smooth muscle fibers Immidately beneath the dermis, a subcutaneous loose layer of CT with blood vessels and separates the skin from the underlying muscles Skeletal system The vertebrate skeleton in endoskeleton

Functions: 1. Protection 2. Movement 3. Storage 4. Support 5. Blood cell production Ossification Begins at week 8 of embryo development 1. Intramembranous ossification - bone develops from a fibrous membrane E.g. Formation of most of the flat bones of the skull and the clavicles 2. Endochondral ossification - bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage E.g. Sphenoid Occipital *by age 25, nearly all bones are completely ossified FETAL SKULL - skulls of newborns contain doft spots called fontanels Fontanels - are membranous are areas which allow brain growth, frontanels are converted to bones at 2 years old Joints/articulation - sites where two or more bones meet -.function to hold the bones together securely and give the rigid skeleton Classification according to whether fibrous tissue cartilage or a joint cavity seperates the bony regions at the joint. 1. Synarthroses, fibrous, immovable joints E.g sutures of the skull 2. Amphiarthroses, cartiginousal, slightly movable joints E.g Intervertebral joints of the spinal column 3. Diarthroses, synovial , freely movable - those in which the articulsting bone ends are seperated by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid E.g major types are gliding joints, pivot joints, hinge bones, ball and socket joints the skeleton of the frogike the other vertebrates maybe divided into: Axial skeleton - Bones lying along the central axis E.g. Skull, hyloid apparatus, vertebeal column, sternum A. Skull (Dorsal aspect) -cranium (brain case) -bones of the face -bones of the jaws

Bones on the dorsal side of the skull 1. Premaxillae - V-Shaped bone of the snout - Anterior tip of the skull 2. Maxilla - largest bone of the upper jaw - connected to premaxilae and quadratojugal 3. Nasal bone - Paired bone - Above the nasal chamber 4. Ethmoid/sphenethmoid - small bone posterior to nasal 5. Fronto-parietals - long bone posterior to ethmoid 6. Quadratojungal - posterior to maxilla - articulates with squamosal (behind) and maxilla (in front) 7. Squamosal - Hammer-shaped bone arising from the prootic 8. Foramen Magnum - "large opening" - Posterior part of the skull - spinal chord emerges 9. Exoccipital bone - bones forming the posterior border of the foramen magnum Occipital condyle - rounded process 10. Pterygoid - attatched at 3 points ( Maxilla, Prootic, Quadratojungal) Appendicular skeleton - bones away from the central axis E.g.bones of the limbs (forelimbs and hindlimbs) and girdle Urinary passage of the frog Kidneys - wolfian ducts - cloaca -urinary bladder - cloaca - anus