History - Ancient

Archaeological excavations have brought to light the remains of a highly developed

urban civilisation in ancient India that stretched across approximately 1520 kilometres,
extending from the area on the upper Sutlaj in contemporary Punjab to Lothal in Gujarat.
Historians are of the view that this civilisation flourished in the third millennium before
the birth of Christ.

It is known by the name of the two of its great cities - Harappa and Mohenjodaro situated
on the left and the right bank respectively of the river Ravi in Punjab. The two cities were
built on a similar plan - houses constructed with standard burnt bricks arranged in
squares, along roads intersecting at right angles. The houses varied in size but were all
based on the same plan - a small courtyard surrounded by rooms with entrances in side
alleys, often multistoried with no windows opening out to the street. The houses had
bathrooms and the drains flowing out were connected to covered sewers with soak-pits.
This unique sewage system is amongst the most impressive achievements of the Indus
people and sets them apart from all other ancient civilisations.

By about 1500 B.C. an important change began to occur in the northern half of the Indian
sub-continent. The Harappa culture in the Indus Valley had declined by about 1750 B.C,
and the stage was being set for a second and more continuous urbanisation in the Ganges
Valley.

The earliest literary source that sheds light on India's past is the Rig Veda. It is difficult to
date this work with any accuracy on the basis of tradition and ambiguous astronomical
information contained in the hymns. It is most likely that Rig Veda was composed
between 1,500 B.C. and 1,000 B.C.

The people who composed these evocative hymns to nature and celebrated life
exuberantly referred to themselves as Aryas usually anglicised as Aryan meaning
'superior'.

The 6th Century B.C. was a period of great ferment in India. The kingdom of Magadh
-one of the 16 great janapadas - polities - had established paramountcy over other
kingdoms of the Ganges Valley. This was the time when Buddhism and Jainism emerged
as popular protestant movements to pose a serious challenge to Brahmanic orthodoxy.
The fluid political situation, made it possible for Chandragupta Maurya (reign - 322 - 298
B.C.) to oust the oppressive ruler of Magadh and found his own dynasty.

The most famous of the Mauryas is Ashoka the Great (reign - 273 - 232 B.C.). He
extended the boundaries of his empire considerably - stretching from Kashmir and
Peshawar in the North and Northwest to Mysore in the South and Orissa in the East - but
his fame rests not so much on military conquests as on his celebrated renunciation of war.
After witnessing the carnage at the battle field of Kalinga (269 B.C.) in Orissa, Ashoka
resolved to dedicate himself to Dhamma - or righteousness.
Ashoka died around 232 B.C. and the empire began to disintegrate under weak
successors. Pushyamitra Shunga, a Brahmin general usurped the throne after slaying the
last Maurya king and presided over a loosely federal polity. In subsequent centuries India
suffered a series of invasions, and in the absence of a strong central authority, often fell
under the spell of foreign rulers - Indo Bactrians, the Sakas and others.

For the next four hundred years, India remained politically disunited and weak. It was
repeatedly raided and plundered by foreigners. Stability was restored by the Guptas.
Exploits of Samudra Gupta (reign - 335 - 380 A.D.) - an illustrious ruler of this line - are
recorded on a stone inscription at Allahabad.

It was Chandra Gupta II (reign - 380 - 412 A.D.) - Samudra Gupta's successor - who
finally defeated the Sakas and re-established a strong central authority. His reign
registered the high watermark in Indian culture. His accomplishments in war and peace
were glorious enough for him to claim the title Vikramaditya - the resplendent, great and
good king of legends. Fa-hien, a Chinese traveller who was in India from 399 - 414 A.D.
has left an interesting account of contemporary India. This age of peace and prosperity
witnessed an unprecedented flowering of art, literature and the sciences.

Kalidas, the famous Sanskrit poet and dramatist, author of Abhijnana Shankuntalam,
Kumarsambhavam and Meghadutam is believed to have adorned the Gupta court.
Mathematicians like Aryabhatta and astronomers like Varahmihir lived during this period.
The dazzling wall paintings of Ajanta too are traced back to this era. This period also saw
the beginning of Hindu temple architecture.

The twilight of the Gupta Empire saw the setting in of decay. Powerful feudal governors
in the provinces declared their independence. Trade and commerce suffered and social
evils crept in. There was only a brief afterglow in the time of Harshavardhan (reign - 604
- 647 A.D.) - of Kannauj - who is famous for his philanthrophy and patronage of
Buddhism. Himself an accomplished writer, he encouraged eminent dramatists like Bana.
A Chinese traveller Huen-tsang visited India from (629 - 645 A.D.) during the rule of
Harshavardhan. His account gives us an opportunity to note the changes that had taken
place in the lives of the Indian people since the days of the Guptas.

In the Deccan, the Cholas ruled over what today are the districts of Thanjavur and
Tiruchirapally. In the 2nd Century B.C. a Chola prince conquered Sri Lanka. The
Pandyas reigned around present day Tirunelvelli and Madurai. A Pandyan king sent an
ambassador to the court of the Roman emperor Augustus in first Century B.C. The
territory under the Cheras was what constitutes the present day central and northern
Kerala.

Pallavas of Kanchi rose to prominence in the 4th Century A.D. and ruled unchallenged
for about four hundred years. The Nayanar and Alvar saint poets belong to this period.
The gemlike shore temples at Mahabalipuram date to this period.
The Cholas overthrew the Pallavas in the 9th Century and regained political primacy in
south India. The exquisitely crafted Chola bronzes - the resplendent Natraja - the Dancing
Shiva - have introduced the world to the glory of the Cholas. The tide of political fortunes
turned once again in the 13th Century to make the Pandyas dominant. Their kingdom
became a great centre of international trade. Art, literature and culture flourished under
generous patronage. The 15th Century saw the decline of the Pandyas.

Foreign invasions had little impact on the life in southern India and this region remained
unaffected by political upheavals that convulsed the north.