UNIT II

TOOLS OF TQM
Measurement of tools: Check Sheets: A Check Sheet is a data recording form that has been designed to readily interpret results from the form itself. It needs to be designed for the specific data it is to gather. Used for the collection of quantitative or qualitative repetitive data; Adaptable to different data gathering situations; Minimal interpretation of results required; Easy and quick to use. No control for various forms of bias - exclusion, interaction, perception, operational, non-response, estimation. The main purpose of check sheets is to ensure that the date is collected carefully and accurately by operating personnel. Data should be collected in such a manner that it can be quickly and easily used and analyzed. The form of the check sheet is individualized for each situation and is designed by the project team. The main objectives of the check lists are: Clearly identify what is being observed. Keep the data collection process as easy as possible. Group the data. Collected data should be grouped in a way that makes the data valuable and reliable. Similar problems must be in similar groups. Create a format that will give the most information with the least amount of effort.

There are many types of check sheets: Distribution Check Sheets, used to collect data in order to determine how a variable is dispersed within an area of possible occurrences Location Check Sheets, used to Highlight the physical location of a problem/defect in order to improve quality Cause Check Sheets, used to keep track of how often a problem happens or records the cause to a certain problem. Classification Check Sheets, Used to keep track of the frequency of major classifications involving the delivery of products or services

Histograms: A Histogram is a graphic summary of variation in a set of data. It enables us to see patterns that are difficult to see in a simple table of numbers. It can be analyzed to draw conclusions about the data set. A histogram is a graph in which the continuous variable is clustered into categories and the value of each cluster is plotted to give a series of bars as above. The above example reveals the skewed distribution of a set of product measurements that remain nevertheless within specified limits. Without using some form of graphic this kind of problem can be difficult to analyze, recognize or identify. RUN CHARTS: A Run chart is a simple graphic representation that displays data in the order that they occur and shows a characteristic of a process over time. It is often known as a line chart or a line graph outside the quality management field. What is Run chart used for? Run chart is used to understand the trends and shifts in a process or variation over time, or to identify decline or improvement in a process over time. In a run chart, events, shown on the y-axis, are graphed against a time period on the x-axis. For example, a run chart in a restaurant might plot the number of customers served against the time of day or day of the week. The results might show that there are more customers at noon than at 3 p.m. and more during weekend than during weekday. Investigating this phenomenon could unearth potential for improvement as to how many waiters and waitresses should be employed during those times for better customer service. Steps to construct a Run chart 1. Decide what to measure: Determine what you need to measure and in what unit. Measurements must be taken over a period of time. 2. Gathering data: The data must be collected in a chronological or sequential order. You may start at any point and end at any point. However, for best results, at least 25 or more samples (data points) must be taken in order to get an accurate run chart.

3. Organizing data: Once you have data in place, you can divide it into two sets of values x and y. The values for x represent time and the values for y represent the measurements you want to measure. 4. Creating the graph: Using appropriate scale to make the points on the x and y-axis. You can do this by hand or by computer. Then plot the data points on the chart (the x values versus the y values) in the order in which they became available and connect the points with lines between them. You can draw the average line to evaluate the movement of the data points relative to the average. 5. Interpreting data: After drawing the horizontal and vertical lines to segment data, interpret the data and draw any conclusions as to what action to take. Some of the possible outcomes are trends in the chart or cyclical patterns in the data. The key is to look for trends, and not focus on individual plot points. Run Chart Example Here is the scenario: You have just moved into a new area that you are not familiar with. You want to arrive at work on time. However, from the past few weeks, you noticed that it didnt take the same amount of time each day of the week. You decide to monitor the amount of time it takes to get to work over the next four weeks and construct a run chart. 1. Decide what to measure: to see whether it takes the same amount of time to get to work over a week. 2. Gathering data: Collect and record measurements each day over the next four weeks in chronological order. 3. M T W TH F Week1 33 28 26.5 28 26 4. Organizing data: Determine the values for the x-axis (day of week) and the y-axis (minutes to work). Beside is the table of the data for the 4 weeks: 5. Graphing: Using the appropriate scale, plot the y values versus the x values. Draw vertical lines on the graph to separate days in those 4 weeks. 6. Interpreting data: Interpret results and draw any conclusions that are important. From the graph, it is obvious to conclude that Mondays take the most amounts of time and Fridays generally take the least amount of time. Therefore you accordingly allow yourself more time on Mondays to arrive to work on time.
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Scatter Diagram This tool is very useful in finding the relationships between two variables. Some people do changes to the systems without analyzing the effect of it on other parts of the system. In such scenarios scatter diagram can be used to analyze these variations and find relationships if there are any. Even if you have not done a change to the system, this tool can be used in finding relationships between two variables. For an example x axis will have the lot size and y axis the amount of quality defects if we are trying to find a relationship between the lot size and quality defects. This will allow you to plot a diagram like below. This shows a positive correlation between the number of defects and lot size. With the lot size the amount of quality defects also goes up. But a graph like below does not show a positive correlation between the lot size and the number of defects.

CAUSE AND EFFECT, FISHBONE, ISHIKAWA DIAGRAM: The cause-and-effect diagram is a method for analyzing process dispersion. The diagram's purpose is to relate causes and effects. Three basic types: Dispersion analysis, Process classification and cause enumeration. Effect = problem to be resolved, opportunity to be grasped, result to be achieved. Excellent for capturing team brainstorming output and for filling in from the 'wide picture'; Helps organize and relate factors, providing a sequential view; Deals with time direction but not quantity; Can become very complex; Can be difficult to identify or demonstrate interrelationships.
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Paretos chart, The Pareto Principle also known as 80/20 principle has been applied to business analysis and decision making in strategy development, resources management, sales management, quality management, operations management, logistics, etc. This simple but powerful approach deals with identifying and distinguishing between the vital few and the trivial many business issues. By using this approach businesses can analyze what otherwise looks like random distribution of issues, problems, activities, costs, time, etc. Not all causes and activities produce the same amount of problems or opportunities. 80% of the results come from 20% of the causes In order to perform Pareto Analysis organize your data in two columns: 1. Categories (ex: defect types, cost types, activity types, business units, process types, customers, customer segments). Decide what categories you will use and for what time period you want to analyze your data. 2. Number of Occurrences (ex: number of defects, cost amount, number of units, number of hours, number of orders). Decide what measurement you will use for your analysis such as cost, time, percent, and quantity. Pareto Chart is used to visually report and analyze information. The Pareto Chart is column chart with two vertical axes. The left one measures the frequency while the right one measures the cumulative percentage. The size of the columns represents the frequency or amount for each category. By creating Pareto Chart you can visually analyze what categories are more significant than others and read their values. The Pareto principle suggests that most effects come from relatively few causes. In quantitative terms: 80% of the problems come from 20% of the causes (machines, raw materials, operators etc.); 80% of the wealth is owned by 20% of the people etc. Therefore effort aimed at the right 20% can solve 80% of the problems. Double (back to back) Pareto charts can be used to compare 'before and after' situations. General use, to decide where to apply initial effort for maximum effect.

Control Charts

Control charts are a method of Statistical Process Control, SPC. (Control system for production processes). They enable the control of distribution of variation rather than attempting to control each individual variation. Upper and lower control and tolerance limits are calculated for a process and sampled measures are regularly plotted about a central line between the two sets of limits. The plotted line corresponds to the stability/trend of the process. Action can be taken based on trend rather than on individual variation. This prevents over-correction/compensation for random variation, which would lead to many rejects. PROCESS CAPABILITY MEASUREMENT. Analytical Tools: process mapping, Process mapping is a workflow diagram to bring forth a clearer understanding of a process or series of parallel processes. Constructing a Process Flowchart Step 1: Determine the Boundaries a. Where does a process begin? b. Where does a process end? Step 2: List the Steps a. Use a verb to start the task description. b. The flowchart can either show the sufficient information to understand the general process flow or detail every finite action and decision point.

Step 3: Sequence the Steps a. Use post-it notes so you can move tasks. b. Do not draw arrows until later. Step 4: Draw Appropriate Symbols a. Start with the basic symbols: i. Ovals show input to start the process or output at the end of the process. ii. Boxes or rectangles show task or activity performed in the process. iii. Arrows show process direction flow. iv. Diamonds show points in the process where a yes/no questions are asked or a decision is required. v. Usually there is only one arrow out of an activity box. If there is more than one arrow, you may need a decision diamond. vi. If there are feedback arrows, make sure feedback loop is closed; i.e. it should take you back to the input box. Step 5: System Model a. Draw charts using system model approach. b. Input - use information based upon people, machines, material, method, and environment. c. Process - use subsets of processes in series or parallel. d. Output - use outcomes or desired results. e. Control - use best in class business rules. f. Feedback - use information from surveys or feedback. Step 6: Check for Completeness a. Include pertinent chart information, using title and date for easy reference. Step 7: Finalize the Flowchart a. Ask if this process is being run the way it should be. b. Are people following the process as charted? c. Do we have a consensus? d. What is redundant; add what is missing. The purpose of process mapping is to use diagramming to understand the process we currently use and ask
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what is expected of us; what should we be doing to provide better customer focus and satisfaction. It will identify what best practices we need to incorporate and find appropriate benchmarks for measuring how we can arrive at better ways of communicating our services. As Dr. George Washington Carver put it "It is simply service that measures success." Regression analysis, resource utilization and customer service analysis. The five Whys: Five Whys is a simple but great technique to use to solve problems. It really gets people involved using their brains and challenging the status quo in most situations, real problems and root causes are obscured by apparent problems. The intent of the Five -Why procedure is to assure that the root causes and not merely superficial symptoms are corrected. The Five-Why Process was introduced at Toyota to find solution to manufacturing problems, but this approach can be applied to any other area as well. Ask Why this problem happened? to discover its underlying problem; then ask Why? again to go deeper by another level until you reach the root cause. Asking Why repeatedly, possibly more than five times, directs the focus toward real causes so problems can be solved permanently. The technique was originally developed by Sakichi Toyoda and was later used within Toyota Motor Corporation during the evolution of their manufacturing methodologies. It is a critical component of problem solving training delivered as part of the induction into the Toyota Production System. The architect of the Toyota Production System, Taiichi Ohno, described the 5 whys method as the basis of Toyotas scientific approach by repeating why five times, the nature of the problem as well as its solution becomes clear. The tool has seen widespread use beyond Toyota, and is now used within Kaizen, lean manufacturing, and six sigma. Overall Equipment Effectiveness: Overall Equipment Effectiveness is the overall performance of one piece of equipment or an entire factory measured through availability, performance rate, and quality rate. OEE can be used to prevent wasteful spending on unnecessary equipment. Instead the business owner can focus on improving the performance of the machinery that he already has. Another common remedy involves reducing fixed cost and the cost of making goods or the cost of goods sold (COGS). In other words OEE is the result of dividing actual output by theoretical maximum output. Many see Overall Equipment Effectiveness as a mathematical way to evaluate process improvements. Another OEE equation would look like this: Availability rate *performance rate * quality rate = Overall Equipment Effectiveness Ideal performance would mean that multiplying the availability rate, the performance rate, and the quality rate would equal 100 % Overall Equipment Effectiveness. It is interesting that most manufacturers think that they are operating in the 90% range, when actually their operations are closer to the 50% range. Effective evaluation of Overall Equipment Effectiveness produces real (monetary and other wise) results for a company. These scores can provide workers with metric comparisons to past performance and indicates were improvement has been made and where improvement is still needed. Numbers and scores are generally dictated by industry averages and thus will vary from operation to operation. Let us now

take a closer look at availability, performance, and quality rates as they apply to Overall Equipment Effectiveness. Availability rate = actual production time Downtime due to equipment breakdownsFor example, when the equipment is unavailable for use, time by employees is and company resources are wasted. Set- up and adjustment time-instead of focusing on the output of quality product efforts are diverted to getting production backup and running. Performance Improvement Tools and Techniques:Kaizen: Japanese for improvement , or change for the better refers to philosophy or practices that focus upon continuous improvement of processes in manufacturing, engineering, game development, and business management. It has been applied in healthcare, psychotherapy, lifecoaching, government, banking, and other industries. When used in the business sense and applied to the workplace, kaizen refers to activities that continually improve all functions, and involves all employees from the CEO to the assembly line workers. It also applies to processes, such as purchasing and logistics that cross organizational boundaries into the supply chain. By improving standardized activities and processes, kaizen aims to eliminate waste. Kaizen was first implemented in several Japanese businesses after the Second World War, influenced in part by American business and quality management teachers who visited the country. It has since spread throughout the world and is now being implemented in many other venues besides just business and productivity. Kaizen is a must to achieve Total Quality. Kaizen encompasses usage of most of the tools and techniques normally being applied by any organization. It includes: Just-in-time Zero defects Kanban Quality circles Continuous quality improvement Five S

JIT: just in time (JIT) is a production strategy that strives to improve a business return on investment by reducing in-process inventory and associated carrying costs. Just-in-time production method is also called the Toyota Production System. To meet JIT objectives, the process relies on signals or Kanban between different points in the process, which tell production when to make the next part. Kanban are usually tickets but can be simple visual signals, such as the presence or absence of a part on a shelf. Implementing correctly, JIT focuses on continuous improvement and can improve a manufacturing organizations return on investment, quality, and efficiency. To achieve continuous improvement key areas of focus could be flow, employee involvement and quality. JIT looks forward to elimination of waste, which is applied in general to an organization and consists of any waste due to:

Overproduction Idle time Transportation waste Processing time Inventory waste

Characteristics: A successfully implemented JIT system consists of the following characteristics: Small lot sizes Minimal inventories Timely deliveries Flexible of labor Decentralized management Lead time reduction Supplier quality assurance

Quality circles : A quality circle is a volunteer group composed of workers (or even students), usually under the leadership of their supervisor (but they can elect a team leader), who are trained to identify, analyze and solve work-related problems and present their solutions to management in order to improve the performance of the organization, and motivate and enrich the work of employees. When matured, true quality circles become self-managing, having gained the confidence of management. The term quality circles derives from the concept of PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Act) circles developed by Dr. W. Edwards Deming. Quality circles are not normally paid a share of the cost benefit of any improvements but usually a proportion of the savings made is spent on improvements to the work environment. They are formal groups. They meet at least once a week on company time and are trained by competent persons (usually designated as facilitators) who may be personnel and industrial relations specialists trained in human factors and the basic skills of problem identification, information gathering and analysis, basic statistics, and solution generation.Quality circles are generally free to select any topic they wish (other than those related to salary and terms and conditions of work, as there are other channels through which these issues are usually considered). Forced field Analysis: Forced filed analysis is a technique developed by Kurt Lewin for identifying the forces that help or obstruct a change we want to make. Change is a dynamic process and suggests movement from one time to next under given conditions. When to use it? To identify the forces which assist or prevent us achieving a change, assessing the ease or difficulty in achieving a change planning to overcome barriers to change. What does it achieve?

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Given situations, which we need to change or improve, force filed analysis enables us , or a group of people, to achieve that change. By assessing the forces, which prevent us making a change, or improvement, we are able to develop a plan to deal with those forces. There will be forces, which help us as well as those which hinder us. Once the positive and negative forces acting on a situation have been identified we will be able to assess the ease or difficulty when implementing a change. Key steps involved in forced field analysis are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Defining the problem Define the objective Prepare the force field diagram Identify the +ve and ve forces Rate forces for ease of change and impact Analyze and evaluate (Diagram) Force field analysis Current situation Driving forces

Ideal situation Restraining forces

Five Ss

[Osada, 1991]

Introduction: The 5-S practice is a technique used to establish and maintain quality environment in an organization. The name stands for five Japanese words: 1. Seiri Sort: send away the unwanted. Sort all the items and categories them into two i.e., a. Wanted (in next 30 days) b. Unwanted Then put a Red Tag on all unwanted items. Further sort the unwanted red tagged items into subcategories of (i) not wanted now but required at the same time in the future- more than to the warehouse/ store; (ii) having no value or usage throe away. The red tag campaign will assist the top management to find out the actual supplies, work in progress and other unwanted items on which other quality management tools can be applied and the wastage is minimized. 2. Seiton Straighten: (systematic arrangement). This step ensures proper and orderly placing of all the wanted items sorted with the help of Seiri. This helps in minimizing the search time and effort and enhancing visual control. In this step all items are properly coded, with name, designated place maximum/ minimum quantities. This will also help in scheduling the production process, i.e; no over production which ultimately results in losses for the company. 3. Seiso Scrub: means cleaning the work place and converts it into a tidy place. This includes cleaning of all desks, racks, machines, tools, floors, walls and all other items of the workplace identified and arranged through the implementing of 1S and 2S.
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The benefits of that accrue with neatness are that employees start keeping things simple, machine breakdowns and malfunctioning is easily identified and preventive measures are taken. 4. Seiketsu Standardize: this step talks about keeping it the way, which has been arrived at after implementing 1S, 2S,3S. this look forward for making sorting, ordering, checking and cleaning as a habit, and thus maintaining spotless workplaces day in day out. 5. Shitsuke Self-discipline: this is the last step of implementation stage talks about self discipline. This actually is the evaluating step to ensure maintenance of standards throughout the organization. Control Tools:Gantt chart: The Gantt Chart is a Project Management Tool giving you a visual chart of your project schedule. This shows the task names on the left hand side of the screen and displays the tasks as bars on the right hand side underneath a time scale. Gantt charts were initially named after a planner called Henry Laurence Gantt who worked as a mechanical engineer famous for his highly visual scheduling and monitoring diagram. Gantt Charts are drawn to display planned and actual project progress. A commonly accepted project management instrument these days, it was an innovation of world-wide significance in created while ship building during World War 1. Gantt charts were subsequently used to monitor large construction projects like the Hoover Dam started in 1931 and Terminal 5 at Heathrow in London. A Gantt chart is like a bar chart. It is often used to indicate periods of time in a project or schedule. It can show graphically how long something is expected to take, or when something is due to start and finish. It can also show how these things are related to each other, like how one thing must be complete before something else can begin. So if you are building a house, you could show how long it is expected to lay the foundations, which will give you an idea of when the building of the walls will begin. This could then help you to decide how soon you need to order the bricks for the wall. Network Diagram: Description: An activity network Diagram is also called: arrow diagram, network diagram, activity chart, node diagram, CPM (critical path method) chart or PERT (program evaluation and review technique) chart. When to Use: When scheduling and monitoring tasks within a project or process with several dependant tasks and resources. When you know the steps of the project or process, their sequence and how long each step takes. When your project schedule is critical. There is a serious consequences for completing the project late or a significant advantage to completing the project early.

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Drawing the Activity Network Diagram Procedure: 1. List all the necessary tasks in the project or process. One convenient method is to write each task on the top half of a note card or a sticky note. Then across the middle of the card, draw a horizontal arrow pointing right. 2. Determine the correct sequence of the tasks. Do this by asking three questions for each task: Which tasks must happen before this one begins? Which tasks can be done at the same time as this one? Which tasks should happen immediately after this one?

It can be useful to create a table with four columns prior tasks, this task, simultaneous tasks, following tasks. 3. Diagram the network of tasks. If you are using sticky notes or notecards, arrange them in sequence on a large piece of paper. For the activity network diagram, time should flow from left to right and concurrent tasks should be vertically aligned. Leave space between the cards. 4. Between each two tasks, draw circles for events. An event marks the beginning or end of a task. Thus, events are nodes that separate tasks. 5. Look for the three common problem situations noted below. Redraw them using dummies or extra events. Characterize a dummy with a dotted line arrow. Dummies are not real tasks.

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The PDCA cycle: From problem-faced to problem-solved The PDCA Cycle is a checklist of the four stages which you must go through to get from `problemfaced' to `problem solved'. The four stages are Plan-Do-Check-Act, and they are carried out in the cycle illustrated below. The concept of the PDCA Cycle was originally developed by Walter Shewhart, the pioneering statistician who developed statistical process control in the Bell Laboratories in the US during the 1930's. It is often referred to as `the Shewhart Cycle'. It was taken up and promoted very effectively from the 1950s on by the famous Quality Management authority, W. Edwards Deming, and is consequently known by many as `the Deming Wheel'. Use the PDCA Cycle to coordinate your continuous improvement efforts. It both emphasizes and demonstrates that improvement programs must start with careful planning, must result in effective action, and must move on again to careful planning in a continuous cycle. Also use the PDCA Cycle diagram in team meetings to take stock of what stage improvement initiatives are at, and to choose the appropriate tools to see each stage through to successful completion. How to use the PDCA Cycle diagram to choose the appropriate tool is explained in detail in the `How to use it' section below. Plan-Do-Check-Act Here is what you do for each stage of the Cycle: Plan to improve your operations first by finding out what things are going wrong (that is identify the problems faced), and come up with ideas for solving these problems. Do changes designed to solve the problems on a small or experimental scale first. This minimises disruption to routine activity while testing whether the changes will work or not. Check whether the small scale or experimental changes are achieving the desired result or not. Also, continuously Check nominated key activities (regardless of any experimentation going on) to ensure that you know what the quality of the output is at all times to identify any new problems when they crop up. Act to implement changes on a larger scale if the experiment is successful. This means making the changes a routine part of your activity. Also Act to involve other persons (other departments, suppliers, or customers) affected by the changes and whose cooperation you need to implement them on a larger scale, or those who may simply benefit from what you have learned (you may, of course, already have involved these people in the Do or trial stage). You have now completed the cycle to arrive at `problem solved'. Go back to the Plan stage to identify the next `problem faced'.
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If the experiment was not successful, skip the Act stage and go back to the Plan stage to come up with some new ideas for solving the problem and go through the cycle again. Plan-Do-Check-Act describes the overall stages of improvement activity, but how is each stage carried out? This is where other specific quality management, or continuous improvement, tools and techniques come into play. The diagram below lists the tools and techniques which can be used to complete each stage of the PDCA Cycle.

This classification of tools into sections of the PDCA Cycle is not meant to be strictly applied, but it is a useful prompt to help you choose what to do at each critical stage of your improvement efforts Radar Chart: Milestone Tracker Diagram and Earned Value Management:

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