ASCI Journal of Management 37(1): 1429 Copyright 2008 Administrative Staff College of India

MANOJ T. THOMAS*

NGOs and Grassroots Innovation in Natural Resource Management: A Study of Six NGOs in Western India
This paper attempts to address two issues. First, it seeks to understand how the flexible structure of non-government organizations (NGOs) affects their capacity to innovate. Second, it explores the nature of innovations undertaken by NGOs working at the grassroots in the field of natural resource management, specifically in areas related to water in western India. A comparative analysis of these NGOs has been undertaken from information derived through direct interactions, field visits and secondary data. NGOs in similar conditions, with similar overriding goals of alleviating poverty, improving the well-being of local communities and conserving the environment have produced varying results. Innovation is more in terms of institutional innovation, where these organizations have attempted to give free play to local problem-solving abilities and at the same time provided some generic structure.

The Chambers Dictionary defines innovation as the introduction of something new, to renew, alter and introduce novelties, or to make changes. Innovation has also been defined as an idea, a practice or an object perceived as new by individuals and organizations (Harrow and Willcocks, 1990). In a similar vein, innovation is defined as the adoption of an idea or behaviourwhether pertaining to a device, system, process, policy, product or servicethat is new to the adopting organization (Damanpour et al., 1989; Zaltman et al., 1973). Deriving from these, for the purpose of this paper, innovation is defined as the adoption of an idea or practice pertaining to a device, system, process, product or service that is perceived as new by the adopting organization. Two key dimensions of research on innovation are diffusion of innovation and organization innovation research (Wolfe, 1994).
* Assistant Professor, XLRI School of Business and Human Resources, Jamshedpur (e-mail: manojtthomas@gmail.com).

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Innovation Context in Organizations It is widely acknowledged that innovation is a complex process. It is suggested that the modern approach to technological and organizational change needs to cope with two fundamental attributes of the innovation process: its embeddedness in a dense network of external relationships and its combinatorial nature in terms of the number of technological fields and components that are to be integrated (Brusoni, 2001). The phenomenon of innovation has been classified according to different characteristics of the innovation process. Damanpour (1991) classifies innovation into administrative innovation and technical innovation. Administrative innovation relates to innovations in social systems, which include those rules, procedures and structures that are related to communication and exchange among organizational members and between the environment and the organizational members. A technical innovation can be the adoption of a new idea pertaining to a new product or a new service or the introduction of new elements in an organizations production process (Damanpour et al., 1989). Chesbrough and Teece (1996) classify innovation as autonomous when it is pursued independently from other innovations, and as systemic when it is realized with related complementary innovations. Innovation has also been classified into four types based on whether the core concepts are reinforced or overturned and whether the linkage between the core concepts and the components change or remain unchanged (Henderson and Clark, 1990). If the core concepts are reinforced and the linkage between them and the components remains unchanged, it is classified as incremental innovation. If the core concepts are reinforced but the linkage between them and the components changes, it is classified as an architectural innovation. A modular innovation is stated to occur when the core concepts are overturned but the linkage between them and the components remains unchanged. An innovation is classified as radical if the core concepts are overturned and the linkage between them and the components is also changed. The understanding of factors influencing innovation is far from perfect (Wolfe, 1994). Innovation is said to be facilitated by factors such as information and knowledge flow and coordination, organization structure, processes and strategies. Innovative firms are supposed to be those that can modify and enlarge the knowledge of individuals to create a spiral of

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interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge through the four processes of socialization, externalization, combination and internalization (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). Research has generally shown that organizations with mechanistic characteristics are not conducive to innovation, while those with organic characteristics facilitate the adoption of innovation (Damanpour et al., 1989). Organizational creativity has been stated to be positively influenced by factors such as the employment of organic organizational design and is negatively influenced by the restriction of information flows within the system and with the environment (Woodman et al., 1993). In a service context, standardization of work processes is argued to have an adverse effect on innovation as it constrains the producer-client relationship; hence, managerial control should be practiced by other means, such as direct supervision (Damanpour, 1991). Organizational strategy is often shown as having a direct bearing on the success or failure of innovation projects, especially through its capacity to integrate the activities of different organizational units, like R&D, marketing and production (Shrivastava and Souder, 1987). Through imperfect copying, ideas are always recombining to produce new ideas, and in this way successful innovatory strategies may develop (Johnson and Scholes, 2002). Intended imitation of innovation may itself lead to innovative behavior as the imitation may be inaccurate, or managers can draw inferences about the context from other innovations and devise alternative strategies to exploit the same structure (Greve and Taylor, 2000). Diffusion is an indicator of the extent and pace at which a market is likely to adopt new products or the improved performance of existing products (Johnson and Scholes, 2002). The five attributes of innovation that are argued to affect adoption rates are: relative advantage (over preceding practices), compatibility (with potential adopters needs and values), low complexity, trialability (testing possible on a limited basis), and observability (results visible to others) (Rogers and Kim, 1995, as quoted in Harrow and Willcocks, 1990). Along similar lines, these have been classified as supply side factors degree of improvement, compatibility, low complexity and experimentation (Johnson and Scholes, 2002). It has also been argued that product innovations are adopted at a greater rate and speed than process innovations (Damanpour and Gopalakrishnan, 2001). It is suggested that the adoption of innovation is easier when organizations

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have organic rather than mechanistic characteristics (Damanpour, 1991). Further, that innovations succeed to the extent that they get an opportunity in a wider environment or evolve with the environment itself (Johnson and Scholes, 2002). In many cases, several innovations that have varying degrees of complementarity are introduced simultaneously (Feder et al., 1985). Cohen and Levinthal (1990) introduced the concept of absorptive capacity, which is the ability of a firm to recognize the value of new external information and apply it commercially. This is also seen as a function of the firms prior related knowledge. Greve and Taylor (2000) argue that innovation by others encourages change by the introduction of new opportunities and by making the search more acceptable to organizations. The perspective of innovations-as-a-fad looks at an organization being influenced by other organizations in the group as well as by external influencers in its decision regarding the adoption/rejection of innovations (Abrahamson, 1991). This may lead either to the adoption of inefficient innovations or to the rejection of efficient innovations. Both complexity theorists and evolutionary theorists argue that innovation tends to arise from below. It is not top-down planning that leads to innovation; rather it is activity within an organization that fosters it (Johnson and Scholes, 2002). Forms of organization and cultures of organization that encourage variety, diversity and informal networking are more likely to promote innovation (ibid.). The innovation performance of not-for-profit firms has been found to be different. Differences in innovation between profit and notfor-profit firms could be due to the variation in environmental demands, managerial roles, managerial perceptions of external control, structural features, decision-making processes and work-related attitudes among employees (Damanpour, 1991). Innovation research has tended to give minimal attention to the types and characteristics of the innovation under study (Wolfe, 1994). It has been suggested that a series of single organization studies of one well-specified innovation be conducted to control for organization type (Damanpour, 1991; Wolfe, 1994). In-depth inductive innovation studies need to be conducted to safeguard against the premature adoption of an innovation framework, thereby limiting the scope of the enquiry (Wolfe, 1994). To summarize, previous research indicates that organizations with a less hierarchical structure, as well as those organizations that promote the free flow of information and encourage informal networking, are likely to find it easier to adopt innovation.

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One category of organization that has tended to emphasize the values of flexibility, lower hierarchal control and informality is the non-profit organization (Farrington et al., 1993). This has causes ranging from lesser legal control and disclosure requirements to the type of promoters and the history of development of the sector. Since non-profit organizations have more decentralized controls, they are often perceived to be more responsive to ground realities and better able to provide services as compared to statecontrolled organizations. The phenomenon of innovation in NGOs can therefore be seen in the process (Fig. 1).
Context: problems, resources, activities NGO capabilities
v

Strategies for impact

v

Nature of innovation

Fig. 1: Phenomenon of Innovation

Cases of Innovation among NGOs One of the areas in which non-profit organizations have been especially active in recent years is the management of natural resources, most of which involves an emphasis on water management. It is expected that a study of the innovation process across NGOs (similar types of organizations), working in similar contexts on a specific aspect, would be able to bring out new insights with reference to the innovation process. This study proposes to analyze the innovations introduced by six NGOs in the field of water use. These NGOs are working at the grassroots (group, community and locality level). The organizations have greater social content and function as compared to administrative or political orientation (Uphoff, 1993). Grassroots innovation is an interesting phenomenon because it involves the use of knowledge that resides in the people who are active on the ground (Gupta and Suthar, 1997). In the context of grassroots innovation, the reference is generally to innovations by individuals in villages (for instance, see Gupta, 1995) that are then sought to be disseminated for wider usage and impact. While this aspect is significant, it is also important to look at the potential of grassroots organizations to generate and adopt innovations. Innovations by NGOs need not be ideas which they are trying to propagate. The innovation (especially that studied in this paper) is in terms of the new approach that an organization takes in order to popularize an (other) idea or innovation.

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Since the emphasis was on generating new insights from processes and would involve an understanding of qualitative aspects, the case study methodology (Yin, 1984) was used. Six NGOs constituted the sample. All these organizations work in water-scarce areas of western India. Water-related activities constitute a key component of their projects. The cases are based on secondary data collected from the literature/ publications of the NGOs, as well as primary data collected through interactions with the functionaries of the NGOs and visits to their project sites. A short summary of the work of each NGO is presented below. Dharampur Utthan Vahini (DHRUVA), Valsad DHRUVA works in the hilly talukas of Dharampur, Kaprada and Vansda in South Gujarat. Since it works in an area that has some forest cover, is predominantly tribal and also has the right agro-climatic conditions for horticultural plants, this NGO has focused its interventions on wadis (orchards). Wadi as a tool for rural development evolved gradually as a result of the research and development efforts carried out over a period of two decades by DHRUVAs parent organization BAIF (Bharat Agro-Industries Foundation) in the tribal areas of Vansda. The activities involve the raising of saplings in nurseries and their management; grafting of plants for better growth; and aftercare and maintenance of mango orchards. The specific adaptation of orchards to tribal areas include the specification of planting 40 mango and 800 forest trees in each acre, planting on a scientific basis, and getting a commitment from participating families to stop the consumption of liquor. The planting is done on forestland. The tribals are allowed usufruct use of the land for 10 years. The DHRUVA approach is three prongednatural resource development, demystification of science and technology, and sustainable development only through peoples participation. Other activities of the organization focus on improving the quality of life, especially of tribal women, providing credit for development, nurturing peoples organizations, providing livelihood opportunities and capacity building of the local population through training. DHRUVA has formed groups of wadi owners. The main focus has been on reducing the migration of tribals. Out of this concern, it has taken up agroprocessing (making pickles, etc.) by forming a cooperative of farmers. DHRUVA has also tried out several new technologies, both on its campus as well as on farms. These include: the treadle pump; the jal kund (pit to reduce

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the percolation and evapo-transpiration of the stored water, which can be used for the protective watering of horticultural crops); cement containers for watering horticultural saplings; and hand-operated pumps for supplying drinking water. Information dissemination and adoption of these technologies has been done through demonstration in test plots and farms. Technical backup is provided by DHRUVA for test sites as well as for those who later want to adopt these technologies. Organizational support is provided through multifunctional teams consisting of professionals with different sets of qualifications, ranging from engineering to agriculture and social work. DHRUVA has also undertaken conventional works of natural resource management (watershed development through the construction of both earthen and concrete structures). As part of BAIF, it has a large staff; the project staff is largely field based. Their construction activities reflect a good mix of technical competence, innovation as well as involvement of the local people, basically through labour contribution in construction and maintenance. Cultivation practices have been standardized to establish wadis on degraded land by introducing drought-tolerant fruit trees, like tamarind, Indian gooseberry, ber and custard apple, in addition to mango and cashew. The programme has been further strengthened by forward integration with postharvest processing and marketing facilities. As most of the activities are linked to the wadi model, which is a constant revenue-providing activity, there seems to be sufficient incentive for the people to maintain the watershed structures. The core institutional mechanism used is the village watershed committee, which interfaces with the gram sabha, the gram panchayat, banks, water users groups and micro-enterprises. NM Sadguru Water and Development Foundation (Sadguru), Dahod Sadguru has been working in Dahod in Gujarat for the past three decades. Its objectives are to improve the living conditions and socio-economic status of the rural and tribal people, by developing environmentally-sound land and water resources programmes, protect the environment, arrest distress migration, and strive for the overall development of the local communities. Sadguru works in a predominantly tribal belt that faces the problem of low productivity of land. The NGO aims to increase agricultural production and

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food security through land- and water-related activities (Vedeld and Rao, 2001). Its activities are related to natural resource management in Dahod mainly through alliances with the government. Sadguru receives a large part of its funding from the government, foreign donors as well as local collections and donations (ibid.). Sadgurus project activities are a demonstration of what can be done by a grassroots organization (with the hope that the government machinery or other NGOs and developmental agencies can take the initiatives further). The organization has reinforced this through the large training facilities it has developed; proximity to the project area is also useful in this regard for providing easy field exposure. The project addresses a very poor tribal population whose earlier means of livelihood was linked to migration. The water-related activities of Sadguru are of two typescommunity water resource development and participatory micro-watershed development. Programmes relating to the former include community-managed lift irrigation systems, water harvesting structures and masonry check dams, as well as the recharging of community and private wells. The Sadguru approach of resource development includes harnessing the total course of rivers using masonry check dams at suitable intervals on the same source. This ensures that an optimum amount of water is harvested and distributed to all the villages along the source. The participatory microwatershed development activities focus on engineering measures related to soil and moisture conservation, plantations under micro-watershed, and institutional development in the watershed area. These two major activities in water are complemented by other activities taken up by Sadguru. These include: agricultural extension and rural energy programmes; networking policy and advocacy on natural resource management; documentation and research; income-generation programmes for women, especially through self-help groups; environment- and forestryrelated programmes; and training and capacity building. Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS), Alwar TBS has been working in Alwar district of Rajasthan for the past two decades. Although TBS initially focused on several issues, water-related activities have taken center stage in recent years. The region is characterized by acute water scarcity. Some rivers and rivulets have either run dry or have water

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only during brief spells of rainfall, which is concentrated within a span of a few days in the area. TBS faced a shortage of professional as well as other resources while undertaking water-related activities. Its strategy has been to create an impact through scaling uplarge-scale peoples mobilization which relies on a minimum number of professionals. The activities undertaken were mainly construction of water-harvesting structures using funds mobilized by TBS from different funding agencies, with a large part of the labour provided by the villagers. The type of water-harvesting structures that were built mainly include check dams, water tanks and earthen dams; well deepening was also carried out. The check dams were many and quite large, constructed at a fairly low cost. TBS has focused on building mass awareness of its activities. It has also stuck to the policy of keeping away from government funds and raising its resources from other funding agencies. The strategy followed by TBS has ensured that the impact of its activities is clearly visible in the revival of some rivulets and a marked improvement in cropping in the area where it operates. This, in turn, has ensured continued availability of funds to undertake further activities. Optimum utilization of the professional staff has made it possible to take up a large number of activities with minimum professional support. Aga Khan Rural Support Programme, India (AKRSPI), Ahmedabad AKRSPI has been working in the area of natural resource management. It has been trying to develop model projects that can be taken up by the government on a large scale. The NGOs emphasis has been on creating systems for management control and institution building. AKRSPI works in Gujarat, with its activities focused in three test centres: Netrang in Bharuch/ Surat, along the Junagadh coast and at Sayla in Surendranagar districtthe three major agro-climatic regions of the state. The activities taken up in each of these centres is based on the local context. Starting with the organizational values of equity, participation, concern for the environment, professionalism and sustainability, AKRSPI formulates project models of participative development. These relate to community natural resource management of land, water and forests, strengthening villagelevel institutions, use of professional staff at the field level, enhancing microlevel activities, and policy advocacy.

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Organizationally, AKRSPI undertakes its activities through the concept of spearhead teams at each location, which consist of team members with different professional capabilities. The activities of the spearhead teams are supported by programme specialists who offer their expertise to different teams. Activities at the field level are undertaken through village-level institutions. These institutions include gram vikas mandals (village development local bodies), mahila vikas mandals (women development local bodies), canal irrigation societies, lift irrigation societies, user groups, watershed groups, self-help groups and apex institutions of a group of other institutions. AKRSPI takes up activities through the village cooperative institutions (formal or informal). At the same time, it organizes members into self-help groups, which can be small manageable groups within gram vikas mandals that provide better member participation and control (Shylendra, 1999). While the systems developed for each activity are generic in nature, sufficient allowance has been made for the systems and rules to include aspects pertinent to the local context. AKRSPIs work in Netrang has been along the lines of improving the usage of water in agriculture. The region is predominantly tribal and rich in surface water resources, with much of the potential unutilized. The site that we visited had been a minor irrigation scheme with a storage facility created near a village, but its water was not being supplied. The intervention of AKRSPI was in terms of ensuring the availability of water to the village located just below the storage facility, facilitating the construction of the minors and creating a village-level institution for managing the same. The experience of the villagers has been quite heartening. They are now able to collect much higher charges that what has to be paid to the irrigation department and can use the surplus to meet operational and maintenance requirements. The villagers have also formed a separate fishery cooperative to utilize the water in the reservoir; the income per member is substantial about Rs. 2,500 per year. The institutional arrangements have been well planned: local-level decisions are left to the community groups and there is village-level involvement in planning for the water users group. Gram Gourav Pratishtan (GGP), Purandare The Purandare taluka of Pune district in Maharashtra, which has been suffering from severe drought for the past five years, otherwise too has very

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low normal rainfall. GGP initiated pani panchayats, a social movement for equitable water distribution. The activities undertaken include watershed development, community management of lift irrigations and training programmes for the villagers. The focus of GGP is on the three Es experimentation, execution and education. The activities of pani panchayats relate to the management of lift irrigation systems by groups of users. Their work is characterized by attention to village-level institution building and building peoples capacities in operating, maintaining and decision-making. Pani panchayats also organize watershed activities in new areas. The objective behind the pani panchayat experiment was to provide security of water to every family, including the landless. It is premised on the understanding that watershed planning can be successful only with the restriction of water use to low-water consuming corps and the establishment of a regulatory mechanism for the use and distribution of water. This necessitates an emphasis on institution building. The principles of pani panchayats derived from early experiences are: sharing of water on the basis of number of persons in a family and restricting irrigation to 1 hectare per family; rights to individuals and not to land; beneficiary share of 20 per cent of costs; restriction on the cultivation of perennial crops like sugarcane; and share to landless who can then sharecrop on lands belonging to larger landowners. The water budget concept is used for the estimation of water available for use depending on rainfall, runoff, storage and losses before allocating the available water. Hind Swaraj Trust (HST), Ralegan Siddhi Ralegan Siddhi offers a model of rural development that focuses on the integrated development of the village, with attention to the human, natural resource and spiritual aspects. The key to this model is the watershed programme. The one in Ralegan Siddhi has served as a model for watershed programmes throughout the country. This aspect has been reinforced by the fact that a self-sufficient institute of watershed-related training is located at Ralegan Siddhi. The watershed at Ralegan Siddhi is in many ways a textbook one, large enough to show the impact, and sufficiently small for one to see all the ridges. From a height, it is also possible to make out the slight difference in greenery between the project and non-project areas. The impact of the watershed

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activities of the organization can be seen from the availability of water in wells that still supply water in abundance to the campus and to the village. Ralegan Siddhi has acquired all the characteristics of a model that can be used for training villagers in the use of different technologies, including wastewater treatment, greenhouse construction and the presence of a museum displaying the impact of this experiment. The approach adopted at Ralegan has several distinctive features. These include a social element; a bottom-up approach in planning, execution, evaluation and maintenance; a participatory approach for problem identification and solutions generation; a homogenous group approach; and an approach of decentralization of power, money and decisions. The water management aspects include in-situ harvesting and the management of runoff, water table and water use, which include innovative methods to get optimal yields by directing irrigation to the root zone. The watershed programme at Ralegan Siddhi provides another lesson: a large proportion of local contribution (52 per cent) to meet the total costs. The perceived capabilities needed for watershed development include technical, managerial, social and financial (record-keeping). Therefore, the watershed training programme at Ralegan Siddhi attempts to impart all these capabilities to the trainees. Discussion and Analysis In order to understand the nature of innovation in NGOs, classification was attempted using the existing typologies, as is shown in Table 1. The first observation is that the innovations adopted by NGOs at the field level are not easily classifiable into the categories used for understanding mainstream innovation. All the NGOs studied showed some characteristics of administrative as well as technical innovation. The interventions by these NGOs attempted to change at least one of the two--either the core concepts or the linkages of the core concepts with the components. Regarding adoption rates, all the NGOs seem to emphasize that the impact of the innovation be easily observed so that the others are also induced to adopt it. While the innovations examined had been directed from the top in almost all the NGOs studied, it is also true that these ideas had emerged from earlier interactions at the ground level. Thus, there was a mix of the top-down and bottom-up elements in these innovations.

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Table 1 : Typology of Innovations in Different NGOs

NGO Administrative /Technical 1 Incremental/ Architectural/ Modular/ Radical 2 Radical Attributes Affecting Adoption Rates 3 Top-down/ Bottom-up 4

DHRUVA

Administrative and technical Administrative and technical Administrative and technical Administrative and technical Administrative and technical Administrative and technical

Relative advantage, compatibility, observability Compatibility, observability, low complexity Compatability, observability, low complexity Observability, low complexity Relative advantage, observability Observability

Both top down and bottom up More top down Both top down and bottom up More top down More top down More top down

Sadguru

Architectural

AKRSPI

Modular Architectural Modular Modular

TBS GGP HST 1. 2. 3. 4.

Damanpour (1991); Damanpour et al. (1989). Henderson and Clark (1990). Rogers and Kim (1995). Johnson and Scholes (2002).

The entire chain of the activity related to water falls broadly under the categories shown in Table 2. The NGOs have undertaken different types of activities, made varying use of professionals and other resources, and focused on different segments of the water chain.
Table 2: Stages in the Chain of Water Activities
Area Source augmentation Water management Production Market access Dissemination Activities Measures for water harvesting, deepening of wells, improvement of reservoirs, etc. Improvement of control over water use and evolving institutional mechanisms for allocation of water Measures for ensuring optimum productivity of water use as is seen in the case of the wadi programme. Measures to ensure market realization of the produce attained through productive use of water and other resources Measures to spread information about the model to ensure its replicability and thereby enhance its impact

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The question which arises is: Why has a particular organization focused its activities on a particular part of the water chain? Can it be explained through the mechanism of robust designoffering something that provides the platform on which other variations and generations can be built (Tidd et al., 2001)? The parts of the chain on which the organizations have focused also appear to be linked to their respective resource base. A comparative analysis of the activities of different NGOs is presented in Table 3. The organizations have focused on that part of the chain where they have capabilities, as well as those that are relevant to the context in which they are working. While all the NGOs are working in somewhat similar conditions, they have focused on different types of activities in water management. Four key elements of their innovation can be identified.
Table 3: Nature of Innovations in Different NGOs
NGO Activities with Regard to Water Use of Professionals Part of the Chain Where Activity is Focused
Augmenting the sourceproductionmarket link

Nature of Innovation

DHRUVA

Wadi focus, experimentation with new techniques, linking water harvesting to the wadi programme Water harvesting, focused attention to rivulets, lift irrigation, initiating several complementary activities Focus on perfecting systems instead of rapid scaling up

Use of professionals with specialized skills at the field level (also focus on multifunctional teams) Professionals simultaneously involved in implementation and dissemination Involvement of multidisciplinary professionals at the field level Less and focused use of professionals, more emphasis on mass mobilization Involvement of multidisciplinary professionals at the field level Using a small group of professionals to achieve optimum impactboth for implementation and training

Creative use of forest resource for wadi/forest regeneration, linking water conservation activities to wadi and livelihood options Creating training facilities in project area, focused attention to revival of rivers for impact Evolving systems suitable for different types of locations Cumulative visible impact on water harvesting through mass mobilization Experimentation, evolving new models of institutions for water management and allocation Use of ideal conditions as a model for the replication and dissemination of watershed development

Sadguru

Augmenting source, dissemination

AKRSPI

Management, production, dissemination Augmenting source

TBS

Water harvesting

GGP

Experimenting with peoples institutions

Dissemination

HST

Linking watershed development to the social context, using existing models for training

Dissemination

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First, all the NGOs studied seem to have incorporated the local context into their operations and strategies. Second, the innovations observed are not purely technological; they also involve a social element. Third, the extent of professionalism, especially in operations at the ground level, seems to have influenced the level of innovation. Fourth, the level of local participation appears to exert some influence on the level of innovation, especially in contexts where local knowledge is important. The local context seems to have played a role in the direction of innovations. For instance, the advantages derived from the initial sites appear to direct the nature of subsequent activities, thus displaying path dependence to a certain extent. This also seems to be true of the initial strategies pursued by the promoters of the NGOs. However, these propositions are tentative and need to be validated through further studiesusing a larger sample of NGOs as well as engaging in a more detailed examination of the processes. References
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