Writing Technical Papers

Writing a Technical Paper
Presented by Thomas G. Habetler

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology
Acknowledgements A special thank you to Gail Palmer of the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Georgia Tech.
Gail teaches technical writing to the graduate students in EE, and is the primary source of these materials.
27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology
Engineers as Technical Writers

Entry-level engineers spend 40% of their time writing.
Technical Writing Time
The Disconnect in Technical Writing

Audiences Interests
Abstract Conclusion
Citations and References Analytical Graphics
The Disconnect in Technical Writing

Authors Focus
Body Appendices
Citations and References Detailed Graphics
Method 1 for Solving the Disconnect

Reverse the traditional order of sections:
Introduction Body Results Conclusions
Method 2 for Solving the Disconnect

Add an effective abstract:
Has 2 parts
Foreword Conclusion
Contains 75-200 words in 5-10 sentences Is written in paragraph form
Writing to Connect with the Audience
Abstract and Introduction Conclusion Analytical Graphics
Citations and References

Body Appendices
The Abstract: Part 1 The Foreword

Have you included all necessary background information? 2 Problem
1 Context
Why is it important?
3 Working Thesis or Task
What will you do to solve the problem?
4 Object and Scope of the Document
Are these stated briefly?

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology 9
The Abstract: Part 2 The Results

What happened when you completed the task ?
1 Results
2 Conclusions
What do the results mean? 3 Perspectives
Where do you go from here?
10
Types of Abstracts
Descriptive abstract = IEEE digest
Written before the project is completed Focuses on the problem and the working thesis
Informative abstract
Written after the project is completed Focuses on the results and conclusions of the project
11
Outlining a Technical Document
1 Group Similar Items
2 Order Items in Designated Groups
3 Avoid Common Logical Problems
4 Choose an Outline Format
12
The Introduction
1 State Purpose and Scope of the Document 2 Define the Problem
3 Address Previous Work in the Field
4 Give Reasons for Your Approach to the Problem
13
The Conclusion
1 Present and Interpret Results 2 Assess the Success of the Task/Working Thesis
3 Review the Key Points
4 May Make Recommendations
14
IEEE Technical Paper

Document Sections Paragraphs Sentences
15
An Effective Technical Document

Addresses the audiences needs
Clear Concise Consistent Correct Coherent
Respects constraints Conveys a maximum number of messages given the constraints
16
Clarity in a Technical Document

Analyze the audience: IEEE members = Experts
Abstract
Forecasting Context/Purpose
Graphics
Direct Language and Word Choice
Section Headings
Table of Contents
Citations/ References
17
Conciseness in a Technical Document

Narrow the scope of the document
Introduction Outline
Use graphics
Eliminate unnecessary material

Sections Paragraphs Sentences Words
18
Consistency in a Technical Document

Word choice Formatting
Margins Headings
Mechanics
Capitalization Enumeration Spelling Use of numbers
Style
Person Tone
19
Correctness in a Technical Document

Documentary
Clear Focus on the Problem Topic Coverage
Paragraph Development
Stylistic
Sentence Structure Word Choice
Technical
Mastery of the Subject and Its Vocabulary Analysis of Data
20
Coherence in a Technical Document

Make an outline for yourself Provide a map of the document for readers to follow:
Create section headings from the outline Organize and develop paragraphs Use forecasting
Draft a first version of the document:

Include appropriate amount of background information Explain concepts in detail may be included in the appendices Use technical terms Provide analytical graphics
21
Provide a Map of the Document for Readers

Section Headings
Document
Paragraph Development
Sentence Structure
22
Use Forecasting in a Technical Document
Use forecasting in the introduction What isthe WHOLE of the the parts! Presentthe WHOLEdetails?the parts! the are the before Present Whatcontextbefore discussion? and in section openings.
23
Basic Patterns of Information

Chronological Spatial General to specific More important to less important Comparison and contrast Problem-methods-solution Cause and effect
24
Placing Graphics in a Technical Document

Introduce every graphic. Insert the graphic immediately after the paragraph in which it is first mentioned. Number graphics sequentially in the order in which they appear in the text. Refer to a graphic by number, not by its position in the document.
25
Writing Equations in a Technical Paper

Introduce every equation. Punctuate the equation as though it were text: the equation should read as though it were a sentence. Display each equation by centering its longest line. Number equations sequentially in the order in which they appear in the text. Refer to an equation by number, not by its position in the text.
26
Using Acronyms in a Technical Paper

Spell out the phrase and follow it with the acronym in parentheses when using the acronym for the first time in the text.
A feed-forward neural network (FFNN) scheme for stator winding turn-fault detection in line-connected induction machines was presented.
Capitalize acronyms, but not the words in the phrases they represent. Once acronyms become integrated into English as common nouns, they are no longer capitalized; e.g., laser and radar.
Form the plural of an acronym by adding s without an apostrophe; e.g., FFNNs.
IEEE PELS Technical Paper

28
Drafting a Technical Document

1 Draft on the Outline
2 Start with the Easiest Topics
3 Do Not Research Information or Revise
4 Include New Material
29
Creating Section Headings

1 Follow the Outline 2 Repeat Key Terms in Section Headings
3 Guide Readers through the Material
30
Repeat Key Terms in Section Headings

Paper title: Stator Winding Turn-Fault Detection for Closed-Loop Induction Motor Drives Section headings:
Introduction Detection of Turn-Faults in Open-Loop Drives Detection of Turn-Faults in Closed-Loop Drives Detection of Turn Faults at Low Stator Frequencies Experimental Results Conclusions
31

32
Develop a Paragraph
What does a paragraph do?
Introduces messages Supports the messages Provides a smooth transition to the next message
33
Organize a Paragraph
Topic sentence states the primary idea of the paragraph
Is required Is frequently the first sentence in the paragraph
Supporting sentences support the theme of the topic sentence Transitional devices are essential to paragraph and document cohesion
Repetition of key words Demonstrative pronouns (adjectives) followed by nouns Transitional words and phrases
Sample Transitional Words and Phrases

Cause and effect: consequently, therefore, hence Sequence: first, second, next, and, finally Comparison or contrast: similarly, although, but
Example: of course, in fact, for example,

Purpose: to this end, for this reason Time or location: now, soon, later, here, above
35
Turn a Paragraph into a List What are the advantages of turning a paragraph into a list?
1 Create a Clear Lead-in Sentence 2 Tighten and Clarify the Prose
3 Organize Information Sequentially
4 Make the Items Parallel in Structure
36
Parallel Structure in Lists

Items in a list should be parallel:
Structure Capitalization Punctuation Unacceptable:
There are issues that exist with load power feed-forward control. What are the effects of L and C on the line current waveform? Harmonics in the line current spectrum
Acceptable:
Issues with load power feed-forward control Effects of L and C on the line current waveform Harmonics in the line current spectrum
37

38
Clear Sentences
1 Move from Known to Unknown Information 2 Put the Most Important Facts in the Independent Clause
3 Use the Active Voice for Verbs
4 Use Positive Statements
39
Move from Known to Unknown Information

Known Information:
Research indicates that a healthy bearing will possess a film of lubrication ranging from 0.2 m to 2.0 m thick at normal operating speeds.
Unknown Information:
Given this thickness of lubrication, EDM currents can be caused by 60 Hz shaft voltages as low as 0.2 V to 2 V peak.
Unknown Information:
Another study suggests that it is not the magnitude of the EDM current, but rather the current density within the bearing that directly determines the rate of failure.
40
Put Important Facts in the Independent Clause Weak:

Although this method still needs some investigation, the sequence components of the voltage should also be taken into account.
Strong:
This method still needs some investigation since the sequence components of the voltage should also be taken into account.
41
Use the Active Voice for Verbs

Passive voice:
Low output impedance is exhibited by an uncontrolled diode-bridge rectifier.
Active voice:
An uncontrolled diode-bridge rectifier exhibits low output impedance.
42
Use Positive Statements

Weak:
Do not move from unknown to known information.
Strong:
Move from known to unknown information.
Weak:
Do not put the most important facts in the dependent clause.
Strong:
Put the most important facts in the independent clause.
43
Concise Sentences
1 Combine Sentences 3 Turn Phrases into Adjectives and Adverbs
2 Eliminate Who, Which, and That
4 Avoid Excessive Nominalization
5 Avoid Ineffective Repetition and Fillers
6 Delete Unnecessary Words
44
Combine Sentences
Weak:
The information will be entered into the reports. It will also be included in the graphs.
Strong:
The information will be entered into the reports and included in the graphs.
45
Turn Phrases into Adjectives and Adverbs

Weak:
The entrance to the laboratory.
Strong:
The laboratory entrance.
Weak:
The student studied in a frantic manner.
Strong:
The student studied frantically.
46
Eliminate Who, Which, and That

Weak:
With static eccentricity, the rotor that is displaced from the stator bore center is still running upon its own axis.
Strong:
With static eccentricity, the rotor displaced from the stator bore center is still running upon its own axis.
Weak:
The work that is reported in this paper.
Strong:
The work reported in this paper.
Avoid Excessive Nominalization

Use verbs: avoid using nominalizations and excess nouns.
Weak:
Throughout the trial, the operation of the machine was at a constant load level of 10%.
Strong:
Throughout the trial, the machine was operated at a constant load level of 10%.
Weak:
He made the statement that he agreed with the plan to operate the machine at a constant load level of 10% throughout the trial.
Strong:
He agreed to operate the machine at a constant load level of 10% throughout the trial.
48
Avoid Ineffective Repetition and Fillers

Circular in shape Green in color Completely eliminate Maximize as much as possible In order to obtain the results In view of the fact that I am going to discuss
49
Delete Unnecessary Words

Weak:
Are the detection systems periodically performance testable to verify operability in the event that they are called upon to function?
Strong:
Are the detection systems performance tested periodically?
50
Consistent Sentences
1 Avoid Pronoun Shifts
2 Avoid Verb Tense Shifts
3 Avoid Shifts in Tone
51
Avoid Pronoun Shifts

Incorrect:
I used condition monitoring of our electric machines to ensure consistent and reliable operation of the industrial processes.
Correct:
We used condition monitoring of the (our) electric machines to ensure consistent and reliable operation of the industrial processes.
I used condition monitoring of the (my) electric machines to ensure consistent and reliable operation of the industrial processes. Condition monitoring of the electric machines was used to ensure consistent and reliable operation of the industrial processes.
52
Avoid Verb Tense Shifts

Incorrect:
The controller was implemented in a synchronous reference frame, and PI controllers will be used for both loops to achieve low steady-state error.
Correct:
The controller is implemented in a synchronous reference frame, and PI controllers are used for both loops to achieve low steady-state error.
53
Avoid Tone Shifts

Formal:
Experimental results are provided to validate the feasibility of the method for on-line implementation.
Informal:
Ive provided the experimental results to show you the feasibility of the method for on-line implementation.
54
Correct Sentences
Increase sentence variety
Use simple, compound, and complex sentences Begin sentences with infinitives Add transitional words at the beginning of sentences
Use parallelism Use articles (a, an, and the) correctly
55
Sentence Variety: Simple Sentences

One Independent Clause = Simple Sentence
An independent clause has a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought.
Simple subject and simple verb:
Two sets of training results are presented in this paper.
Compound subject and simple verb:

With this method, misalignments, broken magnets, demagnetized magnets, and static and dynamic eccentricities can be detected.
Simple subject and compound verb:

Figure 7 shows the current fault frequency components of all the faults at different operating conditions and includes the measurements for the static eccentricity.
Sentence Variety: Compound Sentences

Independent Clause + Independent Clause = Compound Sentence
Two or more independent clauses are joined together by a coordinating conjunction to form a sentences. Both clauses are equally important; hence, they are coordinate clauses.
The bearing was removed from the shaft, and the shaft was then machined smaller at the front end of the motor.
Note: A comma is required before the coordinating conjunction that joins the two clauses.
57
Sentence Variety: Complex Sentences

Independent Clause + Independent Clause = Compound Sentence
A dependent clause is joined to an independent clause by a conjunctive adverb.

Although results for a stator turn-fault detection scheme were presented for illustration, the algorithms are entirely general and can be applied to any NN-based diagnostic scheme.
Note: If the dependent clause comes before the independent clause, the dependent clause is followed by a comma.
58
Sentence Variety: Beginning Sentences with an Infinitive

To + A Verb = An Infinitive
An infinitive is formed when to precedes the base form of a verb.

To implement the static eccentricity, the stator housing boring is increased (on its one side only) by machining it.
59
Parallelism in Sentences
Parallelism parts of a sentence that are the same in function should be the same in structure.
Weak:
The dotted line represents the vibration from a machine equipped with a new bearing, and the solid line is representing the vibration from a machine equipped with the original bearing that has been reinstalled.
Strong:
The dotted line represents the vibration from a machine equipped with a new bearing, and the solid line represents the vibration from a machine equipped with the original bearing that has been reinstalled.
60
The Correct Use of Articles

Questions to ask yourself when you use a noun in English:
Do I need to use an article? If so, which article should I use: a, an, or the?
Answers:
Use an article (or other determiner) if you are referring to one noun or all of a noun. Use an article with all singular countable nouns, unless another determiner is present. These refer to a specific amount (one). Use an article before plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns that refer to a specific group or subset of the noun.
The cats in the park are furry. Cats make great pets. The sleeplessness suffered by graduate students is almost universal. Sleeplessness is a common problem.
Use an article before an uncountable noun if the noun refers to a specific group. This is particularly common with species of animals, inventions, or musical instruments.
The Internet has revolutionized communication among the global community.
Which article is appropriate?

Never use an indefinite article with a plural countable noun or with an uncountable noun.
Unlike BJTs, MOS transistors have a negative thermal coefficient.
Do not use the definite article when referring to uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns in a general sense.
The discovery of transistors led to the invention of integrated circuits.
Use the definite article whenever a noun is used with a superlative adjective (most or least with the modifier or adding est to the modifier), with the word same, or with an ordinal number (first, fourth).
The most commonly used protocol is TCP/IP. The first cellular telephone was a type of short-wave analog transmission.
62
Articles and Demonstrative and Possessive Adjectives
Demonstrative and possessive adjectives are determiners. Since a noun phrase takes only one determiner, do not use an article if the noun is modified with a demonstrative adjective or a possessive adjective.
63
The Definite Article

The:
Use the before a noun that is specific and is known to the reader. The fault signature, the PELS Conference Use the before a singular noun that refers to an entire class of items. The negative-sequence component of line currents Use the before a superlative adjective, with the word same, or with an ordinal number. The best PELS conference, the 4th item
64
Indefinite Articles
A or an:
Use a or an before a noun that is nonspecific; i.e., the noun is not unique. An asymmetry caused by a stator winding turn fault
Use a or an before a noun that is not known to the reader. An estimate of fault severity Use a or an before a noun that serves as a random example. A current (torque) command Use a before a noun that begins with a consonant. A closed-loop drive Use an before a noun that begins with a vowel (a, e, I, o, or u). An AC motor drive Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds. Note: Some words whose first letter is a consonant (hour) actually begin with a vowel sound, and other words whose first letter is a vowel (unit) actually begin with a consonant sound.
Coherence in Sentences
1 Repeat Key Terms and Use Specific Terms
2 Use Pronouns with Clear Antecedents
3 Show Direction and Order with Transitional Devices
4 Follow Demonstrative Pronouns with Nouns
66
Repeat Key Terms

Repeat key terms:
When experimental bearing fault data is collected for research purposes, the test bearings are typically seeded with faults by hand and then placed in a test motor. Bearing faults generated in this manner are referred to as offline faults.
67
Use Specific Terms

Be specific let the reader know exactly what a term means:
System: Does system mean an entire system? Does system mean a subsection of an entire system? Terribly, extremely, very much: Which of these adverbs is better? Which is worse?
Use the same word for the same term:

Technique Scheme Method Algorithm
Use Pronouns with Clear Antecedents

Weak:
The experimental method employed in this research utilizes a shaft current to generate online, in situ bearing faults.Researching the details of these and investigating methods to mitigate their adverse effects are active research topics.
Strong:
The experimental method employed in this research utilizes a shaft current to generate online, in situ bearing faults.Researching the details of these types of bearing faults and investigating methods to mitigate their adverse effects are active research topics.
69
Show Order with Transitional Devices

The first necessary step in such a scheme. Therefore, for a given fault threshold setting. Nevertheless, at low stator frequencies. Additionally, details on the physical effect. Hence, the fault signature is contained.
Note: An introductory transitional word is followed by a comma.
70
Follow Demonstrative Pronouns with a Noun

Weak:
There is a difference in the negative sequence component in the 7th harmonic between the normal motor and the static eccentricity for all the operating conditions. If this is seen without any increase in the fault harmonic components, it could be an indication of a static eccentricity. This still needs some investigation since the sequence components of the voltage should also be taken into account.
Strong:
There is a difference in the negative sequence component in the 7th harmonic between the normal motor and the static eccentricity for all the operating conditions. If this situation is seen without any increase in the fault harmonic components, it could be an indication of a static eccentricity. This method still needs some investigation since the sequence components of the voltage should also be taken into account.
Checklist for Revising a Document

Clarity Is a clear forecasting plan (including an abstract) presented early in the document? Does the document follow this plan? Do the section headings divide the document logically? Are the intellectual context and purpose of the document clearly stated? Did you use direct language and appropriate word choices? Do the graphics contain analytical details?

Conciseness Did you narrow the scope of the document? Did you eliminate unnecessary material?
Sections Paragraphs Sentences Words
Did you simplify the graphics so that the analytical information is apparent?
73

Consistency
Did you use the same word choice for the same item throughout the document? Do the section headings match those listed in the table of contents? Do the graphic titles match those in the list of figures and tables? Did you check for pronoun, verb, person, voice, and tone shifts? Did you verify the mechanics issues?
Capitalization Enumeration Spelling Use of numbers
Are the format issues the same throughout the document?

Margins Headings Fonts

Correctness Did you verify the data entries and quantitative information? Did you review the content of the graphics? Did you add table columns horizontally and vertically? Did you verify the content and order of citations and documentation?
75

Coherence
Did you analyze the audience? Did you provide a map of the document for readers? Did you provide appropriate background information? Did you explain concepts and graphics in analytical detail?
Did you develop paragraphs fully?

Did you check the structure and variety of sentences? Did you use transitional devices? Do the graphics follow the order in which they are introduced in the text?
76
Technical Writing Resources

http://users.ece.gatech.edu/~gpalmer/ece8020/index.shtml http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/es/Aug1996/030/cd/write/begin.htm L. C. Perelman, J. Paradis, and E. Barrett. The Mayfield Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1998. D. Beer and D. McMurrey. A Guide to Writing as an Engineer. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997. W. Strunk, Jr. and E.B. White. The Elements of Style, Fourth Edition. New York: Longman, 2000.
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Writing Technical Papers

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Writing Technical Papers

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Writing a Technical Paper

Presented by Thomas G. Habetler

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

Engineers as Technical Writers

Technical Writing Time

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

The Disconnect in Technical Writing

Citations and References Analytical Graphics

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

The Disconnect in Technical Writing

Citations and References Detailed Graphics

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

Method 1 for Solving the Disconnect

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

Method 2 for Solving the Disconnect

Contains 75-200 words in 5-10 sentences Is written in paragraph form

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

Writing to Connect with the Audience

Abstract and Introduction Conclusion Analytical Graphics

Citations and References

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

The Abstract: Part 1 The Foreword

3 Working Thesis or Task

What will you do to solve the problem?

4 Object and Scope of the Document

Are these stated briefly?

The Abstract: Part 2 The Results

What do the results mean? 3 Perspectives

Where do you go from here?

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

Outlining a Technical Document

1 Group Similar Items

2 Order Items in Designated Groups

3 Avoid Common Logical Problems

4 Choose an Outline Format

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

3 Address Previous Work in the Field

4 Give Reasons for Your Approach to the Problem

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

3 Review the Key Points

4 May Make Recommendations

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

IEEE Technical Paper

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

An Effective Technical Document

Respects constraints Conveys a maximum number of messages given the constraints

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

Clarity in a Technical Document

Direct Language and Word Choice

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

Conciseness in a Technical Document

Eliminate unnecessary material

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

Consistency in a Technical Document

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

Correctness in a Technical Document

Sentence Structure Word Choice

Mastery of the Subject and Its Vocabulary Analysis of Data

27 July 2010 Austrian Institute of Technology

Coherence in a Technical Document

Draft a first version of the document: