Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
AUGUST 4, 2004
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CONTENTS
Introduction What is Design? Theory versus Practice Difference between Design and Engineering What do we mean by Design Process? Generic Design Approaches. Ship Design Approaches. Impact of Computers on Design. Systems Engineering. Difference between naval ship and commercial ship design. Tools to assist ship design Ship Design References
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The presenter acknowledges that many of the figures that he used are taken from some of the references listed at the end. An asterisk is used to identify such references. However, the presenter takes full responsibility for the document and the statements therein.
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INTRODUCTION Most practicing ship designers probably do not think too much about why they prepare ship designs the way they do. They probably learned it by following a mentor early in their careers. Academics that teach ship design need to document the different approaches and even give their students an opinion on which is better. Fortunately, there has been considerable research into design in all disciplines over the past few decades and they can be examined and tested in the context of ship design. The presentation will try to frame some of them again in the context of ship design by specifically addressing the topics listed in the contents.
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WHAT IS DESIGN? Today there is still a general lack of understanding of the essence of design. Design is the arrangement of elements that go into human productions. Design is not a body of knowledge. It is the activity that integrates the existing bodies of knowledge, to achieve a given outcome. Design is a highly manipulative activity in which the designer has to continuously and simultaneously pay attention to, and balance, several factors that influence the design outcome. To design is to invent. To design is to make decisions.
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WHAT IS DESIGN? (Continued) Because of the incompleteness of knowledge at the different design stages when decisions are being made, it is traditional to reexamine them at subsequent points in time when more knowledge is developed. This process of reexamination is the traditional iterative nature of design and is recognized as an integral part of the process. However, there are ways to design that eliminate the need for iteration and thus save design time and effort.
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THEORY VERSUS PRACTICE A debate currently rages in the engineering design community as to whether design should be taught primarily by establishing a foundation of theory or by engaging students in loosely supervised practice. For the broader activity of product design and development, we reject both approaches when taken to their extremes. Theory without practice is ineffective because there are many nuances, exceptions and subtleties to be learned in practical settings and because some necessary tasks simply lack any theoretical underpinnings. Practice without guidance can too easily result in frustration and fails to exploit the knowledge that successful product development professionals and researchers have accumulated over time.
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THEORY VERSUS PRACTICE (Continued) Today there are still strong defenders of both extremes. However, it is likely that over time the theory approach will prevail. This will be aided by the needs of computer applications in design, in that computers are still dumb machines, and require process classification and principles in order for them to be programmed. One reason that the theory of design has developed so slowly (it was first proposed in the late 1950s) is that most engineers do not receive formal education in design.
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THEORY VERSUS PRACTICE (Continued) That this is so is validated from the fact that the NAS Engineering Education Report (NAS, 1995) states many times that design theory and practice are lacking from current curriculums and need to be an integral part of all future engineering undergraduate education. Another reason is the very wide range of products and services provided by engineers prevents the agreement of a universal theory of design and will probably never happen. Rather each branch of engineering will develop its own specific theory of design. We are close today on reaching a theory of ship design that will be acceptable to most ship designers.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DESIGN AND ENGINEERING Engineering is a very misused word. It can be used to describe, a profession, the process of developing a design into working instructions, and a type of manufacturing We will be considering the second case only. One of the earliest definitions of Engineering, from the Charter of the Institution of Civil Engineers is the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man. In Architecture, architects design the building but engineers do the analysis and construction details. Another idea was offered by Dr. S. Erichsen and is Designers create and Engineers analyze.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DESIGN AND ENGINEERING (Continued) Some people see Design as a part of Engineering. In this sense they see some engineers design and some analyze the design of others. I prefer to separate them because they use different approaches and have different goals. So for the remainder of this presentation: Design decides all technical matters Engineering develops and documents the design to enable its manufacture.
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WHAT DO WE MEAN BY DESIGN PROCESS? By Process we refer to a series of actions or operations conducing to an end. In reference to design process it is interchangeable with Methodology. Both process and methodology thus are procedures for completing activities. The procedures are structured, that is a step by step description and a framework or template for the key information and decision making. Some people think such structuring constrains innovation and creativity. In actual fact it saves time which in turn can be used to develop innovative and creative solutions.
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WHAT DO WE MEAN BY DESIGN PROCESS? (Continued) Documented design processes provide the following advantages: - The process is made explicit. It is known to everyone, allowing an understanding of the design rationale and reducing the possibility of proceeding with unsupported decisions. - Ensures that important design issues are considered. - Structured processes are largely self-documenting; in the process of executing the process a record of the decisions is created, for future reference and for educating new designers. - Standardization within companies and even industries.
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WHAT DO WE MEAN BY DESIGN PROCESS? (Continued) All design has a process, either by desire or by accident. A good process, if followed, will produce an effective design for the minimum of effort and in the shortest time. Practitioners of ship design have developed design processes over many years. The process can be a learning tool thus saving new designers time. When performed on the computer, this process is blurred by speed, but the process is still there, imbedded in the program.
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WHAT DO WE MEAN BY DESIGN PROCESS? (Continued) Documented design processes usually have developed over time by trial are error and the best (efficient in effort and duration) is reached by evolution. Some developers of such processes for ship design have presented their processes in technical books and papers. There are exceptions to the gradual evolution approach by developers who applied Systems Engineering approaches to develop requirements for and a solution for the ship design process and they are include in the references.
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GENERIC DESIGN Pahl & Beitz Model APPROACHES (Continued) Here the Process comprises of a number of steps wherein the main phases include clarifying the task, conceptual design, embodiment design and detailed design. At every step a decision must b made as to whether the next step can be taken or whether previous steps need to be repeated.
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GENERIC DESIGN APPROACHES (Continued) SET-BASED DESIGN Set-Based Design is a term describing a process in which designersmust draw inferences about sets of artifacts (physical objects) under sets of operating conditions; they cannot simply simulate or analyze single, completely specified designs. This contrasts iterative, or point-to-point, approaches which synthesize a single solution and then evolve the design through a series of analyses, evaluations and modifications.
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MISSION/OWNER'S REQUIREMEMNTS
ALTERNATIVE 3
ALTERNATIVE 4
BOUNDED DESIGN
BOUNDED DESIGN
BOUNDED DESIGN
BOUNDED DESIGN
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GENERIC DESIGN APPROACHES (Continued) SET-BASED DESIGN (Continued) Posing alternative design solutions as sets, as opposed to point solutions. Deferred commitment in general, with or without explicit specification of sets defining the design space, the timing of which requires knowledge of the supplier lead times associated with the decision deferred. Design structure matrix for use when a specific design direction has been established or alternatives are being explored. Design redundancy when task sequence cannot be structured to avoid iterative loops and team problem solving is not feasible.
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SHIP DESIGN APPROACHES For over three decades the Design Spiral has been used by many designers to describe and develop a process. It is inherently iterative in concept with the goal to zero in on a single solution as quickly as possible. I prefer, and have used all my design life the Design Bounding approach. In the last decade the Set Based Design approach, accredited to Toyota, has been offered as the best approach.
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DESIGN SPIRAL
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Andrews 3D Spiral
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SHIP DESIGN APPROACHES (Continued) The Total Product-oriented Design and Engineering Process
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BOUNDED DESIGN
DESIGN
PROPORTIONS AMD PRELIMINARY POWERING LINES AND BODY PLAN HYDROSTATICS AND BUOYANCY FLOODABLE LENGTH ARRANGEMENTS STRUCTURE POWERING LIGHTSHIP WEIGHT ESTIMATE CAPACITIES TRIM AND STABILITY DAMAGED STABILITY COST SETIMATE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Notes: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Final 3 designs ALL meet the technical requirements Select design from three contenders based on some merit factor On average takes half the time even less Results in better design
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Design process can be highly automated at this level of detail (concept exploration & earlier)
INPUTS
Mission Needs Statement Performance Specs CONOPS ORD Desirements
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
Functional decomposition of requirements Operational impact of performance Combat Systems payload
CONCEPT EXPLORATION
Multiple ship solutions Impact Studies ROM Cost estimates COEA/AoA
CONCEPT VALIDATION
Point design(s) Detailed trade studies Risk management plan Cost Estimates
TOOLS
None Required
TOOLS
CRADLE
TOOLS
CEM (Frigate and Carrier Only)
TOOLS
ASSET TRIBON/FlagShip CATIA/MasterSeries
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IMPACT OF COMPUTERS ON DESIGN Some people claim that computers eliminated the need for a design process. In actual fact, where there was no process documentation, it was necessary that processes be developed as a way to define the flow of information. While a user of a design synthesis program may not see or understand the process used by the program, it is there. Because of the speed of computations the computer can perform in a millisecond what took days and even weeks manually. This does not eliminate the need for a process that is efficient in operation.
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SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
In recent years some proponents of Systems Engineering have proposed its use almost as if it was a design approach. While Total Design has always considered both the design of individual systems and the integration of the systems, systems engineering does not include the design, only the organization and management of the design. Systems Engineering (SE) developed because of two reasons. The first is that engineers in the U.S. had become so specialized (F. Taylor approach - Scientific Management) and that someone needed to take the responsibility for the total system (Completed Product). In the case of ships the naval architect always had this responsibility and still maintains it in most shipbuilding countries. However, in the U.S., the naval architects allowed this responsibility to be taken away from them. The second reason is that some systems have become so complex that a better way to design and manage the design has become essential.
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SYSTEMS ENGINEERING (Continued) SE is a process not an engineering discipline. Design is a decision making process and the selection of design parameters represents decisions. Therefore, SE is a design management process. It should be obvious that as SE is a structured approach, its successful implementation is even more dependent, than less structured approaches, that a structured approach to its management is available and used.
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SYSTEMS ENGINEERING (Continued) Some proponents of SE see it as a panacea for handling complex products. However, for a long time the marine industry has produced some of the most complex and largest products in the world. Dr. John van Griethuysen has stated that: In many ways systems engineering is no more than a generalized model of, and framework for thinking about, the engineering process, which needs tailoring to be applicable to a particular product and project. It is therefore self-evident that marine products have always been designed and produced using a form of "systems engineering" even if those particular words were rarely used. It is also true that much of naval architecture and marine engineering concerned with design and management is undoubtedly an example of systems engineering.
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SYSTEMS ENGINEERING (Continued) SE is good engineering with certain designated areas of emphasis top down approach life cycle orientation better initial design requirement definition team approach A ship is composed of many systems often with conflicting requirements. Some people look at it as a system of systems. SE focuses on managing the design of systems and on systems analysis. Managing the design of systems covers the process of developing systems into new products Systems analysis covers the improvement of existing systems.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NAVAL SHIP AND COMMERCIAL, AND U.S. AND REST OF WORLD SHIP DESIGN Number of designers and man-hours significantly different at least by a factor of 10. Commercial and naval ships have significantly different scopes at early stages such as Concept and Preliminary. A naval ship Concept Design is more like a commercial Preliminary Design. Commercial shipowners do not pay for pre-award design effort (except where, for some reason, they go to a Design Agent). The U.S. ship designers, generally, prepare many more documents for Contract Design than most other shipbuilding countries. Normal U.S. Contract Design for commercial ship would consist of up to 40 drawings and 800 page specification. Rest of the world would have 3 to 6 drawings and 10 to 100 page specification. This is a hang over from the MarAd days when they were the contractors and administrators of the U.S. commercial shipbuilding program as well as the focus on naval ship design.
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TOOLS TO ASSIST SHIP DESIGN Early computer based tools were for calculations, such as hydrostatics and stability. Today we have design synthesis (ASSET and Michigan SDS), analysis (FEM, CFD, Safehull, Mystro), Surface Modeling (Rhinoceros), CAD (AutoCad, Fast ship, MacSurf, TRIBON) and CAE (CALMA). Many design tools have a link to design management and production tools. Problem is how to teach latest design tools to students (not enough time or interest by faculty). Student Friendly Software Project will have a beneficial impact on this problem.
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TOOLS TO ASSIST SHIP DESIGN (Continued) Design of Experiments (DOE) Considering right things Robust Design (Taguchi) Repeatability and consistency Design for X where X can be:
Operation Manufacture Production Disposal Etc. Needed to offset specialization that has become entrenched over decades. Also based on understanding that there are many users of the design information.
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) Better design decisions Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) Pair wise Comparison
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TOOLS TO ASSIST SHIP DESIGN (Continued) NEEDED TOOLS You would think after all the years we would have great ship design tools. However, we are mostly dissatisfied with what we have and are seeking better. The U.S. Navy has identified many inadequacies. ONR project to integrate stand alone tools with a multivariate Optimization Tool shows that there is a need we do not have the tools we need yet. Need a good naval ship mission analyses/effectiveness tool. Need a better cost estimating tool. Need a life-cycle design tool.
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SHIP DESIGN REFERENCES (Continued) DESIGN OPTIMIZATION AND SHIP DESIGN SYNTHESIS
An Investigation into the Influence of Preference Modelling in Ship Design with Multiple Objectives, P. Sen and J. B. Yang, Proceeding of the 6th International Symposium on Practical design of Ships and Mobile Units, The Hague, the Netherlands, September 1998 Analysis of Ship Design under Uncertainty in the Multiple Criteria Decision Making Framework, T. Ray, R. P. Gokran, and O.P. Sha, Proceeding of the 6th International Symposium on Practical design of Ships and Mobile Units, The Hague, the Netherlands, September 1998 Survey of Ship Design Methods and Illustration of Multiattribute Decision Making System for Concept Ship Design, G. Trincas, ????? Ship Synthesis Model Morphology, D. E. Calkins, SNAME Spring Meeting/STAR, June 8-10, 1988 A Hybrid Agent Approach for Set-Based Conceptual Ship Design, M. G. Parsons, D. J. Singer and J. A. Sauter, ICCAS, 1999 The Application of Multi-Objective Robust Design Methods in Ship Design, R. I. Whitfield, B. Hills and G. Coates, ICCAS 1999 Preliminary Design Computer Synthesis Modeling and Cost Estimating, T. R. Schiller, J. Daidola, J. Kloetzli and J. Pfister, ICCAS 1999
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HULL FORM
An Advanced Methodology for Preliminary Hull Form Development, W-C. Lin, W. G. Day, J J. Hough, R. G. Keane, D. A. Walden and I-Y. Koh, ASNE NEJ, July 1984 Form Parameter Approach to the design of fair Hull Shapes, S. Harris and H. Nowaki, ICCAS 1999 Parametric Geometry and Optimization of Hull Forms, M. I. G. Bloor and M. J. Wilson, ICCAS 1999
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VIRTUAL REALITY
Virtual Environments in the Development of Ships, O. P. Jons, ICCAS 1994 Virtual Reality and Ship Design, F. Alonso, P. Burnet, and L. Garcia, ICCAS 1997 The UK Virtual Ship The Way Forward, T. Anderson, ASNE NEJ, January 2000 Virtual Reality Techniques for Ship and Submarine Design, J. Martin, ICCAS 1997 The Use of Simulation in the Design and Procurement of Naval Systems, G. Henry and J. Langley, ICCAS 1997
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