Calculus Tutorial

Indefinite Integral
If 'f' and 'g' are functions of 'x', such that g'(x)=f(x) then the function 'g' is called an integral of 'f' with respect to 'x', and is written symbolically as: f(x)dx = g(x) + c where: f(x) is called the integrand and 'c' is called the constant of integration Note: If d/dx f(x) = g(x) then d/dx {f(x) + c} = g(x) Where 'c' is constant, because differentiation of a constant is zero. Thus the general value g(x)dx is f(x)+c, where 'c' is the constant of integration.

Clearly integral will change if 'c' changes. Thus integral of a function is not unique, hence it is called indefinite integral. Standard Results: These standard results for integral calculus are derived directly from the standard results of differential calculus Differential Calculus Integral Calculus

d/dx(xn+1/ n+1) = xn

xn dx =(xn+1/n+1) + C [n not =1]

d/dx loge|x| = 1/x

1/x dx = loge|x| + c [n= -1]

d/dx ex = ex

ex dx = ex + c

Mean,Median,Mode and Range

Basic definitions and examples More general definitions and examples Mean,median,mode and range for an Inclusive Series

Mean To find the mean of a group of numbers we find their average example: A group of numbers 1,3,8,6,8 mean = (1+3+6+8+8)/5 = 4.8 Median To find the median of a group of numbers we arrange the numbers in increasing order and look for the number in the middle. example: A group of numbers 1,3,8,6,8 re-arrange: 1,3,6,8,8 6 being in the middle is the median. Mode To find the mode we look for the number which appears for the most number of times in a group of numbers. example: A group of numbers 1,3,8,6,8 8 is the number which appears twice, which is more than the other numbers in the list hence itis the mode. Range To find the range we find the difference between the largest number and the smallest number in the group. example: A group of numbers 1,3,8,6,8 8 is the largest and 1 the smallest number hence range is 8 - 1 = 7

Permutation and Combination

<<(restricted combination) previous | next (circular permutation)>> Permutation : Permutation means arrangement of things. The word arrangement is used, if the order of things is considered. Combination: Combination means selection of things. The word selection is used, when the order of things has no importance. Example: Suppose we have to form a number of consisting of three digits using the digits 1,2,3,4, To form this number the digits have to be arranged. Different numbers will get formed depending upon the order in which we arrange the digits. This is an example of Permutation. Now suppose that we have to make a team of 11 players out of 20 players, This is an example ofcombination, because the order of players in the team will not result in a change in the team. No matter in which order we list out the players the team will remain the same! For a different team to be formed at least one player will have to be changed. Now let us look at two fundamental principles of counting: Addition rule : If an experiment can be performed in n ways, & another experiment can be performed in m ways then either of the two experiments can be performed in (m+n) ways. This rule can be extended to any finite number of experiments. Example: Suppose there are 3 doors in a room, 2 on one side and 1 on other side. A man want to go out from the room. Obviously he has 3 options for it. He can come out by door A or door B or door C.

Multiplication Rule : If a work can be done in m ways, another work can be done in n ways, then both of the operations can be performed in m x n ways. It can be extended to any finite number of operations. Example.: Suppose a man wants to cross-out a room, which has 2 doors on one side

and 1 door on other site. He has 2 x 1 = 2 ways for it.

Factorial n : The product of first n natural numbers is denoted by n!. n! = n(n-1) (n-2) ..3.2.1. Ex. Note 5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 =120 0! = 1

Proof n! =n, (n-1)! Or (n-1)! = [n x (n-1)!]/n = n! /n

Putting n = 1, we have O! = 1!/1 or 0 = 1 Permutation Number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time is given by:n

Pr

n!/(n-r)!

Proof:

Say we have n different things a1, a2, an.

Clearly the first place can be filled up in n ways. Number of things left after filling-up the first place = n-1 So the second-place can be filled-up in (n-1) ways. Now number of things left after fillingup the first and second places = n - 2 Now the third place can be filled-up in (n-2) ways.

Thus number of ways of filling-up first-place = n Number of ways of filling-up second-place = n-1 Number of ways of filling-up third-place = n-2 Number of ways of filling-up r-th place = n (r-1) = n-r+1 By multiplication rule of counting, total no. of ways of filling up, first, second -- rth-place together :n (n-1) (n-2) ------------ (n-r+1)
n

Pr

Hence: = n (n-1)(n-2) --------------(n-r+1)

= [n(n-1)(n-2)----------(n-r+1)] [(n-r)(n-r-1)-----3.2.1.] / [(n-r)(n-r-1)] ----3.2.1

n

Pr = n!/(n-r)!

Number of permutations of n different things taken all at a time is given by:n

Pn

n!

Proof : Now we have n objects, and n-places. Number of ways of filling-up first-place = n Number of ways of filling-up second-place = n-1 Number of ways of filling-up third-place = n-2 Number of ways of filling-up r-th place, i.e. last place =1 Number of ways of filling-up first, second, --- n th place = n (n-1) (n-2) ------ 2.1.

Pn = n!

Concept. We have
n

Pr =

n!/n-r

Putting r = n, we have :n

Pr = n! / (n-r)
n

But

Pn = n!

Clearly it is possible, only when n! = 1 Hence it is proof that 0! = 1

Note : Factorial of negative-number is not defined. The expression 3! has no meaning. Examples Q. How many different signals can be made by 5 flags from 8-flags of different colours? Ans. Number of ways taking 5 flags out of 8-flage = 8P5

= 8!/(8-5)! = 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 = 6720 Q. How many words can be made by using the letters of the word SIMPLETON taken all at a time? Ans. There are 9 different letters of the word SIMPLETON Number of Permutations taking all the letters at a time = 9P9 = 9! = 362880.

Number of permutations of n-thing, taken all at a time, in which P are of one type, g of them are of second-type, r of them are of third-type, and rest are all different is

given by :n!/p! x q! x r! Example: In how many ways can the letters of the word Pre-University be arranged? 13!/2! X 2! X 2! Number of permutations of n-things, taken r at a time when each thing can be repeated rtimes is given by = nr. Proof. Number of ways of filling-up first place = n Since repetition is allowed, so Number of ways of filling-up second-place = n Number of ways of filling-up third-place Number of ways of filling-up r-th place = n Hence total number of ways in which first, second ----r th, places can be filled-up = n x n x n ------------- r factors. = nr Example: A child has 3 pocket and 4 coins. In how many ways can he put the coins in his pocket. Ans. First coin can be put in 3 ways, similarly second, third and forth coins also can be put in 3 ways.

So total number of ways = 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 34 = 81 more >>>

Circular Permutations
<<(premutation and combination) previous | next (restricted permutations}>> Circular permutations There are two cases of circular-permutations:(a) (b) If clockwise and anti clock-wise orders are different, then total number of circular-permutations is given by (n-1)! If clock-wise and anti-clock-wise orders are taken as not different, then total number of circular-permutations is given by (n-1)!/2!

Proof(a):

(a)

Lets consider that 4 persons A,B,C, and D are sitting around a round table

Shifting A, B, C, D, one position in anticlock-wise direction, we get the following agreements:-

Thus, we use that if 4 persons are sitting at a round table, then they can be shifted four times, but these four arrangements will be the same, because the sequence of A, B, C, D, is same. But if A, B, C, D, are sitting in a row, and they are shifted, then the four linear-arrangement will be different.

Hence if we have 4 things, then for each circular-arrangement number of lineararrangements =4 Similarly, if we have n things, then for each circular agreement, number of linear arrangement = n. Let the total circular arrangement = p Total number of lineararrangements = n.p Total number of lineararrangements = n. (number of circular-arrangements) Or Number of circular-arrangements = 1 (number of linear arrangements) n = 1( n!)/n circular permutation = (n-1)! Proof (b) When clock-wise and anti-clock wise arrangements are not different, then observation can be made from both sides, and this will be the same. Here two permutations will be counted as one. So total permutations will be half, hence in this case. Circularpermutations = (n-1)!/2 Note: Number of circular-permutations of n different things taken r at a time:(a) If clock-wise and anti-clockwise orders are taken as different, then total number of circular-permutations = nPr /r (b) If clock-wise and anti-clockwise orders are taken as not different, then n total number of circular permutation = Pr/2r Example: How many necklace of 12 beads each can be made from 18 beads of different colours? Ans. Here clock-wise and anti-clockwise arrangement s are same.

Hence total number of circularpermutations: = 18!/(6 x 24)

18

P12/2x12

Restricted Permutations (a) Number of permutations of n things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is to be always included in each arrangement = r n-1 Pr-1 (b) Number of permutations of n things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is fixed: = n-1 Pr-1 (c) Number of permutations of n things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is never taken: = n-1Pr. (d) Number of permutations of n things, taken r at a time, when m specified things always come together = m! x ( n-m+1) ! (e) Number of permutations of n things, taken all at a time, when m specified things always come together = n ! - [ m! x (n-m+1)! ] Example: How many words can be formed with the letters of the word OMEGA when: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Ans. O and A occupying end places. E being always in the middle Vowels occupying odd-places Vowels being never together.

(i)

When O and A occupying end-places

=> M.E.G. (OA) Here (OA) are fixed, hence M, E, G can be arranged in 3! ways But (O,A) can be arranged themselves is 2! ways. => Total number of words = 3! x 2! = 12 ways. (ii) When E is fixed in the middle => O.M.(E), G.A.

Hence four-letter O.M.G.A. can be arranged in 4! i.e 24 ways. (iii) Three vowels (O,E,A,) can be arranged in the odd-places (1st, 3rd and 5th) = 3! ways. (2nd,

And two consonants (M,G,) can be arranged in the even-place 4th) = 2 ! ways => Total number of ways= 3! x 2! = 12 ways. (iv) Total number of words = 5! = 120!

If all the vowels come together, then we have: (O.E.A.), M,G These can be arranged in 3! ways.

But (O,E.A.) can be arranged themselves in 3! ways. => Number of ways, when vowels come-together = = 36 ways 3! x 3!

=> Number of ways, when vowels being never-together = 120-36 = 84 ways.

Number of Combination of n different things, taken r at a time is given by:n

Cr= n! / r ! x (n-r)!

Proof: Each combination consists of r different things, which can be arranged among themselves in r! ways. => For one combination of r different things, number of arrangements = For nCr combination number of arrangements: => Total number of permutations = r!
n

r!

Cr

Cr ---------------(1)

But number of permutation of n different things, taken r at a time = nPr -------(2) From (1) and (2) :
n

Pr =

r! . nCr

or or
n

n!/(n-r)! = r! . nCr Cr = n!/r!x(n-r)!

Note: nCr = nCn-r or

n

Cr

= n!/r!x(n-r)! and nCn-r = n!/(n-r)!x(n-(n-r))!

= n!/(n-r)!xr! Restricted Combinations

(a) Number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time, when p particular things are always included = n-pCr-p. (b) Number of combination of n different things, taken r at a time, when p particular things are always to be excluded = n-pCr Example: players? if (i) A particular player is always chosen, (ii) A particular is never chosen. Ans: (i) A particular player is always chosen, it means that 10 players are selected out of the remaining 14 players. =. Required number of ways = = 14!/4!x19! = 1365 (ii) A particular players is never chosen, it means that 11 players are selected out of 14 players. => Required number of ways = = 14!/11!x3! = 364 (iii) Number of ways of selecting zero or more things from n different things is given by:- 2n-1 Proof: Number of ways of selecting one thing, out of n-things Number of selecting two things, out of n-things =nC2 = nC1
14 14

In how many ways can a cricket-eleven be chosen out of 15

C10 = 14C4

C11

Number of ways of selecting three things, out of n-things =nC3 Number of ways of selecting n things out of n things = nCn =>Total number of ways of selecting one or more things out of n different things = nC1 + nC2 + nC3 + ------------- + nCn = (nC0 + nC1 + -----------------nCn) - nC0 = 2n 1 [ nC0=1]

Example: John has 8 friends. In how many ways can he invite one or more of them to dinner? Ans. John can select one or more than one of his 8 friends.

=> Required number of ways = 28 1= 255. (iv) Number of ways of selecting zero or more things from n identical things is given by :- n+1 Example: In how many ways, can zero or more letters be selected form the

letters AAAAA? Ans. Number of ways of : Selecting zero 'A's = 1 Selecting one 'A's = 1 Selecting two 'A's =1

Selecting three 'A's = 1 Selecting four 'A's = 1

Selecting five 'A's

= 1 [5+1]

=> Required number of ways = 6 (V)

Number of ways of selecting one or more things from p identical things of one type q identical things of another type, r identical things of the third type and n different things is given by :-

(p+1) (q+1) (r+1)2n 1 Example: Find the number of different choices that can be made from 3 apples,

4 bananas and 5 mangoes, if at least one fruit is to be chosen. Ans: Number of ways of selecting apples = (3+1) = 4 ways. Number of ways of selecting bananas = (4+1) = 5 ways. Number of ways of selecting mangoes = (5+1) = 6 ways. Total number of ways of selecting fruits = 4 x 5 x 6 But this includes, when no fruits i.e. zero fruits is selected => Number of ways of selecting at least one fruit = (4x5x6) -1 = 119 Note :- There was no fruit of a different type, hence here n=o => 2n = 20=1 (VI) Number of ways of selecting r things from n identical things is 1. Example: In how many ways 5 balls can be selected from 12 identical red balls? Ans. The balls are identical, total number of ways of selecting 5 balls = 1.

Example: How many numbers of four digits can be formed with digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5? Ans. Here n = 5 And r = 4 Required number is
5

[Number of digits] [ Number of places to be filled-up] P4 = 5!/1! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1

more >>>

Restricted Permutations (a) Number of permutations of n things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is to be always included in each arrangement = r n-1 Pr-1 (b) Number of permutations of n things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is fixed: = n-1 Pr-1 (c) Number of permutations of n things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is never taken: = n-1Pr. (d) Number of permutations of n things, taken r at a time, when m specified things always come together = m! x ( n-m+1) ! (e) Number of permutations of n things, taken all at a time, when m specified things always come together = n ! - [ m! x (n-m+1)! ]

Example: How many words can be formed with the letters of the word OMEGA when: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Ans. (i) When O and A occupying end-places O and A occupying end places. E being always in the middle Vowels occupying odd-places Vowels being never together.

=> M.E.G. (OA) Here (OA) are fixed, hence M, E, G can be arranged in 3! ways But (O,A) can be arranged themselves is 2! ways. => Total number of words = 3! x 2! = 12 ways. (ii) When E is fixed in the middle => O.M.(E), G.A.

Hence four-letter O.M.G.A. can be arranged in 4! i.e 24 ways. (iii) Three vowels (O,E,A,) can be arranged in the odd-places (1st, 3rd and 5th) = 3! ways. (2nd,

And two consonants (M,G,) can be arranged in the even-place 4th) = 2 ! ways => Total number of ways= 3! x 2! = 12 ways.

(iv) Total number of words = 5! =

120!

If all the vowels come together, then we have: (O.E.A.), M,G These can be arranged in 3! ways.

But (O,E.A.) can be arranged themselves in 3! ways. => Number of ways, when vowels come-together = = 36 ways => Number of ways, when vowels being never-together = 120-36 = 84 ways. 3! x 3!

Number of Combination of n different things, taken r at a time is given by:n

Cr= n! / r ! x (n-r)!

Proof: Each combination consists of r different things, which can be arranged among themselves in r! ways. => For one combination of r different things, number of arrangements = For nCr combination number of arrangements: => Total number of permutations = r!
n

r!

Cr

Cr ---------------(1)

But number of permutation of n different things, taken r at a time = nPr -------(2) From (1) and (2) :
n

Pr =

r! . nCr

or or
n

n!/(n-r)! = r! . nCr Cr = n!/r!x(n-r)!

Note: nCr = nCn-r or

n

Cr

= n!/r!x(n-r)! and nCn-r = n!/(n-r)!x(n-(n-r))!

= n!/(n-r)!xr! Restricted Combinations (a) Number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time, when p particular things are always included = n-pCr-p. (b) Number of combination of n different things, taken r at a time, when p particular things are always to be excluded = n-pCr Example: players? if (i) A particular player is always chosen, (ii) A particular is never chosen. Ans: (i) A particular player is always chosen, it means that 10 players are selected out of the remaining 14 players. =. Required number of ways = = 14!/4!x19! = 1365
14

In how many ways can a cricket-eleven be chosen out of 15

C10 = 14C4

(ii) A particular players is never chosen, it means that 11 players are selected out of 14 players. => Required number of ways = = 14!/11!x3! = 364 (iii) Number of ways of selecting zero or more things from n different things is given by:- 2n-1 Proof: Number of ways of selecting one thing, out of n-things Number of selecting two things, out of n-things =nC2 Number of ways of selecting three things, out of n-things =nC3 Number of ways of selecting n things out of n things = nCn =>Total number of ways of selecting one or more things out of n different things = nC1 + nC2 + nC3 + ------------- + nCn = (nC0 + nC1 + -----------------nCn) - nC0 = 2n 1 [ nC0=1] = nC1
14

C11

Example: John has 8 friends. In how many ways can he invite one or more of them to dinner? Ans. John can select one or more than one of his 8 friends.

=> Required number of ways = 28 1= 255. (iv) Number of ways of selecting zero or more things from n identical things is given by :- n+1

Example:

In how many ways, can zero or more letters be selected form the

letters AAAAA? Ans. Number of ways of : Selecting zero 'A's = 1 Selecting one 'A's = 1 Selecting two 'A's =1

Selecting three 'A's = 1 Selecting four 'A's = 1 Selecting five 'A's = 1 [5+1]

=> Required number of ways = 6 (V)

Number of ways of selecting one or more things from p identical things of one type q identical things of another type, r identical things of the third type and n different things is given by :-

(p+1) (q+1) (r+1)2n 1 Example: Find the number of different choices that can be made from 3 apples,

4 bananas and 5 mangoes, if at least one fruit is to be chosen. Ans: Number of ways of selecting apples = (3+1) = 4 ways. Number of ways of selecting bananas = (4+1) = 5 ways. Number of ways of selecting mangoes = (5+1) = 6 ways.

Total number of ways of selecting fruits = 4 x 5 x 6 But this includes, when no fruits i.e. zero fruits is selected => Number of ways of selecting at least one fruit = (4x5x6) -1 = 119 Note :- There was no fruit of a different type, hence here n=o => 2n = 20=1 (VI) Number of ways of selecting r things from n identical things is 1. Example: In how many ways 5 balls can be selected from 12 identical red balls? Ans. The balls are identical, total number of ways of selecting 5 balls = 1. Example: How many numbers of four digits can be formed with digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5? Ans. Here n = 5 And r = 4 Required number is
5

[Number of digits] [ Number of places to be filled-up] P4 = 5!/1! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1

more >>>

Restricted Combinations
<<(restricted permutation) previous | next (permutation and combination)>> Restricted Combinations (a) Number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time, when p particular

things are always included = n-pCr-p. (b) Number of combination of n different things, taken r at a time, when p particular things are always to be excluded = n-pCr Example: In how many ways can a cricket-eleven be chosen out of 15 players? if

(i) A particular player is always chosen, (ii) A particular is never chosen. Ans: (i) A particular player is always chosen, it means that 10 players are selected out of the remaining 14 players. =. Required number of ways = = 14!/4!x19! = 1365 (ii) A particular players is never chosen, it means that 11 players are selected out of 14 players. => Required number of ways = = 14!/11!x3! = 364 (iii) Number of ways of selecting zero or more things from n different things is given by:- 2n-1 Proof: Number of ways of selecting one thing, out of n-things Number of selecting two things, out of n-things =nC2 Number of ways of selecting three things, out of n-things =nC3 = nC1
14 14

C10 = 14C4

C11

Number of ways of selecting n things out of n things = nCn =>Total number of ways of selecting one or more things out of n different things = nC1 + nC2 + nC3 + ------------- + nCn = (nC0 + nC1 + -----------------nCn) - nC0 = 2n 1 [ nC0=1]

Example: John has 8 friends. In how many ways can he invite one or more of them to dinner? Ans. John can select one or more than one of his 8 friends.

=> Required number of ways = 28 1= 255. (iv) Number of ways of selecting zero or more things from n identical things is given by :- n+1 Example: In how many ways, can zero or more letters be selected form the letters AAAAA? Ans. Number of ways of : Selecting zero 'A's = 1 Selecting one 'A's = 1 Selecting two 'A's =1

Selecting three 'A's = 1 Selecting four 'A's = 1 Selecting five 'A's = 1

=> Required number of ways = 6 (V)

[5+1]

Number of ways of selecting one or more things from p identical things of one type q identical things of another type, r identical things of the third type and n different things is given by :-

(p+1) (q+1) (r+1)2n 1 Example: Find the number of different choices that can be made from 3 apples, 4 bananas

and 5 mangoes, if at least one fruit is to be chosen. Ans: Number of ways of selecting apples = (3+1) = 4 ways. Number of ways of selecting bananas = (4+1) = 5 ways. Number of ways of selecting mangoes = (5+1) = 6 ways. Total number of ways of selecting fruits = 4 x 5 x 6 But this includes, when no fruits i.e. zero fruits is selected => Number of ways of selecting at least one fruit = (4x5x6) -1 = 119 Note :- There was no fruit of a different type, hence here n=o => 2n = 20=1 (VI) Number of ways of selecting r things from n identical things is 1. Example: In how many ways 5 balls can be selected from 12 identical red balls? Ans. The balls are identical, total number of ways of selecting 5 balls = 1.

Example: How many numbers of four digits can be formed with digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5? Ans. Here n = 5 And r = 4 Required number is
5

[Number of digits] [ Number of places to be filled-up] P4 = 5!/1! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1

Binomial Theorem Tutorial

Binomial expression: An algebraic expression consisting of two terms with a positive or negative sign between them is called a binomial expression. Example: (a+b), ( P / x2) (Q / x4) etc. Binomial Theorem: When a binomial expression is raised to a power n we would like to be able to expand it. The binomial theorem assists us in doing this. It converts such an expression into a series. Binomial Theorem for positive integral index: (x+y)n = xn + nC1xn-1y+nC2xn-2y2+-----+nCrxn-ryr+ -------+---------+nCn-1xyn-1 + ncnyn. It can be represented as: (x+y)n =
n

Crxn-ryr

Particular Cases : (i) Replacing y by -y, we have :

(x-y)n = nCoxyo-nC1xn-1y+nC2xn-2y2-------+(-1)r nCrxn-ryr+------+(-1)n nCnxoyn. It can be represented as : (x+y)n = (ii) (-1)r nCrxn-ryr

Replacing x by 1 and y by x, we have :

(1+x)n = nCoxo+nC1x+nC2x2+---------+nCrxr+------+nCn-1xn-1+nCnxn.

or (ii)

Crxr

Replacing x by -x, we have : +(-1)n

n

(1+x)n = nCoxo-nC1x1+nC2x2 - ---------+(-1)r nCrxr+------+nCn-1(-1) n-1 or = (-1)rnCrxr

Cnxn.

Properties of Binomial Expansion (x+y)n : (i) (ii) (iii) There are (n+1) terms in the expansion. In each term, sum of the indices of x and y is equal to n. In any term, the lower suffix of c is equal to the index of y, and the index of x = n-(lower suffix of c). Because nCr = nCn-r, so we have :
n

(iv)

Co = nCn

C1=nCn-1 C2=nCn-2 etc.

It follows that the coefficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and the ends are equal. EXAMPLES (1) Simplify (x+v(x2-1)) + (x- v(x2-1))6

Solution: let vx2-1 = a, so we have: (x=a)6 + (x-a)6 = [x6+6C1x5.a+6C2.x4.a2 + 6C3x3a3 + 6C4x2a4 + 6C5xa5 +6C6a6] + [x6-6C1x5a+6C2.x4.a2 6C3x3a3 + 6C4x2a4 6C5xa5 +6C6a6] = 2[x6+6C2x4a2+6C4x2a4+6C6a6] = 2[x6+15x4(x2-1)+15x2(x2-1)2+(x2-1)3] = 2[x6+15x6-15x4+15x6+15x2-30x4+x6-1-3x4+3x3] = 2[32x6-48x4+18x2-1] Q2: In the expansion of (x+a)n, if the sum of odd-terms be P and sum of even be Q Prove that: (i) (ii) Sol.: P2-Q2 = (x2-a2)n 4PQ = (x+a)2n (x-a)2n

(x+a)n = xn+nC1xn-1a + nC2xn-2a2+nC3xn-3a3 + ------- + nCnan = (xn+nC2xn-2a2 + ---------) + (nC1xn-1a+nC3xn-3a3+ ------)

(x+a)n = P+Q ------------------------> (1) and (x-a)n = xn - nC1xn-1a+nC2xn-2a2-nC3xn-3a3 + ----+ (-1)n nCnan = (xn+nC2xn-2a2 + ----) (nC1xn-1a+nC3xn-3a3+------) (x-a)n = P Q ----------------> (2) Now we have : (1) P2 Q2 = (P+Q) (P-Q) = (x+a)n (x-a)n = P2 Q2 = (x2-a2)n (2) 4 PQ = (P+Q)2 (P-Q)2 = 4 PQ = (x+a)2n (x-a)2n

Q4. Sol.:

Prove that (101)50 > (100)50 + (99)50 (101)50 = (100+1)50 = (100)50 + 50c1(100)49 + 50c2(100)48 + -------+1 ------> (i) (99)50 = (100-1)50 = (100)50 50c1(100)49 + 50c2(100)48 - --------+1 ------>(ii)

eq(i) eq(ii) : (101)50 (99)50 = 2[50C1(100)49 + 50C3(100)47 + --------] = 2 x ( 50!/ 1! X 49!) (100)49 + 2. 50C3 (100)47 + -------

= 100 x (100)49 + (A positive number) = (100)50 + (A positive number) (101)50 (99)50 > (100)50 or (101)50 > (101)50 + (99)50 General Terms : (r +1) th term from beginning in (x+y)n is called general term, and it is denoted by Tr+1 = nCrxn-ryr Explanation: We know (x-y)n = nCoxnyo+nC1xn-1y1+nC2xn-2y2+----+nCnxoyo Here: First term T1 = nCoxnyo T2 = nC1xn-1y1 T3 = nC2xn-2y2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------Tr = nCr-1 xn-(r-1) yr-1

Putting r = r+1 in this expression, we get: General Term: Tr+1 = nCr xn-r yr Note : Tr can be used as general terms also. Problem based on General Terms Type : 1_ Q4 Find the 7th term in the expansion of [4x (1 / 2vx)]13 Sol : T7 = T6+1 = = = =
13 13

C6(4x)13-6

- (1/2vx) 6 1 /(26.x3)

C6.47x7. C6. 28.x4

13

13!/ (6!x7!) =

. 28. x4

T7 = 439296x4 (ax 1/ bx2)

11

Type II :

Find the coefficient of x-7 in the expansion of

Sol.: General Term , Tr+1 =

11

Cr(ax)11-r

- (1/ bx2 ) r

Tr+1 = (-1)r 11Cr. (a11-r / br) x11-3r Putting 11 3r = -7 Or 3r = 18 r=6 From (i) to

--------------> (i)

T7 = (-1)6 11C6. ( a5 / b6) x-7 --------------> (i)

Hence, the coefficient of x-7 in ax- (1 / b x2) 11 is 11C6a5b-6 Type III : Find the term independent of x in [(3 x2 / 2) (1/ 3x) ] 9
r

Sol.: General Term, Tr+1

= 9Cr (3 x2 / 2) 9-r (1/3x) = (-1)r 9Cr (

3/2) 9-r x18-2r

(1

3r.

xr

Tr+1 (i)

(-1)r9 Cr (39-2r /

29-r).

x18-3r ------->

Putting 18- 3 r = o r = 6 So, from (i), 7th term is independent of x, and its value is: T7 = (-1)6 . 9C6. (3-3 / 23) xo = = 9 ! /(6! X 3!) . 1/ (33 x 23) T7 = (7/18)

Pth term from end: Pth term from end in the expansion of (x+y)n is (n-P+2)th term from beginning. Ex.: Find the 4th term from the end in the expansion of [ (x3/2) - (2/x2) ] 7 Sol.: T5 4th term from end = (7-4+2)th or 5th term from beginning. = T4+1 = 7C4 (x3/2)7-4 . (-2/x4) 4 ( -2/ x2) 4

= 7C4 (x3 /2) 3 =

7! / (4! X 3!) . (x9/8) . (16/ x8)

= (7.6.5 / 3.2.1) T5 = 70x

.2x

Hence 4 term, from the end = 70x. Middle Terms: It depends upon the value of n. Case -1 : When n is even, then total number of terms in (x+y) n is odd. So there is only one middle term i.e. [(n/2) + 1] th them is the middle term. So we find (Tn+1/2). th term in this case, if n is even. Case II : When n is odd, then total number of terms in (x+y)n is even. So there are two middle terms i.e. (n+1) /2 th and (n+3) /2 th are true middle terms. so we find T(n+1)/2 th and T(n+3)/2 th in this case if n is odd.

Ex.: Find the middle term in the expansion of [ 3x (x3 / 6)]9 Sol.: Here total no. of terms are 10 (even). So there are true middle-terms i.e (9+1) / 2 th and (9+3) / 2 th. So we have to find out T5 and T6. T5 = = T4+1 = 9C4(3x)9-4 (-x3 / 6) 4 .35 x5 ( x12 / 64) 35 / (24 x 34) x17 x17

9! / (4! X 5!)

= (9.8.7.6 / 4.3.2.1) T5 T6

= (189 / 8)

= T5+1 = 9C5(3x)9-5 (-x3 / 6) 5

9! / (5! X 4!)

.34 x4 (x15 / 65) 34(25 x 35) x19

= -(9.8.7.6 / 4.3.2.1) T6

= - ( 21 / 16) x19

Greatest term in (1+x)n : If Tr and Tr+1 be the r th and (r+1)th terms in the Expansion of (1+x)n, then : Tr+1 And Tr = nCr(1)n-r xr = nCr xr = nCr-1. xr-1 = (n-r+1)/r |x|

So: Tr+1 / Tr = (nCr xr / nCr-1 xr-1)

If Tr+1 be the greatest term, then Tr+1 Tr Or Tr+1 / Tr 1

since (n-r+1) / r. |x| >=1, where r is a + ve integer. This inequality, changes either to the form r<=m+f pr r <= m, where m is a + ve integer and f is a fraction. So we get: r <= m + f ---------------> (i) or r <= m ------------------> (ii)

In case (i), Tm+1 is the greatest term, and in case (i) Tm and Tm+1 are the greatest terms, and both are equal. Short-cut: First calculate m = | x (n+1) / (x + 1) |

Case (1) If m is an integer, then Tm and Tm+1 are the greatest terms and both are equal. Case (2) If m is not an integer, then T[m]+1 will be the greatest term, where [.] denotes greatest integer function. Ex.: Find numerically the greatest term in the expansion of (2+3x), when x = (3 / 2)

Sol.: 1 Method :

(2+3x)9 = 29 [1+ 3x / 2]

In the expansion of [(1 + 3x) / 2] 9, we have : Tr+1 / Tr = = ((10 r)/r) (9-r+1)/ r

3

|3x / 2|

| (3/2) x(3/2) | 9/4

= (10 r) / r x Tr+1 / Tr Putting

= (90- 9r) / 4r Tr+1 / Tr >= 1

(90-9r) / 4r >= 1 or or r or 90 >= 13 r 90 / 13 + 12 / 13

r <= 6

T6+1 or T7 is the greatest term.

T7 in [1 T7 =

+ (3x / 2)] 9
9

= T6+1 =

C6 (3x / 6) 6 x (3 / 2)] 6

9! / (3! X 6!) .[ (3 / 2) = (9 .8.7 / 3.2.1)

x (96 / 46) = (3 x 7 x 312) / 210

= (3 x 7 x 96) / 45 = 7. (313 / 210)

So greatest term in (2+ 3x)9 is : = 29. 7. (313 / 210) = (7 x 313) / 2

II- Method : (2+3x)9 = = 29 [1 + 9 / 4] since x = 3 / 2

9

29 [(1 + 3x) / 2]

Here m = | x (n + 1) / (x + 1)| = | 9/4 (9+1) / 9/4 + 1| = 90 / 13 So greatest term in the expansion is T[m]+1 = T3+1 = T7 Now the method is same as in method (1) Greatest Coefficient : In any binomial expansion middle-term has the greatest. Coefficient. So

(i) (ii)

If n is even, then greatest coefficient = nCn/2 If n is odd, then greatest coefficients are nC(n+1)/ 2 and nC
(n-1)/2

Properties of Binomial coefficients : (1) The sum of binomial coefficient in (1 + x)n is 2n. Proof (1 + x)n = Co+C1x+C2x2 + ----- + Cnxn-----------> (i) Putting x = 1 : 2n = Co + C1 + C2 + ----------- + Cn -----------> (ii)

Ex.: Prove that the sum of the coefficients in the expression (1+x 3x2)2163 is -1. Sol.: Putting x = 1 in (1 + x 3x2)2163 Some of the coefficients = (1 + 1 3)2163 = (-1)2163 = -1 (2) The sum of the coefficients of the odd-terms in (1+x)n is equal to the sum of coefficients of the even terms and each is equal to 2n-1. Proof: Putting x = -1, in eg(1) : O = Co C1 + C2 C3 + ------ + (-1)nCn and from (ii): 2n = Co + C1 + C2 + --------- + Cn Adding these egn:

2n = 2 ( Co + C2 + C4 + ---------------) or Co + C2 + C4 + ------- = 2n-1 Subtracting these egn: 2n = 2 (C1 + C3 + C5 + --------------) or C1 + C3 + C5 + ------- = 2n-1 From (iii) and (iv) : C0 + C2 + C4 + ------- = C1 + C3 + C5 + ------- = 2n-1 Ex.: Evaluate the sum of the 8C1 + 8C3 + 8C5 + 8C7 Sol.: since nC1 + nC3 + nC5 + nC7 + -------- = 2n-1 Here n = 8
8

------------> (ii)

------------> (iv)

C1 + 8C3 + 8C5 + 8C7 = (28-1)

= 27 = 128 ( 8C9, 8C11 etc. are not possible) Some important results: (i) (ii) (iii) In the expansion of (1+x)n, coefficient of xr = nCr In the expansion of (1-x)n, coefficient of xr = (-1)r. nCr If n is a negative integer or fraction, then

(1+x)n = 1 + (n / 1!) x + [ n (n-1)/ 2!] x2 + [n(n-1)(n-2) / 3!] x3 + -------------

+ [n(n-1)(n-2) -----------(n-r+1) / r!]xr + -------------Here | x | <1, i.e. 1<x<1 is necessary for its validity. (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) In (1+x)n, general term Tr+1 = [n(n-1)(n-2) -------------(n-r+1) / r!]. x2
n

Cr + nCr-1 = n+1Cr x = y or x + y = n
n-1

Cx = nCy

Cr = n/ r.

Cr-1

Multinomial theorem : (For a +ve integral index): If nN, and x1, x2, x3, --------xm C, then (x1 + x2 + x3 + ---------+xm)n = ? n! / (n1! n2! ---nm!) x1n1, x2n2 .xmnm

Where n1, n2, n3 --------, nm are non-negative integers, satisfying the condition n1 + n2 + -----------+nm = n Note: The coefficient of x1n1. x2n2. ---------xmnm in the expansion of (x1 + x2 + x3 + ------------------- + xm)n is : = n! / (n1! x n2! ---nm!) So, general-term in (a+b+c+d)n = n! / (p! x q! x r! x s!). ap.bq.cr.ds. Where p+q+r+s = n, and p, q, r, s W. (2) Number of terms in (x1 + x2 + x3 + --------- + xm)n :
n+m-1

Cm-1.

Ex.: Find the number of terms in the expansion of (2x 3y + 4z)100

Sol.: Number of terms =

100+3-1

C3-1 = 102C2 102 ! / (2! X 100!)

= (102 x 101) / (2 x 1) = 5151 General term of a multinomial theorem : Tr+1 = n! / (n1! x n2! ---nm!) x1n1. x2n2 -----------xmnm EXAMPLES Q1. Find the coefficient of x3 y4 z2 in the expansion of (2x 3y + 4z)9.

Sol. General Term in (2x 3y + 4z)9 = = 9! / (n1! X n2! X n3!). (2x)n1. (-3y)n2. (4z)n3 9! / (n1! X n2! X n3!). 2n1 (-3)n2. (4)n3. xn1. yn2. zn3

Putting n1 = 3, n2 = 4, n3 = 2 : = 9! / (3! x 4! x 2!). 23 (-3)4. (4)2. x3 y4 z2 x3 y4 z2

= [ 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4!/ (3.2.1. 4!.2)] x 8 x 81 x 16

Coefficient of x3 y4 z2 = 9 x 8 x 7 x 5 x 8 x 81 x 8 = 13063600 Greatest coefficient in the expansion of (x1 + x2 + -------- + xm)n is = n! / (q!) m-r ( q+1!) r

Where q is the quotient and r is the remainder, when n is divided by m.

Ex.: Find the greatest coefficient in the expansion of (a + b + c + d) 15. Sol.: Here n = 15, m = 4 15/4 is quotient 3 and remainder 3. since q = 3 and r = 3 Hence greatest coefficient = = = 15! / [(3!) x (4!)3 ] 15! / (3! x 4! x 4! x 4!) 15! / [(3!) 4-3 x (3+1!)3]

Ex.: Find the coefficient of x7 in the expansion of (1+3x-2x3)10. Sol.: = = General term in (1+3x-2x3)10 10! / (n1! x n2! x n3!). (1)n1 (3x)n2 (-2x3)n3 10! / (n1! x n2! x n3!). 3n2 (-2)n3 xn2+3n3

Where n1 + n2 + n3 = 10 --------------> (i) For coefficient of x7 : n2 + 3n3 = 7 -------------> (ii) From (ii), possible non-negative integral values of n2 and n3 are : n2 = 7, n3 = o n2 = 1, n3 = 2 or n2 = 4, n3 = 1 since from (i) : since from(i) : since from (i): n1 = 3 n1 = 7 n1 = 5

So required coefficient of x7 : 10! / (3! x 7! x 0!) . (3)7 (-2)0 + 10! / (7! x 1! x 2!). (3)1(-2)2 + 10! /(5! x 4! x 1!).

34 (-2)1 (10. 9. 8 7!) / (7!.3.2.1).37 + (10. 9. 8. 7!) / (7! . 2) x 3 x 4 (5!. 4.3.2.1.)] .3. 2. = 10 x 9 x 4 x 36 + 10 x 9 x 4 x 3 x 4 10 x 9 x 7 x 6 x 33 x 2 = 10 x 9 x 4 (36 + 12 7 x 34) = 360 x (729 + 12 567) = 62640 Some tips on the solution of binomial coefficients: (1) If the difference of the lower suffixes of binomial coefficients in each term is same. For Ex.: C1 C3 + C2 C4 + C3 C5 + ------ etc. Then : Case -1 : If each term is positive, then (1+x)n = C0 + C1x + C2x2 + ------------ Cn xn -----------------> (i) Interchanging 1 and x: (x+1)n = C0 xn + C1 xn-1 + C2 xn-2 + --------- + Cn ------------->(ii) Then multiplying (i) and (ii), and equate the coefficient to suitable power of x on both sides. Case II : If terms are alternately positive and negative Then: (1-x)n = C0 C1 x + C2 x2 - -------------- + (-1)n Cn xn ---------------> (1) [(10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5! ) /

and

(x+1)n = C0 xn + C1 xn-1 + C2 xn-2 + ---------- + Cn -------------> (2)

The multiplying (1) and (2), and equate the coefficient of suitable power of x on both sides. Note : [ (Odd number) / 2] = 8 (2) If the sum of the lower suffixes of binomial coefficients in each term is same.

For Ex.: C0 Cn + C1 Cn-1 + C2. Cn-2 + ------- + Cn C0 Then: Case 1 : If each term is positive, then (1+x)n = C0 + C1 x + C2 x2 - -------------- + Cn xn ---------------> (1) and (1+x)n = C0 xn + C1 x + C2 x2 + ---------- + Cn xn-------------> (2)

Then multiplying (i) and (ii), and equate the coefficient of suitable power of x on both sides. Case II : If terms are alternately positive and negative, The and (1+x)n = C0 + C1 x + C2 x2 - -------------- + Cn xn ---------------> (1) (1-x)n = C0 - C1 x + C2 x2 + ---------- + (-1)n Cn xn-------------> (2)

Then multiplying (i) and (ii) and equating the coefficient of suitable power of x on both side. PROBLEMS (1) Show that the middle term in the expansion of (1+x)2n is 1. 3. 5 ------- (2n-1) / (n!) . 2n xn, n being a positive integer.

Sol.:

The no. of terms in (1+x)2n Its ,middle-term = (2n + 1) / 2

= =

2n+1 (odd). (n+1)th term.

Tn+1

= =

2n

Cn xn

2n! / (n! x n!). xn

= 2n (2n-1) ------ 4.3.2.1 / (n! x n!). xn = [{(2n-1) (2n-3) ----- 3.1.} { 2n (2n-2) ------ 4.2.}] / (n! x n!). xn = [{1. 3. 5. ---- (2n-1)} 2n {1.2 ---- n}] / (n! x n!) . xn = [{1.3.5----(2n-1)}. 2n] / (n! x n!). xn = Tn+1 (2) (i) = 1. 3. 5 (2n-1) / (n!). 2n xn

Find the term independent of x in the expansion of (1+x+2x3) [(3 x2 / 2) (1/3x)] 9

(ii) Sol.: (i)

[( x1/3 / 2) + x-1/5]

(1+x+2x3) [(3/2)x2 - (1/3x)] 9 (1+x+2x3) { [(3/2)x2] 9 - 9C1 [(3/2)x2 ]

8

1/3x + ---------- +

+ 9C6 [(3/2)x2] 3 (1/3x)6 - 9C7 [(3/2)x2] 2 (1/3x)7 ---} = (1+x+2x3) { [(3/2)x2 ] 9 9C1 (37 / 28)x15 + ---- + 9C6 (1 x 1 / 23 x 33) 9C7 1/ (22 x 35) 1/ x3 + ----}

Term independent of x :

C6 x 1/ (23 x 33)

C7

2 / (22 x 35)

= = = (ii)

9! / (6! x 3!) . 1/ (8 x 27) - 9!/(7! x 2!) . 1/ (2 x 243) (9. 8. 7. 6!) / ( 6!. 3. 2. 1.) x 1/(8. 27) - (9. 8. 7!) / (7! . 2). 1/ (2.243) 7 / 18 2 / 27 = 17 / 54

[(1 / 2) x1/3 + x-1/5] 8

Sol.:

General Term Tr+1

= nCr [(1/2) x1/3] n-r. (x-1/5) r

n-r -r

= nCr [(1/2) n-r] x 3 x Here n = 8 = 8Cr (1/2) 8-r x (8-r)/3

40 -8r

-r/5

Tr+1

= 8Cr (1/2)

8-r

15

---------------> (i)

Putting (40 8r) / 15

= 0, we have r = 5

From (i), Term independent of x : T6 = 8C5 (1/2) 8-5 = = 8! / (5! X 3!) . 1 / 23 (8. 7. 6. !5) / (5!. 3.2.1) . 1 / 8

= (3) Sol.:

T6 = 7

Find the coefficient of x in the expansion of (1-2x3 + x5) [1 + (1/x)]8 (1-2x3 + 3x5) [1 + (1/x)]
8

= (1-2x3 + 3x5) [1 + 8C1 (1/x) + 8C2 (1/ x2) + 8C3 (1/ x3 ) + 8C4 (1/ x4)+ 8C5 (1/ x5 )+ --+ 8C8 (1/ x8) coefficient of x = -2. 8C2 + 3 8C4 = -2. 8! / (2! x 6!) + 3. 8! / (4! x 4!) = -2. (8. 7) / 2 = -56 + 210 = 154 (4) Prove that the ration of the coefficient of x10 in (1-x2)10 and the term independent of x in [x (2/x)] 10 is 1 : 32. Sol.: In (1-x)2 : Tr+1 = Putting r = 5 T6 = -10C5 x10 Coefficient of x10 = -10C5 In [x (2/x)] : Tr+1 =
10 10

+ 3

(8. 7. 6. 5.) / (4.3.2.1)

Cr (-1)r (x2)r

Cr (-1)r (x)10-r (2/x)r

= (-1)r 10Cr. 2r. x10-2r Putting 10 2r = 0

r = 5 So term independent of x : T6 Hence their ratio = (-1)5 10C5. 25

= (-10C5) : (-32. 10C5) = 1 : 32

(6) Sol.:

If third term in the expansion of (x + x logx)5 is 10,00,000. Find the value of x. Putting log10x = z in the given expression : We have : ( x + xz)5 T3 = T2+1 = 5C2 (x)5-2 (xz)2 = 5C2 x3. x2z = 5! / (2! x 3!) x2z+3

(5 x 4) / 2! x2z+3

= T3 = 10x2z+3 10,00,000 = 10. x2z+3 Or x2z+3 = 105 (10z)2z+3 = 105 or 102z2+3z = 105 2z2 + 3z = 5

[Log10x = z] or 2z2 + 3z 5 = 0

or (z-1) (2z+5) = 0 z = 1, - 5 / 2

or log10x = 1 or log10x

= - 5/2

since x = 10 or 10-5/2 (7) If in the expansion of (1+x)m (1-x)n, the coefficients of x and x2 are 3 and 6 res. Find the value of m. Sol.: (1+x)m (1-x)n = [mC0 + mC1x + mC2x2 + ---- + mCm xm] [nCo nC1x + nC2x2 + ------- + (-1)n nCnxn] Coefficient of x = mC1 x nCo mC0. nC1 = m! / ( 1! x m-1!) x 1 1 x n! / (1! x n-1!)

= m n = 3 ---------------> (i) Coefficient of x2 = -mC1 x nC1 +nC0 x mC2 + mC0 x nC2 = x n! / (2! x n-2!) m!/ (1! x m-1!) x n! / (1! x n-1!)+ 1 x m! / (2! x m-2!) +1

= -mn + m (m-1) / 2 + n(n-1) / 2 = -6 or 2mn + m(m-1) + n(n-1) = -12 or -2mn + m2 m + n2 n = 12 or (m-n)2 (m+n) = -12 From (i), putting the value of (m-n) : - 9 + (m + n) = 12 or m + n = 21 -----------> (ii) egn (i) + egn(ii) = 2m = 24

m = 12 Q8. If the coefficients of (2r + 1)th term and (r + 2)th term in the expansion of (1 + 43 x) are equal, find r. Sol.: In (1 + x)43 : T2r+1 =
43

C2r. x2r
43

Coefficient = And Tr+2 = 43Cr+1 xr+1

C2r

Coefficient = 43Cr According to the questions:

43

C2r =

43

Cr+1

2r + r + 1 = 43

or 3r = 42 r = 14

Q9. If the coefficient of 4th and 13th terms in the expansion of [x2 + (1/x)] n be equal, then find the term which independent of x. Sol.: T4 = T3+1 = nC3 (x2)n-3. 1/ x3

Coefficient = nC3 T13 = T12+1 = nC12 (x2)n-12 1 / x12

Coefficient = nC12 According to the question:

n

C3 = nC12 n = 12 + 3

n = 15

Expansion = [x2 + (1/x)]15 Now Tr+1 =

15

Cr. (x2)15-r. 1/ xr

Tr+1 =

15

Cr. x30-3r -------------> (i)

Putting : 30 3r = 0 r From (i) T11 = = 10

15

C10 =

15!/(10! x 5!) = (15 x 14 x 13 x 12 x 11) / (5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1)

= 3003. Q10. In the expansion of (a b)n, n <= 5, if the sum of the 5th and 6th terms is zero. Find ( a / b) in terms of n. Sol.: T5 = T4+1 = nC4 (a)n-4 (-b)4 T5 = nC4 an-4 b4 T6 = T5+1 = nC5 (a)n-5 (-b)5 = -nC5 an-5 b5 T5 + T6 = 0
n

C4 an-4 b4 nC5 an-5 b5 = 0

or nC4 an-4 b4 = nC5 an-5 b5 or n!/(4! x n-4!) an-4 = n!/(5! x n-5!) an-5 b

or or or

an-4 / (n-4)(n-5!) an-4 / an-5 a(n-4)-(n-5) =

= =

an-5 / 5(n-5!) b b / 5 (n-4)

(n 4) / 5 .b

or or

a a/b

(n 4)/5 . b

= (n 4) / 5

Q11. Sol.:

Find the coefficient of xr in the expansion of [x + (1/x)] n, if it occurs. General term : Tp+1 = nCp (x)n-p (1/x) p

Tp+1 = nCp xn-2p ---------------> (i) Putting n-2p = r p = From: (i) T (n-r) / 2
+1

(n - r) / 2 = nC(n-r) / 2 xr

Coefficient of xr = nC (n r) / 2

Q12.: Prove that the coefficient of the term independent of y in the expansion of [(y + 1)/( y 2/3 y1/3 + 1) (y 1) / (y y1/2)]10 is 210.

Sol.:

We have

(y + 1) / (y 2/3 y1/3 + 1)

Putting y = t3, we have = (t3 + 13) / (t2 t + 1) = (t + 1) (t2 t + 1) / (t2 t + 1)

t+1 = y1/3 + 1

(y + 1) / (y2/3 y1/3 + 1) and Putting y = a2 in

(y 1) / (y y1/2 ) :

(a2 1) / (a2 a) = (a+1) (a-1) / [a (a-1)]

= (a + 1) / a = 1 + 1 / a (y 1) / (y y1/2) = 1 + 1 /vy

(y + 1) / (y2/3 y1/3 +1) - (y 1) / (y y1/2)]10 = = (y1/3 y-1/2 )10 In ( y1/3 y-1/2)10, Tr+1 = 10Cr (y1/3)10-r. (-y-1/2)r

[y1/3 + 1 1 (1/ y1/2)]

10

(-1)r 10Cr. (10-r) / 3

- r/2

Tr+1 Putting

(-1)r 10Cr. y(20-5r) / 6 (20 5r) / 6 = 0

or

r=4

Putting this value in (1) T5 = (-1)4 = T5

10

C4 = (10 x 9 x 8 x 7) / (4 x 3 x 2 x 1)

10!/ (6! x 4!)

= 210

Q13: x4-r occurs in the expansion of [x + (1/ x2)] 4n, prove that its coefficients is:

= (4n!) /[ (4/3)n-r]! x [(4/3)(2n+r)]! Sol.: In [x + (1/x2)]4n, Tp+1 = Tp+1 = Putting : 4n 3p or From (i) = 4r =p C4(n-r) / 4. x4r
4n 4n

Cp (x)4n-p (1/ x2)p

Cp x4n-3p ----------> (i)

4 ( n-r ) / 3 Tp+1 = =
4n

Coefficient of x4r

4n

C4 (n-r) / 3

= (4n!) / [(4/3)n-r]! x [(4n/1) 4(n-r)/3]! = (4n!) / [(4/3)n-r]! x [(4/3) 2(n+r)]!

Q14. Sol.:

Find the coefficient of x50 in (1+x)41 (1-x+x2)40. (1+x)41 (1-x+x2)40 = (1+x) (1+x)40 (1-x+x2)40 = (1+x) [ (1+x) ( 1-x + x2)]40

= (1+x) (1+x3)40 General Term = Tr+1 = (1+x) [40Cr (x3)r] = 40Cr (1+x) x3r = 40Cr (x3r + x3r + 1) Here either 3r = 50 or 3r+1 = 50 r = (50 / 3) or (49 / 3) The value of r is a fraction, so it doesnt contain the term x50. So coefficient of x50 is 0. Q15.: Show that that the term independent of x in the expansion of [x + (1/x)]
2n

is

[1. 3. 5. ---- (2n-1) / (n!)] 2n

Sol.:

General Term Tr+1

= 2nCr (x)2n-r (1/x) r = 2nCr. x2n-2r ---------> (i)

Here 2n 2r = 0 or From (i) n = r = 2nCn = 2n! / (n! x n!)

Tr+1

= [2n (2n-1 ) ------ 3. 2. 1] / ( n! x n!) = { 2n (2n-2) ---- 4. 2 } { (2n-1) (2n-3) ----- 3.1.} / (n! x n!) = [2n {n (n-1) -----2.1.}] { (2n-1) ------- 4.3.1.} / (n! x n!)

= 2n. n!{(2n-1) ---- 5. 3. 1. / (n! x n!)

= {1. 3. 5. ----- (2n -1)} 2n / n!

Q16. The 3rd, 4th and 5th terms in the expansion of (x+a)n are respectively 84, 280 and 560, find the value of x, a and n. Sol.: Tr+1 = nCr xn-r. ar Putting r = 2, 3 and 4 respectively T3 = nC2 xn-2. a2 T4 = nC3 xn-3 a3 and T5 = nC4 xn-4 a4 = 84 ------------>(i) = 280---------->(ii) = 560 -------->(iii) = 84 x 560

egn (i) x egn(iii) : [nC2 xn-2 a2] [nC4 xn-4 a4] =

n!/[2! x (n-2)!] x n! / [4! x (n-4)!] . x2n-6 a6 = 84 x 560

or n (n-1) / 2 x n(n-1) (n-2) (n-3) / 4! x x2n-6 a6 Squaring of egn (ii), we have : (nC3 x n-3 a3)2
n

= 84 x 560 -------> (iv)

= 2802 = 2802

C3 x nC3 x x2n-6 x a6 =

n! / [3! x (n-3)!] x n! / [3! x (n-3)!] x x2n-6 a6 = 2802

or n (n-1)(n-2) / 6 x n(n-1) (n-2) (n-3) / 3! x x2n-6 a6 egn (v) egn(iv) :

= 280 x 280 -------> (v)

n2 (n-1)2 (n-2)2 / (6 x 3!) x 2 x 4! / [n2(n-1)2 (n-2)(n-3)] = (280 x 280) / (84 x 560) or or n = 7 Putting this value in (i), (ii) and (iii) :
7

4 (n-2) / 3 (n-3) = 4n 8 = 5n 15

5/3

C2 x5 a2 C3 x4 a3 C4 x3 a4

= = =

84 ---------------> (vi) 280 ---------------->(vii) 560----------------->(viii)

egn (vii) egn(vi): (7C3 x4 a3) / (7C2 x5 a2) = 280 / 84

[7! / (3! x 4!)a] / [7! / (2! x 5!)x] = 10 / 3 or 7! / (3! x 4!) x (2! x 5!) / 7! x a / x = 10 / 3

or or a = 2x

5/3

x a/x=

10 / 3

Putting this value in egn (vi):

7

C2. x5. 4x2 = 84 21 = 21

or

7! / (2! x 5!)x7 = (7 x 63) / 2 x7

x7 =

x = 1 Putting this value in (ix) = a = 2 Q17. Let n be a positive integer. If the coefficients of second, third and fourth terms in (1+x)2 are in arithmetic progression, then find the value of n. Sol: General Term : Tr+1 = nCr xr 2nd Term : T2 = nC1 x Coefficient = nC1 3rd Term : T3 = nC2 x2 Coefficient = nC2

Similarly coefficient of 4th term = nC3 These are in A. P., so. 2 nC2 = nC1 + nC3 2 [n! / {2! x (n-2)!}] or n! / (n-2!) = = n! / {1! x (n-1!)} + n! / {3! x (n-3!)}

n! [1 / (n-1!) + 1 / {6 (n-3!}]

or or

1/ [(n-3) x (n-3!) = 1 / [(n-1)x (n-2) x(n 3!)] +1/ [6! (n-3!)] ) 1 / (n 2) - 1 / [(n-1) (n-2)] = 1/6

or

(n 1 1) / [(n-1) (n-2)]

1/6

or or

(n- 2) / [(n-1) (n-2)] = n1 n = 7 = 6

1/6

Q18. Sol.:

The 6th term in the expansion of [(1/ x8/3) + x2 log10x]8 is 5600. Prove that x =10. T6 = T5+1 =
8

C5 (1/ x8/3) 8-5 ( x2 log10x ) 5

or 8C5 x (1 / x8) x

c10 x (log10x)5 =

5600

8! / (5! x 3!) x 8. 7. 6. / 6 x

c2 (log10x)5 = 5600

c2 (log10x)5 = 5600

or x2(log10x)5 = 100 = 102 Clearly x = 10 satisfied as log1010 = 1.

If x > 10 or < 10, the result will change in inequality. -----------x--------------------x-------------------------x-----------------------x----------------x-----

Tutorial on Integers
The numbers -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3 are all integers. -1,-2, and -3 are negative integers. Similarly +1,+2,+3 are positive integers, however we write them as 1,2 ,3 leaving out the + sign. 0 is also an integer. Multiples If we multiply 5 by 3 the answer will be 15. We may write this as: 5 x 3 = 15 We say that 15 is a multiple of both 5 and 3; Factors 12 can be divided by any of the following numbers: 1,2,3,4,6 and 12 itself All these numbers are called factors of 12 Prime Numbers A prime number has only two factors, these are 1 and the prime number itself. Examples of prime numbers are: 3 its factors are 1,3 5 its factors are 1,5 7 its factors are 1,7 and so on Any integer greater than 1 is either a prime number or can be written as a product of prime numbers. For example: 2: a prime number 3: a prime number 4= 2 x 2: 2 is a prime number 5: a prime number 6= 2 x 3: 2 and 3 are prime numbers 7: a prime number 8= 2 x 2 x 2: 2 is a prime number 9= 3 x 3: 3 is a prime number

10= 2 x 5: 2 and 5 are prime numbers and so on Common Multiples 8 is a common multiple of 2 and 4 10 is a common multiple of 2 and 5 12 is a common multiple of 2,3,4 and 6 Is 18 a common multiple of 6 and 7 ? The answer is no, as though 6 x 3 = 18, 7 cannot be multiplied by any number to give 18, so 18 is not a multiple of 7, though it is of 6. Least Common Multiple (LCM) As the name suggests the LCM of two numbers is the smallest number which is a multiple of both numbers. Method for Finding LCM Let us take two numbers 6 and 9

Step 1 Write the number as a product of prime numbers: so 6 = 2 x 3 and 9 = 3 x 3 Step 2 Look for common factors and delete them in one of the products. In our example 3 is a common factor, so delete on of the 3s. This leaves us with 2,3 and 3 Step3 Now we multiply these remaining factors, thus in our example we get: 2 x 3 x 3 = 18 which gives us 18 as the LCM of 6 and 9

1. What are the factors of 15? a) 1,3,5,6,15 b) 1,3,5,15 c) 1,2,3,5,15

d) 1,2,5,15 2. What are the factors of 24? a) 1,2,3,5,7,12,24 b) 1,3,6,8,24 c) 1,2,3,6,8,12,24 d) 1,2,3,6,9,12,24 3. If x is a prime number then its factors are: 0,1,x 1, x 1,2,x 1,3,x 4. Which of the following lists consists only of prime numbers? 1,2,3,4,7,9,12,13 3,5,7,9,11,13 2,3,5,7,11,13 2,3,4,5,7,11,13 5. The common multiple of 2,3,4 and 6 is? 6 12 15 20 6. The Least Common Multiple of 6 and 9 is 9 20 18

24 7. The Least Common Multiple of 9 and 15 is? 30 45 135 81 8. The Least Common Multiple of 24 and 30 is 90 150 120 240 9. The Least Common Multiple of 18 and 32 is 180 320 288 290 10. The Least Common Multiple of 27 and 93 is 270 280 279 393 Your Score:

out of 10

1. A box has to be designed to pack 18 choclates. Each row must have at least two choclates. No place in any row should be left empty. How many box sizes in terms of rows and columns are possible? a) One b) Two c) Three d) Four 2. Phil and Colin have got together to make a fence. They decide to first instal the posts which will hold it. Phil takes 20 minutes to instal a post and Colin takes 15 minutes. They start at 10 am. What is the first time they will finish installing a post at the same time? They want to take a snack break at that time. a) 11am b) 12 am c) 1 pm d) 2 pm

Tutorial on Fractions
1/2, 3/4, 4/10 are fractions. The numbers on top are called numerators. These are the numbers 1, 3 and 4. The numbers below are called denominators. These are the numbers 2, 4 and 10. The denominator gives how many equal parts are there. The numerator represents how many of these are taken. The denominator cannot be 0. For example 1/0 is not allowed. This is so as division by 0 is not defined. However, 0/1 is allowed and is equal to 0.

If numerator and denominator are the same the fraction becomes equal to 1. For example: 2/2=1 and 9/9=1 We can also have fractions like 10/2=5 and 18/6=3. Mixed Numbers These numbers are made up of a whole number and a fraction. For example: 5 1/2 is a mixed number and is equal to 5 + 1/2. A mixed number may be changed into fraction through the following steps: Step 1 Multiply the whole number and the denominator of the fraction part. For example in 5 1/2 we multiply 5 and 2 to get 10. Step 2 To the result of Step 1 add the numerator of the fraction part. In our example the numerator of the fraction part 1/2 is 1. So 10 + 1 = 11. Step 3 Write the result of Step 2 as the numerator and the denominator of the fraction part as the denominator. In our exampls we get 11/2. So 11/2 = 5 1/2 which shows that we can change a fraction where the numerator is greater than the denominator into a mixed number. For doing this follow these steps: Step 1 Divide the numerator by the denominator and obtain the remainder. In our example 11/2, 2 goes 5 times into 11 leaving a remainder of 1.

as 2 x 5 = 10 and 11 - 10 = 1 Step 2 The remainder over the denominator gives us the fractional part. So we get. 11/2 = 5 1/2 Whole Numbers and Mixed Numbers 12/3 = 4 0/3 = 4 Here 0/3 is obviously = 0 hence 4 0/3 = 4. However representing 4 as 12/3 is useful at times. We need to do this when we do calculations between whole numbers and fractions. Multiplication of Fractions Say we want to multiply 3/4 with 5/6. We do this by multiplying 3 x 5 which gives us the result 15, which is the numerator of the result. Similarly 4 x 6 gives the result 24 which is the new denominator. We can write this multiplication as under: 3/4 x 5/6 = (3x5) / (4x6) =15/24. Dividing Fractions Say we want to divide 7/8 by 3/4. For this we have the following steps: Step 1 Invert 3/4, or in other words write it up side down with 4 as the numerator and 3 as the denominator. Step 2 Now multiply this with the first fraction. That is: 7/8 x 4/3 = (7x4) / (8x3) = 28/24 Reducing a Fraction to Lowest Terms Look at the two fractions given below:

5/6 and 4/8 In the first fraction 5 is a prime number. So its factors are 1 and 5. That is 5 = 1 x 5. However, 6 = 1 x 2 x 3. There are no common factors (neglecting 1). We say that 5/6 is already expressed in its lowest terms. In the fraction 4/8, 4 = 2 x 2 and 8 = 2 x 2 x 2. Here 2 x 2 is common to both 4 and 8. Hence 4/8 can be written as; 4/8 = (2x2) / (2x2x2) = 1/2 2x2 being common to both numerator and denominator can be cancelled. This leaves us with 1/2 as the result. By changing 4/8 to 1/2 we say that 4/8 has been reduced to its lowest terms. The value of 4/8 and 1/2 is the same as cancelling common factors does not change the value of the fraction. Adding Fractions 5/16 + 7/16 = (5+7)/16 = 12/16 = 3/4 Notice the denominator of 5/16 and 7/16 is the same. This has been done to aid explaining addition of fractions. For adding fractions follow the following steps: Step 1 Write the common denominator. Step 2 Add the numerators, which gives us 12/16 which in its lowes terms is 3/4. If the denominators of the fractions are not the same we have to make them so before adding the fractions. For example: 5/6 + 1/4 Here 6 x 2 = 12 and 4 x 3 = 12 So we can re-write the fractions as:

(5x2) / (6x2) = 10/12 and (1x3) / (4x3) = 3/12 Then add 10/12 + 3/12 = (10+3)/12 = 13/12 = 1 1/12 Here 5/6 and 10/12 are equivalent fractions as they have the same value. 1/4 and 3/12 are also equivalent fractions for the same reason. Subtracting Fractions 3/4 -1/4 = (3-1)/4 = 2/4 =1/2 It is similar to the steps used in adding fractions as explained above.

Tutorial on Decimals
Decimals represent fractions. For example 1/2 = 0.5, 3/4 = 0.75 We can write 0.75 as just .75 also. The zero on the left hand side of the decimal is optional. To convert 0.75 into a fraction. Step 1 Write 0.75 as 0.75/1. Step 2 Multiply numerator and denominator by 100 (0.75 x 100)/(1 x 100) = 75/100 = 3/4 If we have a decimal with three digits on the right side, for example 0.725 we simply multiply the numerator and denominator by 1000. (0.725 x 100) / (1 x 1000) = 725/1000 = 29/40 So if we have two digits on the right side of the decimal we multiply by 100 if there are three digits we mutiply by 1000 and so on. Also 0.75 = 0.750 = 0.7500 Adding zeros on the right hand side does not change the value of the decimal.

We know that 75/100 = 0.75 and 725/1000 = 0.725 Similarly 75/1000 = 0.075 and 75/10000 = 0.0075 Each time we add a zero to the denominator we add a zero between 75 and the decimal. Adding Decimals We will add 3 and 2.75 Step 1 Write the numbers as follows: 3.00 2.75 Notice we place two zeros on the right side of the decimal after 3. This is done to match the number of digits in the two numbers. Step 2 Add the two numbers just as you would add two whole numbers 300 275 575 Step 3 Now where should the decimal point be placed in the result? Well, it is placed just beneath the position of the decimal points in the added numbers 3.00 2.75 5.75 Subtracting Decimals This is similar to adding decimals. Say we want to solve 3 - 2.75 Step 1 3.00 -2.75

Step 2 300 -275 025 Step 3 3.00 -2.75 0.25 Multiplying Decimals Let us multiply 2.32 with 0.5 Step 1 Write the numbers without the decimal and multiply them 232 x 5 = 1160 Step 2 Now we have to place the decimal point in the result. For doing this count the number of digits after the decimal. This is also called counting the number of decimal places. Number of decimal places in 2.32 are two and 0.5 has one decimal place. The total decimal places in 2.32 and 0.5 are two plus one which equals three. To place the decimal point in the result, count these many places and put the decimal. So the result becomes 1.160 Dividing Decimals Say we want to calculate 120.086/0.02 or in other words to divide 0.02 into 120.086. To do this follow the following steps: Step 1 Move the decimal as many places to the right in the division so as to make it a whole number. In 0.02 this will mean two places to the right giving us 2.

Step 2 As we have changed the divisor from 0.02 to 2 we must change the dividend also exactly in the same manner. To do this we move the decimal to the right two steps in 120.086 also. This gives us 12008.6 Step 3 Now divide 12008.6 by 2 as you would divide a whole number. In the result leave the decimal place where it is. The answer will be 6004.3 Multiplication and Division of Decimals by 10 Study the following examples 21.3267 x 10 = 213.267 (decimal moves one step right) 213.267 x 10 = 2132.67 (decimal moves one step right) 2132.67 x 10 = 21326.7 (decimal moves one step right) Each time we multiply by 10 the decimal jumps to the right by one step. Multiplying by 10 is as simple as that! For division study the following: 213267 / 10 = 21326.7 (decimal moves to the left by one step) 21326.7 / 10 = 2132.67 (decimal moves to the left by one step) 2132.67 / 10 = 213.267 (decimal moves to the left by one step) In each division by 10 the decimal jumps to the left by one step. Multiplication and Division of Decimals by 10 Study the following multiplication examples: 21.3267 x 100 = 2132.67 (decimal moves right by two steps) 2132.67 x 100 = 213267 (decimal moves right by two steps) Study the following division examples: 213267 / 10 = 21326.7 (decimal moves left by one step) 21326.7 / 10 = 2132.67 (decimal moves left by one step) Multiplication and division of decimals by 100 is similar to that by 10. The only difference being the number of steps the decimal jumps each time. In the case of 100 it is two steps and in 10 it is one step.

How much would the decimal jump for multiplication and division by 1000? The answer is three steps. Fractions and Decimals 1/2 is a fraction and is equal to 0.5 2/5 is a fraction and is equal to 0.4 If we take the fraction 1/3 and try to covert it to a decimal we get: 0.333333------This is a repeating decimal. In calculations it is better to use the fraction in place of a repeating decimal.

Tutorial on Percentage
Percentage is another way of expressing fractions. In percentage we represent fractions with 100 as the denominator. For example 1/2 = 50/100. This in percentage is called 50%. 1/2 can be expressed as a decimal as 0.50. 1/2, 50% and 0.50 all mean the same. So to convert 0.50 in percentage we multiply the decimal by 100 and put a % sign. This is how we would convert any decimal into a percentage for example 0.75 x 100 = 75%. To convert a fraction to percentage we first convert the fraction into a decimal and then into percentage. For example 3/4 = 0.75 = 75%.

Interest and Discount Percentages are useful here as they are used for expressing rates of interest. The formula is Interest = Amount x Time x Rate For example if we want to find out how much interest will $1000 earn in 1yr at an annual interst rate of 6%. 6% = 6/100 (6/100)x 1000 = 60 So the answer is $60 Another example: How much interest will $1000 earn in 6 months at an annual rate of 6%. Here we use the formula Interest = Amount x Time x Rate 6 months is 1/2 of a year 6 % is 6/100 or 3/50 Using our formula: Interest = $1000 x 1/2 x 3/50 = $30 The annual rate is for 12 months We are looking at 6 months This type of interest calculation is called Simple Interest For Discount the formula is: Discount = Cost x Rate of Discount For example what is discount if a car costing $5000 is discounted at 5%?

5% is = 0.05 Discount = 0.05 x $5000 = $250 Another formula gives us the Rate of Discount Rate of Discount = (Cost - Price) / Cost What would be the discount if a car costing $6000 is sold for $5400 Rate of Discount = (6000 - 5400)/6000 = 600/6000 = 10/100 or 10%

BASIC IDENTITIES IN ALGEBRA Distributive Law a(b + c) = ab + ac Commutative Law a+b=b+a Associative Law (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Difference of Squares a^2 - b^2 = (a + b)(a - b) Sum of Cubes a^3 + b^3 = (a + b)(a^2 - ab + b^2) Difference of Cubes a^3 - b^3 = (a - b)(a^2 + ab + b^2)

POLYNOMIALS

Quadratic Roots
If a quadratic equation is written as: ax^2 + bx + c = 0 then its roots x are given by:

-b SQRT(b2 - 4ac) x = -------------------------2a

AREAS IN GEOMETRY Area of a Square

A = x2 where: A is the area and x is the side of the square Area of a Rectangle

A = xy where: x and y are the adjacent sides of the rectangle Area of a Circle

A = pi x r2 where: r is the radius of the circle and pi = 3.14 Area of a Triangle There are three formulas: First:

A = 1/2 x b x h where: b is the base of the triangle and h is the height which the perpendicular distance from the vertex to the base Second

A = 1/2 ab Sin C

where: a and b are two sides and C is the angle opposite to the third side c.

Third

A = SQRT(s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)), Where a, b and c are the three sides of the triangle and s = (a + b + c)/2 or half the perimeter Area of Trapezium

[(x+y)/2]h where: x and y are the two parallel sides and h is the perpendicular distance between the parallel sides Area of a Parellelogram

bxh

where: b is the base and h is the perpendicular distance of the opposite side from the base

VOLUMES IN GEOMETRY Volume of a Cube

V = x3 where: V is the volume and x is the side of the cube Volume of a Cuboid

V = xyz where: x, y and z are the adjacent three sides of the cuboid Volume of a Sphere

V = (4/3) pi x r3 where: r is the radius of the sphere and pi = 3.14

Volume of a Hemisphere

V = (2/3) pi x r3 where: r is the radius of the hemisphere and pi = 3.14 Volume of a Cylinder

V = pi x r2 x h where: r is the radius of the cylinder and h is its height and pi = 3.14 Volume of a Rectagular Pyramid

(L x w x h)(1/3) where: L and w are the two sides of the rectangular pyramid base and h is the height Volume of a Cone

(pi x r2 x h)/3 where: r is the radius of the base and h is the height of the prism

SURFACE AREA IN GEOMETRY Surface Area of a Cube SA = 6x^2 where: SA is the surface area and x is the side of the cube Surface Area of a Cuboid SA = 2(xy+yz+zx) where: x, y and z are the adjacent three sides of the cuboid Surface Area of a Sphere SA = 4 pi r^2 where: r is the radius of the sphere and pi = 3.14 Surface Area of a Cone SA = pi x r x L where: r is the radius of the cone and L is the slant height of the cone and pi =3.14 Total Surface Area of a Cone (including the area of the base)

SA = (pi x r x L) + pi x r^2 where: r is the radius of the cone and L is the slant height of the cone and pi =3.14 PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES Pythagorus Theorem a^2 + b^2 = c^2 Where: c is the hypotenuse of a right angle triangle and a and b are two sides containg the right angle. Cosine Law c^2 = a^2 + b^2 - 2ab (Cos C) This formula is applicable to any tirangle. Here a, b and c are the three sides of the triangle and A, B and C are the angle opposite to these sides respectively similarly a^2 = b^2 + c^2 - 2bc (Cos A) and b^2 = c^2 + a^2 - 2ca (Cos B) Note: This is a general law and if you make any of the angles equal to 90 degrees it gives the Pythagorus Theorom as Cos of 90 degrees = 0 Sine Law (Sin A)/a = (Sin B)/b = (Sin C)/c This formula is applicable to any tirangle. Here a, b and c are the three sides of the triangle and A, B and C are the angle opposite to these sides respectively

TABLE IN TRIGONOMETRY
Angles(deg)>> Sin A Cos A Tan A Cot A Cosec A Sec A 0 0 1 0 undefined undefined 1 30 1/2 (SQRT 3)/2 1/(SQRT 3) (SQRT 3) 2 2/(SQRT 3) 45 1/SQRT 2 1/SQRT 2 1 1 SQRT 2 SQRT 2 60 (SQRT 3)/2 1/2 (SQRT 3) 1/(SQRT 3) 2/(SQRT 3) 2 90 1 0 undefined 0 1 undefined

Note: Tan A = (Sin A)/(Cos A) Cot A = (Cos A)/(Sin A) Cosec A = 1/(Sin A) Sec A = 1/(Cosec A) If we remember these and know the values of Sin and Cos A we can derive the rest TABLE IN TRIGONOMETRY
Angles(deg)>> Sin A Cos A Tan A Cot A Cosec A Sec A 0 0 1 0 undefined undefined 1 30 1/2 (SQRT 3)/2 1/(SQRT 3) (SQRT 3) 2 2/(SQRT 3) 45 1/SQRT 2 1/SQRT 2 1 1 SQRT 2 SQRT 2 60 (SQRT 3)/2 1/2 (SQRT 3) 1/(SQRT 3) 2/(SQRT 3) 2 90 1 0 undefined 0 1 undefined

Note: Tan A = (Sin A)/(Cos A) Cot A = (Cos A)/(Sin A) Cosec A = 1/(Sin A)

Sec A = 1/(Cosec A) If we remember these and know the values of Sin and Cos A we can derive the rest

Calculus Tutorial
Indefinite Integral
If 'f' and 'g' are functions of 'x', such that g'(x)=f(x) then the function 'g' is called an integral of 'f' with respect to 'x', and is written symbolically as: f(x)dx = g(x) + c where: f(x) is called the integrand and 'c' is called the constant of integration Note: If d/dx f(x) = g(x) then d/dx {f(x) + c} = g(x) Where 'c' is constant, because differentiation of a constant is zero. Thus the general value integration. g(x)dx is f(x)+c, where 'c' is the constant of

Clearly integral will change if 'c' changes. Thus integral of a function is not unique, hence it is called indefinite integral. Standard Results: These standard results for integral calculus are derived directly from the standard results of differential calculus Differential Calculus Integral Calculus

d/dx(xn+1/ n+1) = xn

xn dx =(xn+1/n+1) + C [n not =1]

d/dx loge|x| = 1/x

1/x dx = loge|x| + c [n= -1]

d/dx ex = ex

ex dx = ex + c

d/dx ax = ax logea

ax dx = ax / logea + c [a>0]

d/dx Cosx = - Sinx

Sinx dx = - Cosx +c

d/dx Sinx = Cosx

Cosx dx = Sinx + c

d/dx Tanx = Sec2x

Sec2x dx = Tanx + c

d/dx Cotx = - Cosec2 x

Cosec2x dx = - Cotx + C

d/dx Secx = Secx.Tanx

Secx.Tanx dx = Secx + c

d/dx Cosecx = - Cosecx.Cotx

Cosec.Cotx dx = - Cosecx + c

d/dx Sin-1x = 1/v(1-x2)

1/(1-x2) dx = Sin-1 + c

d/dx Tan-1x = 1/(1+x2)

1/(1+x2) dx = Tan-1x + c

d/dx Sec-1x = 1/xv(x2 - 1)

1/(x2 - 1) dx = Sec-1 x + C

d/dx Sin-1x/a = 1/v(a2 + x2)

dx/v(a2 - x2) = Sin-1x/a + c

d/dx (1/a) Tan-1x/a = 1/(x2+a2)

dx/(x2+a2) = 1/a Tan-1(x/a) +c

d/dx (1/a Sec-1x/a) =1/xv(x2 - a2)

dx/xv(x2-a2) = 1/a Sec-1x/a +c

d/dx Coshx = Sinhx

Sinh dx = Coshx + c

d/dx Sinhx = Coshx

Coshx dx = Sinhx + c

d/dx Tanhx = Sech2x

Sec2x dx = Tanhx + c

d/dx Cothx = - Cosech2x

Cosech2x dx = - Cothx +c

d/dx Sechx = - Sechx.Tanhx

Sechx.Tanhx dx = - Sechx + c

d/dx Cosechx = - Cosechx.Cothx

Cosechx.Cothx dx= -Cosechx+c