Chapter 4

ilrilling Hydraulics

"W
1*jfuz
{"1 H.yrlrastalie l}ressur* in Liquid
Calur*ns
Sltrsurface well prcstiurcs i!ru Llctcnnined nir:rsr easily ftir

{hapx.
tian

2 and 3 ptewtdeii

u*l propeoies *f drillirp Jl.uids urd cewrnt slurries. ln this rhctper, tht rel*li*n bt:ttt'wtt rhe flu,id ltraptrtitt uwl the subra(tictt hvdrlut{ir forres pres.,tit irt rir x,clJ u'ill l:r tlrvrlnpe;t.
'I'hr :ie ience *l'fluid rrrcijltunirl is vert importlnt tu the drilling *ngin*er. Exrrrmelv large liuicl prcsr;ures ,*re ere*ted in Lh* lnng :;lender wellbory antl trrl,ular prpr

irtirsnnukm *ls<Nt! f ht, .:t:rnryilt.\i-

slatic well cnar.lifions. "l'hc variatlon

ol prc*su*

*,ith

dr:pth in a ffuirl colsnrn ctn be otrtainrd hy c.nnriticring the free-br.xly dilrgnrl {Fig. 4.1} lor thc verticsl lorucr eeting on an elerncnt i:t" lluid ar a dcpilr I) in a hclc *l cfi)$li-$e$til1nal arel rl" Tlrt dgrynu'ard FrlL*e On the iluid

slrin*.r by rhe presence of drilling rrud r:r cern*n{, 'fir presencc ol t.lrcric ruhsudilce pru$.$urc.q; rnust be uun" sidemd in aln:s*t every \,(ll prolrlrnr cncorrnrcrcd. llr thir ehaprer. tlie relatiqxs nr*ded ll rJ*r*nrinr rhc sul.rsurf"ice {luid persur*g wi}l be devrlnpcrl lor rhr*c eornrnon w*ll eonqlitisrni. Th*x well eondilians includs ( lJ a stari* conrjition lrr which b*th the well fluid irnrj rhe central pipe Ftring &re et re$t, {2} a circulating opsraltofl in rvhlsh rhe. I'luiel* arc b*ing punrped tlown lhc rcrrrr:rl pipc string ancl up thf annulu$, rnd {3} a trippirrg L}prrairl.}n i,l wliich a cr.rtiral pipe slring is brr:irrg nrr.rvcd up or ,3own lhruugh th* fluid. TlTs sr,,cr:rnri and rhinJ er:nriitiuns lirtilrt arc :lmpiicar*d iry thi: n*r-Nswt{rnian trrhavior of ijrill" ing rnudr aneJ ce;rrenll- Also includcil in thir *hrptcr ;ir* ths rrlali*ns Fr'rv*rning lhe trdnsp{}rt cl rixk !irp,ta*nr: and innriscible fior:narioa fluids tt the ,qurltlre hy rlrr:

elernent excned
pre$sure A'

by thc fluir-l ehor,c is givcn l:y th* Ir tirllrs lhc fr0s,{-se{'linnirl srtt al'lhs eltrirtlnt

| 1 -pA.
*rte.ct by the

Likewise, there is an uprvartl li:rrcr: lluid bek-rw given li1

**

tlre e-lement ex*

r,:

ldn\

\r,.

h* )u
a

ln lddition, rhc w*ighl *1 lhc IilriJ sl1n1qn1 is cxt'ninp dr:wnrvanl larcc piven hy rri = r**,dalJ,

tlrillirr;

ilrriul

\\thile ir lrds n{}r tel;ihle tn ill*srrair it l}r, illl th* tlrill" i*g applir;tilrns *f tlre ftrnJl.irirt-ntll .,,,lrsg1r1* dr.r cli11-*r:!

in thi:; r:hapter. sevcnil of' thr nrorr: .iurp{}rlitnt rpplii.ltinns arc prc*.nti:r1 in dctail "i"hcsr: :i;rplir:irtilnt ini.'lurJc { | } ca}cul:rlit.:n {{' subiur{atc h;ttln"rrtaric pr*s:;urt:; tcnding t* burrt rr c*ll*p*e {lrc rvcll tuhuhrs or lr;rcrurr e x. pi:red hirmatii:rnr, {?1 scveral irsF{et* qf blou,cur prc?ettinn, {3i ilisplaclnrcnt of e*nri:ni slurries" (,4i hit ntrzle sizc rielertitn" {5} srrrgr irrrtlsunrs due (o u ver:icirl pil^rlr.rvrril*nt, anil {6) c:rrr;iirg urprcit.v ilf'clrillins fiui{ir.
'l'he nrrlcr in wliich thc applii:atir;n* arr prr_";cnrcil tt*rallcls the dcveloprrtcnt $l thc lundair:rrua! lluiii ntech:rnicg coil(:c.plri givrn in the rh*ptrr" "I"his ;rppnur:h l:er( sr:rveE rh* ne*dr of the h*ginning rtudrntl niririlling
engineering.

whcrr: Iiu,,. is rhr iirrcifil rvr:ighr <il thc flui'J. Since thr lluiri ir, ar rust, n* rh*;r li:r:eE r:risi :rnd th* thrur lirrc*s
shg:rvn musi be

in erluilibriurn:

-r y:t' /rln\ -\1) | .,t i t,..,...11/r - {} l1' \ rll) /

bipunsi*rt of thr sccond rltrnt v{r1ilnr{: l&} gir,*"':

tlP

renr''r

:;nd dii'isit.rn iry thi: r:l*"

t:

"".tll,'

{4. t

APpLrE0 nRlLLt!*G EHni$f ft tr'l$

Fig-{"1*Forccs acling on a tiuid element.

DRILL PIPE
ANNULUS

vlt

lf

we are, dealing

waler, fluirl rr:mpresnibility

wi*

a liquid such s.r driliing ntud nr

CIpr$

HOLS

is

negligible, alrtl
I

specifre weight can be consrdercd constant wirh depih. lntegration oi Iq. 4- 1 ibr an iac*mpressible liq*id givrs

RMEAgLg

Z0!'lEs

ILL EOLLANS

p*li*D*.{:s

","....{4.?a}
Fig. 4.2-The well iluiei svstern"

whercpo. ihe, qpnstgnl ol integration, is equal to the surfaee pressurc {D*U)" Nerrmalty the static sur{acs pr6*5ute p6 i* eerv unless the bl*wout preve"n{er {}f the w*ll is elosed afid the well is trying kr flnrr. The spcilie w*ight of the liquid in field unirs is gi*en by lt'*t':S'0-5?P'
qa

'flrur,

rhe mud density ntusl he at l*ast 13.4 lhrnlgal to prcvent the flow oI ftrnrratiein f]uiti intu thc *cilb\;rc

.3)

when the
anei there

*'ell is opi::n t.1 the *tmosphere (p6 *ll

psrg;

is no mud circillati*;r.

when f",,,, i: the specifit weight in pourrJs per :iq*rn inch per f*rut and p is thc lluid rl*n*ity in p$undr mass g.ter gallon. Thus Eq. 4.?a, in fie1d units, i* giv*n by
p =0.052oD + pu.
.

(4.?b)

'*.1 Hydrr.r tntie Fr*ssure in {ias Colsmns In many drilling and camplefion operzlitnl, a gas is
pr$lln{ in ;it least a parlion of tlrc well. ln $ome ease;" gar is injec*d in the well liarn the *urfaer: while in olher c:r$es gas may enter the wcll fnrm a ;uhsurf*ee fornlation. The variatitln of pressur'* with dcpth in a static g*s

_the hydr*slliril: prs$$urr of thc prupcr clnlling {iuid dersity. The fluisi eqlumn in rhr' well must bc of *uffieienl density tt) ca*Ji ihe pressurc in the wctl op;xlrite each permeable ;rratum to be greater than the pore pressure of ihe lirrmatir:n fiuirl in the penr:eable stratrrrn. This probienr is illustratcd in the schemati* dmwing

.4n impo*a*t xipplicillion

ol

equaliern is lhe det*nuination

column is rn*rt c*mplie*tc.d than in * sln{ic liquid mluml b*cause the gar densit;' chlnges uith changing
IlfeSsurs. The gas bclravior can equatian delinecl try

lx

d*;cribcrl u*ing lhe rra! ga:

shown in Fig- a.?. Howerr:r, dre rlensily cf tbe fluid eolr:m* mu$l not tre suffiricnt to e ause any of fh* fcnaalicns cxpvscd to thc drilling {"luiil tr frar'trurx. A fi:ictrrred 1*rm*tion would ;rllnw sonrc nf the iirillirrg l'luir! abo'vc the llxetr:re deph rr.r lcali rzrpidly fronr the well lnm rhe inr"

pl'=.;nRT-:-R'f, .M
*,hcre.

,1r

tured form:iti*nll*

l* glr v*lunr.
Er*mpfu d,/. Calculate lhr rtrtic rnud rlcn.srlr rcquircd to pr*vni flnq, lrom a p*mreablc slr.rtunr al 12,:00 fi if ih* pnrt pre$sure of lhc fnrmarion iluid is $.5S0 psig,

:ibrilul*

p{rss$re.,

fl* T:
&{*

nrol*s r:f gas, universal &rs r:flnstrfit,

ab$oliltc tenrpcraturc,

ltl z nrass

cl'

g:rs,

gar nlolec*lar w*ight,

gas

iinci

Sr;luti*n. Uriirrg Eq. 4.?b.

devirriol fact*r.

p
0.()5:i

&.s{.Xl

o.{)5lt

ll.l(I)l

,,

I.1

.4 lhnr rul

Thc gart dt viatiun {.*l:tar : is a nt*a{urt: r.rf hrw nrr-ich. rlri: ga.s lr*havinrcltvietss lhrm th;rr nt an ii*tl;;r,l.r. An itl*ti g{; is one in uhit*h ther*;.rrr. n{]t;i{lr*ctivc ffiri*: hefrr,cen

ONILLING HYOFTAUI'C$ &a$ m{}lecules. Gas sleviarron lactors ficrr natural gases heve besa deti:nnias{t *xlxrirnentally ar a funrrior, oi. trnlpem$rc.erd pr*qqrr and Bre readily available in rhe p*rul*um li*rararc. l"l In rhis chaprcr the. simplifying a$$umption pf ideal g*s brhavior wiil gener.llly be ruade to as*isr the student in f*,uusing more casily on dre dril}' rng_hydraulics concepls being dcve loped. 'I'he gas densiry can be. expressed ar a funeti*n af pressure.by rearranging Eq. 4.4_ S*:lving this equ*rion lor gas dcnsity p yielcls

tt$ The pm;sure *ll,j!r,ft is giv*n by in rhe annulul tr a deph of 1il"fl)0

Eq. a.?h.

p: *0.t15:{9"0}tlt);fiX}) *
by Eq. a.6
pI:

14.7

* 4,b95 psia.
is give n

pryres.sqre in the tubing ar a deprh n{ l0.tXr0 lt

16!!o:ljlil
l _{J{Xie
1.5;14{t}{.460r

l4llJ

* i, }*g p*ia.

-* ^_ 'v8T"

,il

plv[
- . {4.5a}

Thus- thc prss{urc di.ffercnce ir giv*n by

ltz * F t *4,693.* {lhangiag units frrrnr **nsistent units {* cornrnon field

unrts glv95

I . I llfi

*3,5fi? psi,

pM
80.3ef

{.{.ib}

which * canrideiubly belorv rhc coilapse preslrurr o[ the tubing. I'lie de*siry af ihe g;rs in th* tubing at rhe lurface c*uki be approximated u*ing f4. .i.5h a* ii:llows"

wh*re ,r ir exprcssed in peundl nali$ p. gallo:r, p is in ryu{* Ixr ${uam inch atrsolute, *nC fls in degrccs
Rankinc.
tArilen the
Ba$ p;essure is abnve 1,000 psia. rhe hyclist*tir rrqur, tiprt for inr-*mprrxibl* liquirls givcn bi. Eq. +.lh can be

F'-

,{t0ri{ ::-:-:*rt-:::: *0' 33 I

16)

80.3tlx(iOfj

lbrri/g*|.

lengh ot th* gas colulrln is nut great and the

Ir is interesiing la note lhar rhe usc r:f this ckn.ritv in Eg. 4.2b givc.s
,p
1

Eq. 4.5b withour'nruih l*ss in ac_ e$?ey, hnveVer, rvhen the gas colunrn is not shon or highly pressur*d, the variarion of gas clensity with d*prh within the ga* er:lumn shrruld tre tiken into ,reerrLrnt. Using liqs. 4, l- 4.3, and 4-,5a wc obrain
tlp '0,05? nM .-.-'''''--&rj. u0- I :7

used tcg{:Lhcr

*ith

:0.051(0.331X t0,t$0i

*.

I.tX$= I,l7? pna,

whiclr is wirhin 16 p;ii *f the tns\tcr rt*aiaed using the mrrc, crxrpler. Eq- 4.6.

4.3 Hydroststic Pres$nrc in Complcx Fluid ('olunrns

tl

8rcnt. \ve can treal

the v*riation in e within the gas column ir nfi l0$

variables in the ab.vc equarion vreld.,

3s a

(.onst:,lnt

l.

Separating

I -Jp=-.---1,1p 1,-ra-l ;l"i ;,:,- P .a]

lnlcgration of rhir equarian givrr

t/I

,!)

4.2b:

During many drilling opcrnri{lns. ihe well flui<l colunir rontaits several rrc{isnr af diflbrr:nr 0uid densities. Thi: variatian nf pressure with depth in rhis rvpc of complcx. fluid colunn ntuil,:$ detennineri hy sepairirilg the eflcct eif caeh flr:id segrnent. f*r erampie , iorsidi thc coniplex liquid srlumn shorvn in Fig. ,3. lf rhc prelsure ar lhe teip af gscti*n 1 i* kn*rvn tfi ix p6, then ihr pnrslrr: at the bortorn of $eerion I ean be'elnrputr*1 fmra [q.
p r *{i.05?
y:

qll} 1* DaJ+1tq.

All{

f ' t'tt

-ll!1 l.tlJ:?

(t

6l

equal tn lhe prrssurc at thl: top ot S*uion

'l'h* pre*sur* at lhe bnltcrrr ol Sectiiln

is essrnriailv

__a,

"Syttp-{f".{{, A well cuntairrs rubing filhrd wtrh rnsrh:rne gas rmolecular weight= l6) to I verrical dcprh of 10,0O0 It I'he annrritr spacc is fillcd rvith a 9.0-lLrrnigirl brine *guyti.ng id*al gas b*havirir" frrnryurc rhc ainciult by
.

in rennr r:f the pirssurt Br the top r:f Sectir:n ?:

p3

thr presiur* ut fh{ br}{t{il ol$ec;io* l, ian

inierfece is prcsent, rhr capilllrrlrcssr:rL* would i1g n*gligible l*r ony rcasr:n*hlc wellbore geornelru, 1hur.
be eipre*seri

?. Ivcn

ilrt

* $.*32 p 1{t}
thr

*"

I},} + it.{lSl p I {} 1 ^ $ a1| + 1: 1,.

1

p*i, will the trtlin& c*tlapsr due to rhr lrigir

rrr:!$Rne!

whieh the txr*rior frcssur.: ,:n rhe tu'bing *r.eeeijr thc int*ri*r nrlring prc"isun* at 1O.(iilJ lr ri llu rurlr.cc tutrinir ij:T::" :t 1,ffts pria :ind rhc mriir glr rcrnperu{urr. i.i l4t]'F,-lf the cr:ll*ps* rc$rstnrlcr of'r[* ruhiJg is g,.]l(j
exicrrral

!n gencnrl,
c.en

pft:.risurl:

bc e:i;

rc.:ser,:l b1'

ai any ve*irel tlistane*

cle

prh

I)

p,*p,;*O e52

i.t

o,tft, - t,t,* t t

"""'14'1i

'1

r6

APplls *RlLLll',G El*giN{EalG6 p. * stfnslPll'tit

Dn

Ll

0;
O2

.t t-p

?118
I

lt I
I

tr*ttirr,

{ml

tt
--FI

30*tr$
l?00fral
t000 fcll

Sp

La

_l*a
Dn-r

Fig. 4"4*Viexing ths wetl ss

8.

msnom*rer.

and the chnng* in hytlrostatic pressurc is aclded to the known pre$rarcl cr,nvcrsely, when alcl'ing $p through e

rcction.
prc$sure.

|tli+t-fri

hyrlrn*tatic tre:isure

is is

ne&ative and rlre chang* in suhtracted fr$m the kre\t.,n

Ln

po *p

*0.S5?

tI

$.:t?.{l{Xi} r-fl 5(3t}0i

.

06
Flg. d.3-A q'mplex liqriid cclumn'

+ l?.?{},?0q) + I 6.?t 1,ffiOi *9.0{l $,{xxll' $irce ths knrwn pressun p6 i; 0 p;iig' *en
po

l,?66 psig.

shown !n Fig. *.: tls a mnnometer wh*{ sclving fur the pressure at giuen point in the wcll. The drillstring inieri*:r usual$ is represented by rhe left sida "9f the fis,noffi&{&r, and the annulus usually i* repr**ent*cl by the riglrt sidc ol the manometer' A hydrosrarie prssriurc bilanee e*n ahen be wrinen in lsrnrti r:f a k*ewn prFsure and the unknQwn presssre uring Eq' 4'T'

tt is frequcntly rJerirable lo viev* ths wdlJluid $ytm

4.3.1 Eguivalert t)nsity ComeP{ Field experien*n in a given area o&en *llaws guidclines to be dcvcl{rp*d f$r the ma*imutl nruil dcnsity that f*r-

mntioffi at a givcn clepth will withttiand without fracfuring during nonnal rlrilling opefiltion$. ^lr is.sometimcs hipful to compare a *unrplel *'ell fiuid ct:lumn lqr an *quiralent ringte"nuirt cnl$mn that is apcn to the a{nrosphtrr. Ttis is $ceollflistred by *calrulatrng rhc cquivalenr murl d,:rrsity p". which is de [ined hy D":
{}

Et*tnple 4.3. An inttmedia{e cail,Lg.sring is-,lo be 'fhe well coneemented in plate at a depllt *f 10'fiff1 li. tair* 10,5-lbmlgal nlud whsn rhe c*sing *tring ir pl*ced on bfiron. The cementing operati*n is desig*r.d ** that

--. 0.0_12I)

i{ .8}

the 10.5-ltlrnlgal nrurJ rvill be displaeerl fr*rrr rhs annulus qi by t1) 300 ft of t.:-tUnitgal nrud fluth, {?} l,l0n it

ti.?-lbmlga: filler ce**nl, arr:l (31 t,iJ00 {t of 16.?-lhm/gal higi-strength {{:m*nt-'l'hc hrgh'strtngih {ftenl will le dlsptaeeit fitxr the casing with 9-lbmlgal
brirrs. Calculate the pump prc$surc rcquired in conrpleteiy rlisplaee thr csnrgnt fmn: tht casirg'
Srrllr;ir.rrr.

Th* cquivaicnl mrrrl dtnsity alrvrys shr:uld b: rcfcrerne'l at a specil'ind depth,

hyrtralttti* ptet;$ur* b*lafice is writt*n lry rtadirrg at the known p*:luril *ncl mrrnirrg thraugh tlrr vtrir*rs lluitl

moro

Thc campler well lluid r*y$ttm is unilerstoftl ***ily if vieu'ed fili a mlnotflerer {Fig' 4.'f). The

of 1il,0{$ ft {*r [xarnple 4-3 {crr statit well co*rJitinnr sfter the {:rtnat}i hss lxr$ di*placetl conrplcely fror:r thc
c*sing.

Examplt 4.4. {lalculate the equivaient den*ity lrl t.de{'th

5,,lutirtn. At a ,Jcprh

trl

10.(Xr{)

lt,

$q{lii:ns n rhe prrint of tltr unknown pmssurc Whcn moving rl*wn through a tieclioR, t0,+t*bi ) is pi:srtivc

r; = $,05?i9. {}}{ I 0,{XX}i

+ i .}66 * J'9;lf' p*i g

FRILLIN* HYSNAULICS

11?

U*ing f;q. 4.8.

or

=:-:::-----:::0.0_52 (10,00oi

5,94b

= I l.{ lbln/gal.

lvh*re M is :he averxgc *nle*utar wrigh{ of the ga*. Felr comnrcn field units, s*b*rituri** if this exp&ssi.,n f1r"ryean dcnxity in tq. 4"3 and cnnrbiniag wirh q. d..l
v

iclds

*f fintrainrd Solids and Csre{ in tlrilling Fluid *rillitg e*ginerx s*lilom deal *ith pnre liquidr i:r
!i,3.1 Hflb{t
g$$ei. Fqr cxample, both drilling {luids and {cffient* sre

n1

p+1tfrfrI j"D,'-:J' 13,05?fu1+,1r'$") di, p

,p\
Pt

(4.1?)

piimarily a miriture *f w*ter and fi**ly diviel,:d rolids" The drilling mad in ihc annulns also eonrai4x thc drilled

If the variatian af ; and I i* nat trx) grcet cver rlre eitlumn length r:f in{ercJit. t&ey cnn be rrcererl u, *unsunls $f rncsfi v&lu*s e and 1-. lntegmtion of [r1, 4. l?
g:ive;

solids fr*nt the xrek brvke n up by rhe bir and rhe flormatj*n fluids. th*t were eontained in the mck. As long a; the fiareiglr nlarerial$ arc saspadrd by the lluid or seuling through the l'luid at their rcrrnina.l velwiry, the effer:r rii' &e {oreign $ulsdals on hydnrstatie prtri$ure can be cornpulcd by rcplacir,g &s lluicl clensiry in Hq. 4.?b with rhe den*14, cltlre mixturc. However. particlcs that hul,e seltled *ut of Lhc iluid and src supporred by grairi-to-gruin contact do not influence hytlmsuttc prcssurE. The dcnsity Lrf an ideal nrixtun: can br crrnrputcd usinp the rqle ulation pruredure dirscussctl in Sec. ? of Ch*p. ?. The avcr,rge density of a mixture of several c{imtxlnents i* give* by
lt
,t

Dz-D
where

Ft-llt

l,

Ir:
Pi

(4. I 3;

a*0.f5?
and

lpya"MV"),

"..

.{4.14i

b:2N,,8.

..

. ..

{ji.ts}

It ix unfonunete thst {hs prrs$ure f 3 &p}rearx within the k:garithmic term in Eq. 4.i3. This means thar alr
dctenainatiein of the change in prcsxure with el*rnstrpn fnr a gns-cut lluid colunn. Hi:rwever, il rhe gaslliquid mixtulr is highly pressured and not very long, the v*riuri*n of gas density wirh pressure carr be ignor,l. In rhis f&se, lh ririxtxrc ilensiry , given try Eq. 4.1t ran hs a&s$fisd f,crl.ctant and rhe change in hydrrrstrti* presrurs cso be campulcd using f:{i. 4.1b.

,,*

-;i*l

2t'r, i= I

L i=l
f*l

!-

*riv,
r',

iterative calcutr*ir:n pnrcrdure musr be used for rhe

ft

X rn, X
Y

: ),
i.t

p,J,,

"

{.t-s}

i, i, i, | ass llte n'ra*s, volumr. rlensi ry, and volums fiactian cf compnent i, resp:crively. As l*ng a* th* t:*ffip*nsnt; a:e liquids anrl serli<ls, tfrc compffn*nl density.is es*enti*lly c$nlitcnr thruughout *e sntire length of tfte column. Thus. thc avenage ricnsity rif
a'hew n
p

an&

tlt* rnirtlre also will

Lre

t,he gas {:omp{rnenr docs nal remgin *finstsnt bul with the de*tasing prsrsure. A drilling iluirj rhat i* rnearurnd :o have a is* densitv rluc ie the pteserce rrf gas bubble* is said tn be gan ,ur.
tlscrex$e".l

lf _

e*sentially constant.

&xample .t.5,

onn crrrnprn,;rt in a

massivf low-pernrcability

*anclstone

fincly div,idcri gas, the. de miry af

having a parr:sity al0.?0. a warur silturution of 0.3, rnd a rneihafie gss spturati*n qrf $.7 is *eing drill*d &r a tilre ol 50 fflhlwith a 9.8?5-in, bir ar a deprh of I I ,fftfl ir, e

The tlcte nrrination

of hydrostatic

d*pth in a gas cut

mucJ

7at1l pas equerion. If lf ,, rnales *t gax arc rlispcr:;ed in {r.rr associat*d wirh] I glil of dril.ling fluid, lhe vellume ,iac-

pressurf, ar :l grvcrt can be rulrie through ux* ,rf ttte

ti*n of

6as ai 6 given

point in the eolurnn is giv*n try

iff-a:
ll

af Lil ll_rnlgal. Alsc assume &ar rhe gas behavior is ideal and rhal lxxh rhe gas and the rnelt suttings rucve at {he $sme gnnular velocit\' a,r the rnuJ. Th* el*nrity *l'the rlrillerj ssllids is ?t.g ltrinlga!.
denrity
Snlurian. The hyrlxisraric he.arj sxsned by i?,t}X} fr l4,tbm/gal rnud woulil be
p = 14.1 t (1.0-5?(

hydrostatic pfs$$ilrs eaused by the drilled fonrration material errtiriflg the mird. Agsumc thar th* msan mud tfrfiper"tur* is 6?l"l"R and thlt th* ftrnnati*n water lias ir

!4-lbrnlgat drilling flrrid is hcing cir*ulared *r a rare ol" 350 gal/min while <lrilling, Caleulare rhe clrange in

l+

:l/..ftr
p

{4-:0)

cl

ln addition, the gas tknsiry p* at ihsr p:int is tl*fin*ii hy F,q. 4.5a. Thus, rhc el.furtivii densiry ol, rhc niirrure rr
givsn by

llJ( ll.iA0)'-

8.7-\

psi.r.

Thc irrnrHtion is bcing rlrilled rt a r.ilc'rrf

=

r-n1(l -Jrt'nrf

"

lo --- - _-. 1' r l\'l P

''l1T

(n, + MN

{{

I t}

5()l

r(9.ti75r2 I I 7.48 \ f .-....:t || L'rrt4,ll J\nftz ) --

gal/rrrrrr

APPLlED SRILLIIIG ENGI'{EERING

AVF*Ca glrsrrY sF 6A5C$T i*UO, lA{!r
0

lgal

*gst,rtt

ll!.

L?*ing [qs" 4.14 and 4. 15 give*

$

*0"051[ 1a"05? + l4{$.0ff]?3 I }l :0.73 I ?"

iind

t
F

4dd6

6:{1X0.00CI?: 1X80.3Xs20}
rooo

1.5,

$, 6

pres$ure St1 is 14"7 psia. 'Ihe botlomhsle ;:rc$sure p1 mu$t bt: crtimeted l'rom Hq" 4. 13 i* $n iterstiv$ fflanner. As shcwn in the r*ble belgw, variou* values fcrp: vr? a,ssumed until the ealculated {Oz -I}t } wa* equal to the wetl depth of l?,fi00 ft"

Since fhe rvell

i*

apcn to the atmnsphem, {he surfa{e

fig. 4.$*Annutar donsiry pls! lor xamBle

4.5.

f,trillcd r*lids arc berng *ddecl lo ihe dnlling fluirl at

l"t* t]f
3.3

8,?50 1l,t46 8,7110 r r,878 8.716 l l.!{,}CI

?lirl

nl t:

F:-F

0,7?17

tnfi fiz*fit -',?.0+6 -m".fi_-- j I .g7R t00..1.1 l*n.3? iJ,0{n

t3.32

fs

l{l

-0.2,t :2.6.5 gal/nrin.

Fnrmati*n wnrer is being added to the drillirg raie of

3.

il*irl

Thur;, the elia*g* in hydrost*tie head due tc thr drilled farmation nraterial entering the fiud i* givea by
at a

ar*8,716*'6

a4

3l i0"?X0.3ll

*0.2

Sallrnin.

?he d*nrity ,:ll'lhr drilling liuid aftcr the iarclilion ol thc waler and drillerl serliels rvould be l4(350) +
?r

Yi7fr(
Exirnrpl* 4.5 indicates rlrat
dus
1r1

ly
.9(2.65) + 9(('.2) 350+ 2.6.1+0.2

Ih{ leiss in hydrcsaatic hsrJ nr)mral contarninatii-rn $l thr rtrrilling fluid i* ulual' negligible. ln the past this wat nert undetrt*o.l by

* i4.05? lbmlgal.
Methane gas is beiag addrd ta the drilling lluid at a ratc

many drillirrg pers*nr*l. The c*nfusir:n lvas catrserl rnainty hy * ssvete lorvering af denliity rif the **rilli*g fluid leaving thc w*ll ;it lh* surfirc*. This l*wering of cl*nsity was due t* the rapirlty expanding tnlrtined gax n*ulting frorn thc decrcase in hydnrstetie pr*ssur *n the d*lling fluid rs it approached the surlace . 'Ihe
thesrctical sur{aee mud de,nsity that would ample 4.,5 is given by Eq, 4.1I a:i
Lie seen

in

fix-

of

y "

t u.';';1",*fu=u#rY'\:**re#;: t' ';tvn\ i is#Y8'*'d*rnnring {hr: gas is icti:al and formution pressurc
;rpproximat*ly 8,?51 psia. the gas density giver by Eq.
.1-5b

I
I

4.05? + 1 $10.V&231 )l 14.7

4.7 "{' r {0.{x}0?.1 1 i{riil. 3.1i6?{ll l1tmild'xl.

i*

'i

#{7 #*

=i.9
As r:ne

80 3lr.oox6:o)

:2-S lbrrlSal.

Thu*, the gas nlir*s mle rntering ths wcll is given hv

i:,lJx0,46-t

tlrill*r renr*rked, tht* afllouul of l'.rss in nrud density "w*uld rd!r$e. e1,en a mcnkcy t* gct *xcited." ln thc past, it was eornnr)r1 prit(tice to irrcrtas* the denlrty ul rhe drilling fluicl rvhsn g$r-cut rrturl wus chscrved pn the rurlili-c lrccautc rf a fear r:rf a p*tentie] blawcrut, lJowever. fixarlple 4.5 rlearly ghowr that this shr:ultl
n$t bc dnne unle*s lhe well

t6

--

=().01J

mol/nun.

Siflee tht nud is biling eirculated at a r:lte rif 3.5i1 gallmin, the mol*s ,rf gar per g*ltr:n i:f muri ir givtn hy

t/,- 0.tl&l -_J)t)

00(ru211 rrroli*al

will fli:w wi{h th* pump rrll. Fig. ;1,5, *igriificln{ decrea$cs in annul*r mud deasity *;cur flnly in the iclrtively slall*w pan af {he rnnulrrs. Thc rapid incre:rle irr trnnultr rle.nxity u'ith rlepth *ccun becaust lhc ga: r'olurrre tlcct*.rst: by a l;lc' tr:r nl'trv* when the .hydnrsurie pryssur (lqxrbl*i. Fur erarrplr, ine reiiring th* l':ydrn*tatie pm,\ture ;t! th* ,rurlirt* irorn 14"7 tn llf .6 psili r:iruler * unit valunre of gxr tr: dr:crase to c,ne-eighth o{'its original site"
As lhown

i*

rFiLL*I.IG I{YSRAilLICS

Fnfwril!t
ca&lr{{

aLowt

Lt

agx f.FLf

"l
I

rifll
*P{-L

Prft

(r lrilrru F*A4Yrrf,g
9f nATl

L2

Fes|fitftcE

{0{-tit3

torantofl FLt6
Fg.{rlna{.. H}6X r{gglun

3lnira

ff tl
t-*

A*. 4.f*$chernalic $f we[

eontfol oprelfgn*.

Fig. 4.7*Schsrnatic

apsralion. 'lt

i.nilial r,?ll cl)ndilisnc durin0 $ll fantrsl

{"4 ir"snnlnr Frcssur*s During Wdl Contral *peratians

Sn* *f ilre morc impo*ant applieetians of rhe \rdrostatic
pre$sure rdarionxhips

lain a cr:nsl;nnt traaomhole pressurc, a highcr surlacc annular pres.5u6 m!*t k rnaintainerl uuing the arlju*talrie
choke.

pressur*i during w*fi epntrpl epcrati$tts^ Well csarol aperations refer to tha ernergency proccdures fullowd when fi$rrnation tluid* b*gir flowlng inro the well and d.ispiaeing the driifing &uid. The ll*w of fomrarion fluids into the wcll is cell*d a kclc. A schematic illurrating th*

is the rletermination sf annq*r

Kirk

compesitir:n

nu*t be

sp*eified

for

e*nular

pre$surc calculatir:ns made for tlr* purpase r,rf well plan-

ning. liick ccarpr:*ition gene:ally

ir

nct known d*ring

the kick fluid can be estimaied fn:rm rhe $bsencd

drillpipe prcssurs, annular rasing p$$surc,

actual wll eonrrol trpetxtlii$s. Howev$r, the elen*ity

ol

hydraulic flnw parhs dudng well-contrrl operarior:s is ihown in Fig. 4.6. Sirnnsrion fluids rhat havi flowed inkl:he we.llborc generally musr be removed by cireulating thc well thraugh an adjustable chnke ar rhr: surface. Tl* t{liomho:* prgEsure of the well ar all times trru$t rernain sbave the fr$r$ prassure of thc forrnation lo prevet{ adrlitiortal inllux cl formatir:n iluid. H*wever, a c$rn* plieati*g factnr is the d*nger of fircturing a wEaker ctfftrtffi th*t als,J ir exposed rr: ttrc hydraulic prcssure, Fraettring of an sxpcscd stratum oftcn results in air rrnderground blcw*x*t in slhich aq uncrrntrolled fiqllr *f lb'nnsdsn fluids from rhe high-pressure strxrum to the ttactt*d strat$rff qcrurs. Thus. rtrc pmycrwe\\ cqurci il:ategy is r* arlio*t a *urfacc choke so rhat the botl0mh$l{ prcssurt af tic well is :nrintaincd just slightly abave the f*rmatrial pr$ssum. A plct of the nrrface annular pre$surs vr. the yalurne

ad plt gain. Tho density caic*lati<in aI-ten will dctennine if thr, kick is
predcrninantly gar cr liquid. Tht den.,rity of thc kick iluid is estirnated most e*siiy by cssuming th*t tire ki*k fluirt enlercd rhe annulus ns a slug. A *chenlotic nf initi:rl well r:rndition* afler cloting the b,lowoul pmy*cter ern a kick is slrown in Fig" 4.7. lllre volame o{ kick lluid pneseat I'rusr be aree*aineiJ lrcm thc vnlurne ol drilling flnirl expclled ftnfir the cnnulus i*to the pit hcfor* closing rlre bltw*ul preventer, The pit gain e rrsually is recarded fu pit valume nnnitorirg equipment. :f the bick volume i$ snrsller rhan the total capacity fif the annulus appo*ite tlr* driil cnllaru, thc length nf the Lick aone, 16. ean be exprassed in tenns sf thc kiek vol*me, F1 , and the arlntllar caprrcity" C3. A**uming lire rvell eli*rneter is appmxirnateiy ce;n$lant, we Obt&in

ttf drilling lhliit circulated is calied an annuiar pre$sure pmfile, Althnugh annular pr:ssurc ealeulati*ns iirp nor t*r;uired fur well c*ntrnl prncedlrr u**d by nrc*t istlera($rs {etday, a prir:r knawledgc of kirh brhavi*r help* in ** gwparatian of appr*priatc contingcnr-y pla:rs. Sincc annular frictisnal pressure lo:$ss arc
gener*lly lnrall a! the circutatiag rat*s uii*d in rvell c*ntrcrl opemticns, the calculatians cftn be lrucie. u"ring th* lrydmstat ic prcssrre twttians. :'$

L1=V2C3,
wh*rc f,1 is th* length

......-i4.16)
*f

sf the kick eon*, and C;is the anrrular capacity af

tlrc kick z*ne, l'3 is the volunrs the hol* opposil* th* drill collin expresscJ as lcngrh per unil

volr.r*e. lf the kirk vslurne is larger th*s rhe rord cap&eity of lhe annulus oppori;* rhe drill ctrlli1ffi, lh*n the le:rgtlr of thc kiqk uun*, Ly, ix givr*n by

,{,4.1 Kich ldcntiflcstion

Thrl annular presrure praf*rle ilrat wil.t tre obserueJ cluring w*11 csntr,sl $peratian* dcp:nds t$ a large extent on the

tomposition uf thc kick fluids. In general. * gas kick eauscs higher annular Fres$ures thii:r a liqrritl kiek. l'hi:i is trur becsu$* a grs kick (l) has a l$wcr densiry d:an r liquid kich aM (2) mu*t be allorved ro npand as ir is purn;rd [e th purf*ce. Both nf th*se fuctor:l re*ult rn a ltwer hydn:*tali* pre,ssure in the annulus. T"h*s, to rn;rin

rtl'rhe drill callars and C1 is th* snnuliir capae ity *f the hals ttppanire rhe ilrill pipc sxprrssed a;l length per unil vulume. A pre*sure balancc $n th* inidrl u*cll syslen lor a unifnnn mud d(-nsilv" 1r .,,.

Ct/ whrre13 is the rrul lergth

rr=L:r+(tz^-*i.t. ,

/t\

(,r t7)

i* giverr

lry

p, t 0.t)5)[pr-(

I)-

LLl

url..t. - n,,,1)1 ,1tu,..

APpLlf

0 llillLLlFtG EF',lt{rRll\lc
tlrr:

P. ' 52O op
4, "

trlnwslt prev{fittr. Ths vqlurne *l tonc tan hc cstimrttcd u:ing

kii:k'conltr$ifialr'd i+.20)

7za

Vu

*()+tlt

a,

T**r

tt
I

'"t
::
,,1

.J

1t

.obo t

:i
Lt lq?

ca*lz.gftlbhl

tiru* allnwi*g the mi:an densitl" oI th,c kick-conta1ryl1l -t:i* t" l- cin:puteri using Eg' J lE thc rncan dentl{y ;;;i;- tnirc,l 2.,n., rhcntn be relatett lo th* den-sit} tr{ a fluir1 using the mixturc equatrions" $inc'e

l1

l:l :l
t""
l(

*o'
9r

t?.9

ftlblt

il: ii;i if fbe ci$nificant am(]uat o[ rratural mixing ctcurx {cvtn whe* innn&rion g*$ ,,nt*r* ?hs #;;; o,ii ,p**ii.e predict a mixture vr:dumr thar is t--iii, lt. i.zii"n.rt L
tr:xr

0. i0,ooQ lt

t"- . lo

l;"
t o0
r_

It l.'"
[:

'9

6 PPq

low.

c*p' t37 bbt

1' ,'

iiii'ii'i
"'rMud-Gotslhlixlure 6su Zg bbl
g5 5
so

* '--:
.--l
--".|

? F-.
f:" t-:
r_-

:-i
-

bll of i"lud '28's f rlbbt

dcprlr irf Ftutnn!c,J.6. A wclt is hcing 'trilled at u.r'tr:ic:tl nlud ut a.t:ric Llr *i',';.;;;i;t;;'s a $ o"trrnrsinl 'l'wlrrtl barl to ;.i;br;** whsn ths *tllb"gintovcr llorr'rninu:,f*tlod a3 ffi ure gaine{i iri tlx pit il; **foi* rft* pl*f i* sr*ppcd and th* hlt-rr*cut Pt*\'entcfii init'r*l the'pressutes srabili:'ed'

;*;il;: ;;i;;

Aftcr

oliroio"- o*tsurc
Jr

-:-l .J

-_l *l

F-

of thc casing uplxrsrir rncdrillpipc is

ilo

p..ii u'c tccutd*J' rhc annular

ol 5i0

.an psig and rrn iniliat casirrg

c'apacitv

Plt'551?
Fig.4,S*Schemallc lcr Exampl* 4'6' the kick' p1' $*lving th*s expressir:n lcr the densily *f yields

;;*i"*a.lvlippt'xlt* ft*' lft'ri lifk lluid' The tolal ruirAl. i-*e-rc ine d*n*ity of lhc*f*"ity of ihe drittstring is 130 bbi'

ftrbbl' Thc an' of r{rili collan.is ?fi'&

il'9

S*[utlnn.Asehenlaticillullr.rtingihegeorrrctr,voltlris ii giv*n in Fig' 4-8 '}'hc t*ral capaeity opposll* "-"*pi- ft nf'd*ll cullzts rl the $ffJ

t - it/hhl -3r 5 bhr. :8.6

gry
as lf it is asrurrrerj thfil lh{ kirk fluiqls en!*reet ai kick fluirl rs lers th*n the toial anlu'lar ;;;;; Thus' capacity upg:r:sire rhr' drill collarl' a

/)&:Srl

- 6"rrr&

ltr t'd1t

.. ..1.1.t1i)

slug' then

shilulit indic{te .4 kick density lsss lhan atll$r 4 lbm/gal

il t; ke* tiuu is prcdoruinandy ga*' a*d a kir:kdensi;;;;;ru-; *n"*t x lbmlgal shoul'J indieate $rar the
ii.lt luia
n;;il. i"
,1

Ls,=20 bbl {?8-6 Using 6q.

ftlirbli*

??

li'

is prerJc:minanrly liquid' [aclcr* can cuu** tntg" emrrs in the calc*lalian Severai Hoie is of fti"l'ioiA density whsn rhe lijcL volumc smali'

4.lS'

givetr bv the denslly sf llr* lii{:h niii{i i3

;r;it;;i-;;

:1

i.i

lf

rexd :rddidan. *r pressure gailgss oR*n da n$t p?e$$$rEs' Al*o' lhe effective,a*nular nccuralely al low ,f--"ilty ,u"y t * -itightly !rriller !h'll"1h*. nrtrd dcrtily

makgth* detr:nnin*lion

*f kjck lengrh

dit'-

,,,. =

9.b

??0- 5l(l
11

-r

1.9 lhmrgul'

115;1

J7l

indrcatir:tr rrt lo$Tlre rerult{ shoukJ bc int*r1rcted *s ;l* .lcnsrt-v kich f'luitl

"t",: tfriflpipe kcaos* in *re

or-cirtrained. tirillcd.:;.'litl*' Furqurtnihe kic,tr t'luiti is mixed with a signilicant ,il*""ot*. he reprcsented arcuratelY as ,;il" ,ri-i*ri and oilr:n ctrrnet
.

nrull pumprtl whilc the

ll'ir

is assunietJ rhat

"Ic ' il 8at tlrt ir*;k {lui<ls arc nrircrj with

.

lht:

*'rll

rvas llnwing'

4"lll * ibg fh"u, th* kiek density c*rnputeri nsing liq' nrtrtlr crlilllillu . ,t,,,ui,t t'ta vlcwc,l nt onlv a " 5;;;t"p;vemert in lhe ateurrci'" ol "hr: kicl ilensity mixtd *ulotntittn'.*n bc athieved if the volurnr of ntud is known' 'lhc *'rininr*nr nusl ;;th it; l?)mratitln fluicts ;*i;;; *r$l wal mixed with the kick iluirls carr be
cstttnrtcd usinr tlte cxPrcstion

fL -?0 bbt +'*.: hhllnrin{3 nrin't*45'-1 trhl'

'fhr: length of tnixtrl;r*nc is given bJ'Eq'

4'i?

*:r

lr

;900 * i45.5

- t':t
-1

tz'q

=' 10t{1

ti'
rtie nri:qcil 21rrtc
ib

V,n=Qt,t.

(il

Usirrg IIq19)

givet by
Pt.

'l'llt.

th* r:l**n i3etlity

lf

rx ilthe wh*re 11 i* th$ tinw rats rtlthr: puilrpl' nnd purnp ;rnd closing thc det,:ction tirne bef*re rtoppingihc

kirk

-6.$1

llrrrrlL:*l

DRllltfic

]"tY0ftAtJLtf

s Simil:rdy, {hr: equivalent rlensity *t ol'"1,5{$ ft is giv*n try

tfut:

12i

the hick {lairl d*nsity u$ing equalieas lor the effecriv*

*ensity of incornprc$*ible mixtures.
?0ps +?5.5{9,6}
45_5

$inee the cr.rlumn trl nrixerl ;u*e is *n1y I .*61 Nr !r:ng and und*r lrigh prcssur. the mean d*nsity can be :elared to

..x$in* rr{t ddpth

p, 6,{X*

T:-::-*"0.0-i2{3.500}

1zfi

+ t).6

= l-i.5{i lhrrrrg:rl.

of l0 (r-lbnrlgal
$ah,ingi *"ris rqu;ltion ftrr the 6.Gt{{5.-5)

kick fluid density yicldr

= I 5 lb'rigal,

Afier pumping 300 hbl of l0^6-lbm/gsi rnud. ihr v{}lume rnucl in rhc annuitrs it the borrrrrn rif the
hole is

Pr =

--=--:-:--?fl

- 9,fii25.5 r

3{Xi* 130*170 bbl

This ts tnre s.incf thc torul d.illstdn* sitp{city Tlrr length af this mgion iri given b-y
rr gar.

i* l3*

bht.

whieh atser indieais that

iie kick fluiql i;

1"r=900+{170-ll

5}11.9=, 1.6H7 ti

fr {14,;1,} Annular Pressure llrediction The sanre hydr*static prtlisurc balance alpnrar:h u$ed to i<ientify rhe kick llnieJs alsn c*n be usetl ia sstimare rhc ple*riure at iiny p{}inf in lh* annulus lor variouri well. cln, rlit.ions. During we,ll er:nrrof opcralions. the l*ttonrlrolc pte$suie *'ill be maintairicd c0nsranr at :t valde ;lightly
abr:rce the lonnat.icltt pressur.r- thr,nugh the opemtion nl- an

Thc regian a*ove the new nlucl in thr' annulus rvill eoniain 130 trbl ni 9.6-lbnrlgal nrud rhal rr,as dirplaced fn:nr the drillpipe. 'Ihe lengtlr o1'rhis region is givrn hy
L z'* fiA(12.9)

1.ti7? fi.

The regi*n abave lh* 9.6-lhmlgal mud

*.ili

c.r.:nlain

relalig* {$ the filud.

iion. Fnr simplichy. it usu;ll,ly is *sriunred thuithe ki,:k *gion remain$ es ir {*ntinriou* slug th:ir do*s nnt slip

adjustable ehqke. ?hus, it is usutlly {:onvenienr ro rr'pre,r$ rhf pre$silfe at thr: desir?d ;:r:inr in the rnnulus in terrm af the kners.n bn(t*nrli$le prcssurc. This requin," a lnowlerlge ol'*nly lhe lengrh am1 rie nsity crf each l'lurd repi$n hetween rtre brrllfin] nl the hole ancl the prinf ni' inter*r;t. Whi:n a gas kiek is inv*lved. the lcngril iif rh* gas rcgion lnusr hc tletenninet,l using thc rcal gas r.qu:,-

nwrhanc. gas. The appnrxilrrate prcisurq of the gas rs nccdcd t(l c(ltlrpuls the girs voiunrc. Thc pressure at thc h:ttlrm of lhe. gas lr.fir,rn {:itri br co$putei.! fr,;rr':t thc known b*tttmhole prressure. v,,hiclr i* 50 p*i highrr thar

thc f'trrrnati*n prc$iure.

p,

**

5.5 I 2 + 50 *0.ils?{ I i}. 6il?,{ilt?i

* 0.{15?i!.fX 'llris

1,6??l

* 3.24"i p{i". uf

pn:ssure oclunr iit ;i depth

l0,lltKl*?.6S7 * l.n7? =5.636 ii.

Xratnple 4" 7. Again {tcl*sider rhe kick ciescriireri in arnpl* 4.6, Conrpure the nrud densiry requi:tti to hill rhc well and the cquivalcnt densitl, a( thc caiing se&t fbr rhe

[r,

F*r ideal gas behavior, tire volume nf the gari is given by

y,, _-20 trtrt'.1'"."1.

(.i

shut-in r,;ell c*nditions. Alsa cofflpute tire eqtivalcnt

density Ihat w*ulel <.ccilr rrr the casing seat aftrr punrping 300 bhl *l kill mud whiln nrainraining rhe b$irnnih$l* pre$surs 50 p*i higher rhan rhr: i*mratilrn pr*$$riri: thraugh u$e ol an adjustatrle surface chr:ke" Assur:re rhe kiek is rnethani: *as *! a cr:rn$tafil trmlterriturc cf l.l*"F anil thrt lhr gils hrhavcr as ;rn ide*l gr.s.

'

5tl{ 't4.7) ":

'
l'1 7)

(1.?44

=319

hbt.

and the l*rgth

i:f the gas r{:giol is given by

lr

:11"1.,f1 I ?.111 *43? Fl.

The di:nsiry ni rhc g.as is givcn hy Eq. 4.5h"

l) !t't

Solution. l'hs lErmrati*rl prcssurc i:i giv*n by

i"1,144

*' l:1.7) I6

j'l& * 5li} i-i}. 0:2{

ti. rr }{ l il"i}tXlt - j ll "5

p*ig"

' t{{).:;f

ll0..1il )/+fi0

t l"lill

'fhe

rnuql tl*nrit_v

pFrsrure ili given

51CI "* iJ
'"

rcqurrttl t(l i'\ (\t'(.()n)e llris [trrlt:rlirrn

- l.fi$ lhnri gal.

1'ht regi*n alxrvc the gi:rl r:fint{inr 9.6-lbnrlg;tl niud. J'hur, we crn c{}t}tputr the pr*rsur* *t 1,50$ l1 lnrrrr tlrr
hnown prcssurs nJ':1"2,{4 psig ,tt 5"f}ltt

Lr_u,.

lt ? :7

----*

"u53{{. 6X 1 0,{"X.{t)

5?fi {}.{15:( r{.ixx.}i

ti

uring.

{'}.fis:{ t0"{x}0}

i'" l,:4-l

il.()5

jr l.rlNt(J t?t
prrg.

a9.fr* 1fi.6 lhrnlptil.

'(,.(]5.1{(}

h}(.i.h}b .ll7 r.5(t{}}-1..17i