IU8A1Internat|ona| Un|vers|ty of 8us|ness Agr|cu|ture and 1echno|ogy

Lab keport Cn D|fferent 1ypes of ressure Measurement Dev|ces

repared Ior
rof Dr Lngr A2A Sa|fu||ah
Chalrman
uepL of Mechanlcal Lnglneerlng


repared 8ys
Name Md 8alsul karlm
ID# 09207042
rogram 8SML
Lma|| rkrlad[gmallcom





Date 10
Lh
CcLober 2011
Objective:
The objective oI this laboratory experiment is to discuss about diIIerent types oI Pressure
measurement device.

Pressure:
Pressure can be deIined as the measure oI Iorce per-unit-area exerted by a Iluid, acting
perpendicularly to any surIace it contacts (a Iluid can be either a gas or a liquid, Iluid and liquid
are not synonymous). The standard SI unit Ior pressure measurement is the Pascal (Pa) which is
equivalent to one Newton per square meter (N/m2) or the KiloPascal (kPa) where 1 kPa 1000
Pa. In the English system, pressure is usually expressed in pounds per square inch (psi). Pressure
can be expressed in many diIIerent units including in terms oI a height oI a column oI liquid.For
example, pressure, P, is a Iunction oI Iorce, F, and area, A.
P F/A .
Many techniques have been developed Ior the measurement oI pressure and vacuum. Instruments
used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges.
Measurement of Pressure:
The principles, on which all the pressure measuring devices are based, are almost the same.
Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with diIIerent advantages and
disadvantages. Pressure range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders
oI magnitude Irom one instrument design to the next. The oldest type is the liquid column (a
vertical tube Iilled with mercury) manometer invented by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. The U-
Tube was invented by Christian Huygens in 1661. However, the convenient sake, we may spilt
up the same in to the Iollowing two types:
1. y balancing the liquid column (whose pressure is to be Iound out by the same or another
column. These are also called tube gauges to measure the pressure).
2. y balancing the liquid column by the spring or dead weight. These are also called
mechanical gauges.



%ube Gauges to Measure Pressure:
Piezometer %ube:
A piezometer is either a device used to measure static liquid pressure in a system by measuring
the height to which a column oI the liquid rises against gravity, or a device which measures the
pressure (more precisely, the piezometric head) oI groundwater at a speciIic point. A piezometer
is designed to measure static pressures, and thus diIIers Irom a pitot tube by not being pointed
into the Iluid Ilow.

Fig 1
Manometer:
Manometers are those pressure measuring devices which are based on the principle oI balancing
the columns oI liquid whose pressure is to be Iound by the same or another column oI liquid. The
manometers are classiIied as simple manometers and diIIerential manometers. Simple
manometers are those which measure pressure at a point in a Iluid contained in a pipe or vessel.
On the other hand diIIerential manometers measure the diIIerence oI pressure between any two
points in a Iluid contained in a pipe or a vessel.
Simple Manometers:
In general a simple manometer consists oI a glass tube having one oI its ends connected to the
gage point where the pressure is to be measured and the other remains open to atmosphere. Some
oI the common types oI simple manometers are:
(i) Piezometer (ii) U tube manometer and (iii) single column manometers.
i) Piezometer:
A piezometer is the simplest Iorm oI manometer which can be used Ior measuring moderate
pressures oI liquids. It consists oI a glass tube inserted in the wall oI a pipe or a vessel,
containing a liquid whose pressure is to be measured. Piezometers measure gage pressure only
since the surIace oI the liquid in the tube is subjected to atmospheric pressure. The pressure at
any point in the liquid is indicated by the height oI the liquid in the tube above that point, which
can be read on the scale attached to it. Thus, iI w is the speciIic weight oI the liquid, then the
pressure at any point A in Fig.2.(a) is
P
A
p g h
A
e h
A


Fig.2 (a) Fig2. (b)
Negative gage pressures can be measured by means oI the piezometer shown in Fig. 2.(b). It is
evident that iI the pressure in the container is less than the atmospheric no column oI liquid will
rise in the ordinary piezometer. Neglecting the weight oI the air caught in the portion oI the tube,
the pressure on the Iree surIace in the container is the same as that at Iree surIace in the tube
which may be expressed as p -e h, where w is the speciIic weight oI the liquid used in the
vessel.
ii) U- tube Manometer:
Piezometers cannot be used when large pressures in the lighter liquids are to be ensured, since
this would require very long tubes, which cannot be handled conveniently. Furthermore gas
pressures cannot be measured by means oI piezometers because a gas Iorms no Iree atmospheric
surIace. U tube manometer consists oI a glass tube bent in U-shape, one end oI which is
connected to the gage point and the other end remains open to the atmosphere. The tube contains
a liquid oI speciIic gravity greater than that oI the Iluid oI which the pressure is to be measured.
For the measurement shown in Fig.3 the gage equation may be written as indicated below.

Fig.3
Pressure head at A , h P
A
/ p
1
g P
A
/(S
1
p ) g
Pressure head at A' Pressure head at A
Pressure head at ' Pressure head at A' -z (P
A
/ S
1
p g )- z
Pressure head at Pressure head at '
Pressure head at C Pressure head at (P
A
/ S
1
p g )- z
Pressure head at D Pressure head at at C - y x S
2
/S
1
( in terms oI liquid at A)
At D, there being atmospheric pressure, the pressure head 0, in terms oI gage pressure.
p
A/
S
1
p g - z - y. S
2/
S
1
0
p
A/
S
1
p g z y S
2
/ S
1
(represents the pressure heads in terms oI the liquid at A)
p
A/
pg

z S
1
y S
2
(represents the pressure heads in terms water)
Iig.3 shows another arrangement Ior measuring pressure at A by means oI a U-tube manometer.
y Iollowing the same procedure as indicated above the gage equation Ior this arrangement can
also be written,
P
A
/ eS
1
h1 S
2/
S
1
- h
2
( in terms oI liquid at A)
P
A
/e h
1
S
2
- h
2
S
1
( in terms oI water)
A U tube manometer can also be used to measure negative or vacuum pressure. For
Measurement oI small negative pressure, a U tube manometer without any manometric liquid
May be used, which is as shown in Fig.4

Fig.4
P
A
/ S
1
pg h 0
P
A
/ S pg - h ( m oI liquid at A)
P
A
-S
1
h ( m oI water)
For measuring greater negative pressures a manometric liquid oI greater speciIic gravity is
employed, Ior which the arrangement shown in Fig.4 may be employed.
P
A
/ e S
1
- z - y S
2 /
S
1
( in terms oI liquid at A)
P
A
/ e -z S
1
-y S
2
( in terms oI water)
ifferential Manometers:
For measuring the diIIerence oI pressure between any two points in a pipe line or in two pipes or
containers, a diIIerential manometer is employed. In general a diIIerential manometer consists oI
a bent glass tube, the two ends oI which are connected to each oI the two gage points between
which the pressure diIIerence is required. Some oI the common types oI diIIerential manometers
are :
(i) Two-Piezometer Manometer
(ii) Inverted U Tube Manometer
(iii) U Tube DiIIerential Manometer
(iv) Micromanometer
(i) Two Piezometer Manometer
The diIIerence in the levels oI the liquid raised in the two tubes will denote the pressure
diIIerence between the two points. Evidently this method is useIul only iI the pressure at each oI
the two points is small. Moreover it cannot be used to measure the pressure diIIerence in gases,
Ior which the other types oI diIIerential manometers described below may be employed.

Fig 5
(P
1
-P
2
)/ S
1
p g h ( m oI liquid in the pipe)
(P
1
-P
2
)/ pg S
1
h ( m oI water)
ii) U -tube ifferential Manometer
It consists oI glass tube bent in U-shape, the two ends oI which are connected to the two gage
points between which the pressure diIIerence is required to be measured. Fig shows such an
arrangement Ior measuring the pressure diIIerence between any two points A and . The lower
part oI the manometer contains a manometric liquid which is heavier than the liquid Ior which
the pressure diIIerence is to be measured and is immiscible with it.


Fig. 6
P
A
/ S
1
pg y h - h.S
2
/ S
1
- y P

/ S
1
p g
(P
A
-P

)/ S
1
p g h. S
2
/ S
1
- h h (S
2
/ S
1
- 1) ( m oI Iluid oI sp.gr S1)
(P
A
-P

)/ pg h ( S
2
-S
1
) ( m oI water)
iii) Inverted U -tube Manometer:
It consists oI a glass tube bent in U-shape and held inverted as shown in Fig.2.8. When the two
ends oI the manometer are connected to the points between which the pressure diIIerence is
required to be measured, the liquid under pressure will enter the two limbs oI the manometer,
thereby causing the air within the manometer to get compressed. The presence oI the compressed
air results in restricting the heights oI the columns oI liquids raised in the two limbs oI the
manometer. An air cook as shown in Fig.2.8, is usually provided at the top oI the inverted U tube
which Iacilities the raising oI the liquid columns to suitable level in both the limbs by driving out
a portion oI the compressed air. Inverted U tube manometers are suitable Ior the measurement oI
small pressure diIIerence in liquids.

Fig.7
Since the speciIic weight oI air is negligible as compared with that oI liquid, between C' and
D may be neglected.
P
A
/ S
1
p g - y ( y-h) P

/ S
1
p g
(P
A
-P

)/ S
1
p g h ( m oI liquid oI sp.gr S1)
(P
A
- P

)/ p g h S
1
( m oI water)
ead Weight Pressure Gauge:
Dead Weight Pressure Gauge Testers are used Ior calibrating and standardizing pressure gauges
and pressure transducers upto a pressure oI 1000 bar (kg/sq.cm) HEICO Dead Weight Pressure
Gauge Testers are so designed and manuIactured that extremely small variations and very small
pressures can be measured with great accuracy i.e. upto 0.1 or better. The standardizing
pressure is developed by loading with standardized weights a vertically arranged ram which
works in a cylinder Iilled with oil. This cylinder is connected to an oil reservoir through an
isolating valve. A priming pump, a pressure pump, pressure gauge adaptors etc. are also
connected to the cylinder. A set oI standardized weights, Ior the testing range oI the tester, is
supplied with each instrument. A set oI adaptors Ior diIIerent sizes oI pressure gauge threads is
also provided along with a set oI spanners, a needle puller and a screw driver. Dead Weight
Pressure Gauges Testers are oIIered in Iour models.

80
Single Ram, Single Gauge Type.
82
Single Ram, Two Gauge Type
84
Double Ram, Single Gauge Type.
86
Mceod gauge:
A McLeod gauge isolates a sample oI gas and compresses it in a modiIied mercury manometer
until the pressure is a Iew mmHg. The gas must be well-behaved during its compression. The
technique is slow and unsuited to continual monitoring, but is capable oI good accuracy.
Useful range: above 10
-4
torr (roughly 10
-2
Pa) as high as 10
6
Torr (0.1 mPa),
0.1 mPa is the lowest direct measurement oI pressure that is possible with current technology.
Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement oI other
pressure-controlled properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated to SI units via a
direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.


iaphragm:

Fig.8: A pile oI pressure capsules with corrugated diaphragms in an aneroid barograph.
A second type oI aneroid gauge uses the deIlection oI a Ilexible membrane that separates regions
oI diIIerent pressure. The amount oI deIlection is repeatable Ior known pressures so the pressure
can be determined by using calibration. The deIormation oI a thin diaphragm is dependent on the
diIIerence in pressure between its two Iaces. The reIerence Iace can be open to atmosphere to
measure gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure diIIerential pressure, or can be sealed
against a vacuum or other Iixed reIerence pressure to measure absolute pressure. The
deIormation can be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive techniques. Ceramic and
metallic diaphragms are used.
Useful range: above 10
-2
Torr (roughly 1 Pa)
Bellows:
In gauges intended to sense small pressures or pressure diIIerences, or require that an absolute
pressure be measured, the gear train and needle may be driven by an enclosed and sealed bellows
chamber, called an aneroid, which means "without liquid". This bellows conIiguration is used in
aneroid barometers altimeters, altitude recording barographs, and the altitude telemetry
instruments used in weather balloon radiosondes. These devices use the sealed chamber as a
reIerence pressure and are driven by the external pressure. Other sensitive aircraIt instruments
such as air speed indicators and rate oI climb indicators (variometers) have connections both to
the internal part oI the aneroid chamber and to an external enclosing chamber.


Electronic pressure sensors:
O Piezoresistive Strain Gage
Uses the piezoresistive eIIect oI bonded or Iormed strain gauges to detect strain due to
applied pressure.
O apacitive
Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to
applied pressure.
O Magnetic
Measures the displacement oI a diaphragm by means oI changes in inductance
(reluctance), LVDT, Hall EIIect, or by eddy current principal.
O Piezoelectric
Uses the piezoelectric eIIect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon
the sensing mechanism due to pressure.
O Optical
Uses the physical change oI an optical Iiber to detect strain due applied pressure.
O Potentiometric
Uses the motion oI a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by
applied pressure.
O #esonant
Uses the changes in resonant Irequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or
changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.

Ionization gauge:
Ionization gauges are the most sensitive gauges Ior very low pressures. They sense pressure
indirectly by measuring the electrical ions produced when the gas is bombarded with electrons.
Fewer ions will be produced by lower density gases. The calibration oI an ion gauge is unstable
and dependent on the nature oI the gases being measured, which is not always known. They can
be calibrated against a McLeod gauge which is much more stable and independent oI gas
chemistry.
Thermionic emission generates electrons, which collide with gas atoms and generate positive
ions. The ions are attracted to a suitably biased electrode known as the collector. The current in
the collector is proportional to the rate oI ionization, which is a Iunction oI the pressure in the
system. Hence, measuring the collector current gives the gas pressure. There are several sub-
types oI ionization gauge.
Useful range: 10
-10
- 10
-3
torr (roughly 10
-8
- 10
-1
Pa)

ot cathode:


Fig.9: ayard-Alpert hot-cathode ionization gauge
A hot-cathode ionization gauge is composed mainly oI three electrodes acting together as a
triode, wherein the cathode is the Iilament. The three electrodes are a collector or plate, a
Iilament, and a grid. The collector current is measured in picoamps by an electrometer. The
Iilament voltage to ground is usually at a potential oI 30 volts, while the grid voltage at 180210
volts DC, unless there is an optional electron bombardment Ieature, by heating the grid, which
may have a high potential oI approximately 565 volts. The most common ion gauge is the hot-
cathode ayard-Alpert gauge, with a small ion collector inside the grid. A glass envelope with an
opening to the vacuum can surround the electrodes, but usually the Nude Gauge is inserted in the
vacuum chamber directly, the pins being Ied through a ceramic plate in the wall oI the chamber.
Hot-cathode gauges can be damaged or lose their calibration iI they are exposed to atmospheric
pressure or even low vacuum while hot. The measurements oI a hot-cathode ionization gauge are
always logarithmic.
Electrons emitted Irom the Iilament move several times in back and Iorth movements around the
grid beIore Iinally entering the grid. During these movements, some electrons collide with a
gaseous molecule to Iorm a pair oI an ion and an electron (Electron ionization). The number oI
these ions is proportional to the gaseous molecule density multiplied by the electron current
emitted Irom the Iilament, and these ions pour into the collector to Iorm an ion current. Since the
gaseous molecule density is proportional to the pressure, the pressure is estimated by measuring
the ion current.
The low-pressure sensitivity oI hot-cathode gauges is limited by the photoelectric eIIect.
Electrons hitting the grid produce x-rays that produce photoelectric noise in the ion collector.
This limits the range oI older hot-cathode gauges to 10
8
Torr and the ayard-Alpert to about
10
10
Torr. Additional wires at cathode potential in the line oI sight between the ion collector and
the grid prevent this eIIect. In the extraction type the ions are not attracted by a wire, but by an
open cone. As the ions cannot decide which part oI the cone to hit, they pass through the hole
and Iorm an ion beam. This ion beam can be passed on to a
O Faraday cup
O Microchannel plate detector with Faraday cup
O "uadrupole mass analyzer with Faraday cup
O "uadrupole mass analyzer with Microchannel plate detector Faraday cup
O ion lens and acceleration voltage and directed at a target to Iorm a sputter gun. In this
case a valve lets gas into the grid-cage.
old cathode:
There are two subtypes oI cold-cathode ionization gauges: the Penning gauge, and the Inverted
magnetron, also called a Redhead gauge. The major diIIerence between the two is the position oI
the anode with respect to the cathode. Neither has a Iilament, and each may require a DC
potential oI about 4 kV Ior operation. Inverted magnetrons can measure down to 1x10
12
Torr.
Likewise, cold-cathode gauges may be reluctant to start at very low pressures, in that the near-
absence oI a gas makes it diIIicult to establish an electrode current - in particular in Penning
gauges, which use an axially symmetric magnetic Iield to create path lengths Ior ions that are oI
the order oI metres. In ambient air, suitable ion-pairs are ubiquitously Iormed by cosmic
radiation; in a Penning gauge, design Ieatures are used to ease the set-up oI a discharge path. For
example, the electrode oI a Penning gauge is usually Iinely tapered to Iacilitate the Iield emission
oI electrons.
Maintenance cycles oI cold cathode gauges are, in general, measured in years, depending on the
gas type and pressure that they are operated in. Using a cold cathode gauge in gases with
substantial organic components, such as pump oil Iractions, can result in the growth oI delicate
carbon Iilms and shards within the gauge that eventually either short-circuit the electrodes oI the
gauge or impede the generation oI a discharge path.
alibration:
Pressure gauges are either direct- or indirect-reading. Hydrostatic and elastic gauges measure
pressure are directly inIluenced by Iorce exerted on the surIace by incident particle Ilux, and are
called direct reading gauges. Thermal and ionization gauges read pressure indirectly by
measuring a gas property that changes in a predictable manner with gas density. Indirect
measurements are susceptible to more errors than direct measurements.
O Dead-weight tester
O McLeod
O mass spec ionization
namic transients:
When Iluid Ilows are not in equilibrium, local pressures may be higher or lower than the average
pressure in a medium. These disturbances propagate Irom their source as longitudinal pressure
variations along the path oI propagation. This is also called sound. Sound pressure is the
instantaneous local pressure deviation Irom the average pressure caused by a sound wave. Sound
pressure can be measured using a microphone in air and a hydrophone in water. The eIIective
sound pressure is the root mean square oI the instantaneous sound pressure over a given interval
oI time. Sound pressures are normally small and are oIten expressed in units oI microbar.
O Irequency response oI pressure sensors
O resonance

iscussion and onclusion:
From the discussion, we learn about diIIerent types oI pressure measurement device and their
working principles.

Bibliograph:
O en.wikipedia.com
O www.scribd.com
O A Text book oI Hydraulics, Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines y R. S. Khurmi
O http://www.google.com.bd/imghp?hlbn&tabwi