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MBA SEM III MB0050 Research Methodology - Assignment I A1. The manager, while managing people, products, events and environments will invariably face problems, big and small, and will have to seek ways to find long lasting effective solutions. This can be achieved only through knowledge of research even if consultants are engaged to solve problems. The primary purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research) is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use the scientific method, but need not do so. The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge, which takes three main forms: Explanatory research which structures and identifies new problems Constructive research which develops solutions to a problem Empirical research which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence

Research can also fall into two distinct types Primary research and Secondary research. In social sciences and in other disciplines, qualitative and quantitative research methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective. Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure or research. The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project, then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. Research and development is nowadays of great importance in business as the level of competition, production processes and methods are rapidly increasing. It is of special importance in the field of marketing where companies keep and eagle eye on competitors and customers in order to keep pace with modern trends and analyze the needs, demands and desires of their customers. Unfortunately, research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R & D spending does not guarantee more creativity, higher profit or a great market share

A2. A. Research design in case of exploratory research. Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about 1. The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypothesis suggests new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant hypothesis from it. 2. Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey, people who are competent can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants. But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered. Generally, the experience of collecting interview is likely to belong and may last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various involved so that, at the time of interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the formulation of the

research hypothesis. This survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research. 3. Analyses of Insight stimulating examples are also a fruitful method for suggesting hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instance of the phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if any may be examined. The unstructured interviewing may take place or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights. In an exploratory of formulative research study which merely leads to insights or hypothesis, whatever method or research design outlined above is adopted, the only thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so that many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and come to the notice of the researcher. A2. B. Dependent and Independent Variables. A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. However the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as continuous variables. But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called non continuous variables. In statistical term, they are also known as Discrete variable. When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. Extraneous variable. The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to

test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school performance and their self concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an experimental error. Therefore a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables.

A3. A. Difference between Census survey and Sample survey Census survey Sample survey A census measures absolutely everyone A part of a population is known as a sample in the whole country. This obviously means that a census survey is a much bigger exercise is in a nature very and time Sample survey is easier as a representative procedures. Census survey

consuming exercise as information sample is taken from the population and the needs to be collected from each and results obtained are extrapolated to fit the every individual from the population. entire population. There are times and requirements Sample surveys cannot count the number of where governments have to indulge in people in the country but when government census survey even if it is time is planning on a welfare program for cancer consuming and very expensive as it patients, it can conduct a sample survey of needs to formulate policies and welfare the cancer patients and then extrapolate the programs for the population. Census survey is more accurate. B. Multi stage sampling In multi stage sampling method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The population is regarded as being composed of a number of second stage units and so forth. That is, at each stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the subsequent stage. First, a sample of the first stage sampling units is drawn, then from each of the selected first stage sampling unit, a sample of the second stage sampling units is drawn. The procedure continues down to the final sampling units or population elements. Appropriate random sampling method is adopted at each stage. It is appropriate where the population is scattered over a wider geographical area and no frame or list is available for sample. It is also useful when a survey has to be made within a limited and cost budget. The major disadvantage is that the procedure of the estimating sampling error and cost advantage is complicated. Sequential Sampling results on the section of the population that is undergoing treatment for cancer. There is margin for error is sample survey.

Sequential sampling is a non probability sampling technique wherein the researcher picks a single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study, analyses the results then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on. This sampling technique gives the researcher limitless chances of fine tuning his research methods and gaining a vital insight into the study that he is currently pursuing. There is very little effort in the part of the researcher when performing this sampling technique. It is not expensive, not time consuming and not workforce extensive. This sampling method is hardly representative of the entire population. Its only hope of approaching respresentativeness is when the researcher chose to use a very large sample size significant enough to represent a big fraction of the entire population. Due to aforementioned disadvantages, results from this sampling technique cannot be used to create conclusions and interpretations pertaining to the entire population.

A4.

Measures of central Tendency The term central tendency refers to the middle value or perhaps a typical of the data, and is measured using the Mean, Median or Mode. Each of these measures is calculated differently, and the one that is best to use depends upon the situation. Analysis of data involves understanding of the characteristics of the data. The following are the important characteristics of a statistical data. Central tendency Dispersion Skewness Kurtosis

In a data distribution, the individual items may have a tendency to come to a central position or an average value. For instance, in a mark distribution, the individual students may score marks between zero and hundred. In this distribution, many students may score marks, which are near to the average marks, ie. 50. Such a tendency of the data to concentrate to the central position of the distribution is called central tendency. Central tendency of the date is measured by statistical averages. Averages are classified into two groups. 1. Mathematical averages 2. Positional averages Arithmetic mean, geometric mean and harmonic mean are mathematical averages. Median and mode are positional averages. These statistical measures try to understand how individual values in a distribution concentrate to a central value like average. If the values of distribution approximately come near to the average value, we conclude that the distribution has central tendency. Difference between Mean and Median Mean (Mathematical Averages) Median (Positional Averages) When the sample size is large and The median may be a better indicator of the does not include outliners, the means most typical value if a set of scores has an core usually provide a better measure outlier. The outlier is an extreme value that of central tendency. differs greatly from mother values. The mean is the most commonly used The media often is used when there are a measure of central tendency. When few extreme values that could greatly average is used, it usually refers to influence the mean and distort what might mean. be considered typical. The mean is simply the sum of the The median is determined by sorting the

values divided by the total number of data set from lowest to highest values and items in the set. taking the data point in the middle of the sequence.

A5.

For performing research on the literacy levels among families, the primary and secondary sources of data can be used very effectively. More specifically the primary sources of data collection is suggested in this regard. Because personal data or data related to human beings consists of 1. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals Age, sex, race, social class, religion, marital status, education, occupation, income, family size, location of the household life style. 2. Behavioural variables Attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions. 3. Organizational data consists of data relating to an organization origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth. 4. Territorial data are related to geo physical characteristics, resource endowment, population, occupational pattern infrastructure degree of development of spatial divisions like villages, cities, talluks, districts, state and the nation. The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. The relevance, adequacy and reliability of the data determine the quality of the findings of a study. Data form the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data also provide the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are analyzed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical analysis and tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus the scientific process of measurements, analysis, testing and interferences depends of the availability of relevant data and their accuracy. Methods of Collecting Primary Data Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research required data are not available from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources. In such cases where the available data are in appropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. They include: socioeconomic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and TV, viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm managements studies, business management studies etc. There are various methods of data collection. A Method is different from a

Tool while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methodsare (a) observation (b) interviewing (c) mail survey (d) experimentation (e) simulation and (f) projective technique Evaluation of Secondary Data When a researcher wants to use secondary data for his research, he should evaluate them before deciding to use them. 1) Data Pertinence The first consideration in evaluation is to examine the pertinence of the available secondary data to the research problem under study. The following questions should be considered - What are the definitions and classifications employed? - Are they consistent? - What are the measurements of variables used? - What is the degree to which they conform to the requirements of our research? On the basis of above consideration, the pertinence of the secondary data to the research on hand should be determined, as a researcher who is imaginative and flexible may be able to redefine his research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable available data. 2) Data Quality If the researcher is convinced about the available secondary data for his needs, the next step is to examine the quality of the data. The quality of the data refers to their accuracy, reliability and completeness. The assurance and reliability of the available secondary data depends on the organization which collected them and the purpose for which they were collected. -What is the authority and prestige of the organization? -Is it well recognized? Is it noted for reliability? It is capable of collecting reliable data?

The answers to these questions determine the degree of confidence we can have in the data and their accuracy. It is important to go to the original source of the secondary data rather than to use an immediate source which has quoted from the original. Then only, the researcher can review the cautionary and other comments that were made in the original source. 3) Data Completeness: The completeness refers to the actual coverage of the published data. This depends on the methodology and sampling design adopted by the original organization. - Is the methodology sound ? - Is the sample size small or large ? - Is the sampling method appropriate ? Answers to these questions may indicate the appropriateness and adequacy of the data for the problem under study. The question of possible bias should also be examined. Whether the purpose for which the original organization collected the data had a particular orientation? Has the study been made to promote the organizations own interest? The researcher must be on guard when the source does not report the methodology and sampling design. Then it is not possible to determine the adequacy of the secondary data for the researchers study.

A6. A. Role of Graphs and Diagrams In presenting the data of frequency distributions and statistical computations, it is often desirable to use appropriate forms of graphic presentations. In additions to tabular forms, graphic presentation involves use of graphics, charts and other pictorial devices such as diagrams. These forms and devices reduce large masses of statistical data to a form that can be quickly understood at the glance. The meaning of figures in tabular form may be difficult for the mind to grasp or retain. Properly constructed graphs and charts relieve the mind of burdensome details by portraying facts concisely, logically and simply. They, by emphasizing new and significant relationship are also useful in discovering new facts and in developing hypothesis. The device of graphic presentation is particularly useful when the prospective readers are non technical people or general public. It is useful to even technical people for dramatizing certain points about date, for important points can be more effectively captured in pictures than in tables. However, graphic forms are not substitutes for tables, but are additional tools for the researcher to emphasize the research findings. Graphic presentation must be planned with utmost care and diligence. Graphic forms used should be simple, clear and accurate and also be appropriate to the data. A6.B. Types of Graphs and General Rules The most commonly used graphic forms may be grouped into the following categories Line graphs or charts Bar segments Segmental presentations Scatter plots Bubble charts Stock plots Pictographs Chesnokov faces

The general rules to be followed in graphic representations are 1. The chart should have a title placed directly about the chart 2. The title should be clear, concise and simple and should describe the nature of the data presented. 3. Numerical data upon which the chart is based should be presented in an accompanying table.

4. The horizontal line measures time or independent variable and the vertical line in the measured variable. 5. Measurements proceed from left to right on the horizontal line and from bottom to top on the vertical. 6. Each curve or bar on the chart should be labeled. 7. If there are more than one curves or bar, they should be clearly differentiated from one another by distinct patterns or colours 8. The zero point should always be represented and the scale intervals should be equal. 9. Graphic forms should be used sparingly. Too many forms detract rather than illuminating the presentation. 10. Graphic forms should follow and not proceed the related textual discussion.