Writing Formulas and Naming Compounds Binary Ionic Compounds

The first formulas of compounds that you will write are for binary ionic compounds. A binary compound is one that is composed of two elements. Potassium iodide, the salt additive mentioned in Section 2, is a binary ionic compound. Before you can write a formula, you must have all the needed information at your fingertips. What will you need to know?

Oxidation Numbers You need to know which elements are involved and what
number of electrons they lose, gain, or share to become stable. Section 1 discussed the relationship between an elements position on the periodic table and the number of electrons it gains or loses. Because all elements in a given group have the same number of electrons in their outer energy levels, they must gain or lose the same number of electrons. Metals always lose electrons and nonmetals always gain electrons when they form ions. The charge on the ion is known as the oxidation number of the atom. For ionic compounds, the oxidation number is the same as the charge on the ion. For example, a sodium ion has a charge of 1+ and an oxidation number of 1+ . A chloride ion has a charge of 1- and an oxidation number of 1-.

Oxidation Numbers and the Periodic Table The numbers with positive or
negative signs in above Fig are the oxidation numbers for the elements in the columns below them. Notice how they fit with the periodic-table groupings. The elements in Table 3 can have more than one oxidation number. When naming these compounds, the oxidation number is expressed in the name with a roman numeral. For example, the oxidation number of iron in iron(III) oxide is 3+.

Ionic Compounds Are Neutral When writing formulas, it

is important to remember that although the individual ions in a compound carry charges, the compound itself is neutral. A formula must have the same number of positive ions and negative ions so the charges balance. For example, sodium chloride is made up of a sodium ion with a 1+ charge and a chloride ion with a 1- charge. However, what if you have a compound such as calcium fluoride? A calcium ion has a charge of 2+ and a fluoride ion has a charge of 1-. In this case, you need to have two fluoride ions for every calcium ion for the charges to cancel and the compound to be neutral with the formula CaF2. Some compounds require more thought. Aluminum oxide contains an ion with a 3+ charge and an ion with a 2- charge. You must find the least common multiple of 3 and 2 to determine how many of each ion you need. You need two aluminum ions and three oxygen ions to have a 6+ charge and, a 6-charge and, therefore, the neutral compound Al2O3.

Writing Formulas After youve learned how to find the oxidation numbers and their
least common multiple, you can write formulas for ionic compounds. Write the formula for an ionic compound containing sodium and oxygen by using the following rules in this order. 1. Write the symbol of the element that has the positive oxidation number or charge. Sodium, a Group 1 element, has an oxidation number of 1+. 2. Write the symbol of the element with the negative number. Nonmetals other than hydrogen have negative oxidation numbers. Oxygen has an oxidation number of 2-. 3. To have a neutral compound, the positive charges have to balance the negative charges. It takes two sodium ions to balance the one oxygen ion. Thus, the formula becomes Na2O.

Writing Names You can name a binary ionic compound

from its formula by using these rules. 1. Write the name of the positive ion. 2. Using Table 3, check to see if the positive ion is capable of forming more than one oxidation number. If the ion has only one possible oxidation number, proceed to step 3. If it has more than one, determine the oxidation number of the ion from the formula of the compound. To do this, keep in mind that the overall charge of the compound is zero and the negative ion has only one possible charge. Write the charge of the positive ion using roman numerals in parentheses after the ions name. 3. Write the root name of the negative ion. The root is the first part of the elements name. For chlorine, the root is chlor-. 4. Add the ending -ide to the root. Table 4 lists several elements and their -ide counterparts. For example, sulfur in a binary compound becomes sulfide. Subscripts do not become part of the name for ionic compounds. However, subscripts can be used to help determine the charges of these metals that have more than one positive charge.

Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

Not all ionic compounds are binary. Baking sodaused in cooking, as a medicine, and for brushing your teethhas the formula NaHCO3. This is an example of an ionic compound that is not binary. Some ionic compounds are composed of more than two elements. They contain polyatomic ions. The prefix poly- means many, so the term polyatomic means having many atoms. A polyatomic ion is a positively or negatively charged, covalently bonded group of atoms. Thus, the polyatomic ions as a whole contain two or more elements. The polyatomic ion in baking soda is the bicarbonate or hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3-.

Writing Names Several polyatomic ions are listed in

Table 5. To name a compound that contains one of these ions, first write the name of the positive ion. Use Table 5 to find the name of a polyatomic ion. Then write the name of the negative ion. For example, K2SO4 is potassium sulfate. What is the name of Sr(OH)2? Begin by writing the name of the positive ion, strontium. Then find the name of the polyatomic ion,OH-, which is hydroxide. Thus, the name is strontium hydroxide.

Writing Formulas To write

formulas for these compounds, follow the rules for binary compounds, with one addition. When more than one polyatomic ion is needed, write parentheses around the polyatomic ion before adding the subscript. How would you write the formula of barium chlorate? First, identify the symbol of the positive ion. Barium has the symbol Ba and forms a 2+ ion, Ba2+. Next, identify the negative chlorate ion. Table 5 shows that it is ClO3-. Finally, you need to balance the charges of the ions to make the compound neutral. It will take two chlorate ions with a 1- charge to balance the 2+ charge of the barium ion. Because the chlorate ion is polyatomic, you use parentheses before adding the subscript. The formula is Ba(ClO3)2. Another example of naming complex compounds is shown in Figure 21.

Compounds with Added Water

Some ionic compounds have water molecules as part of their structure. These compounds are called hydrates. A hydrate is a compound that has water chemically attached to its ions and written into its chemical formula. Common Hydrates The term hydrate comes from a word that means water. When a solution of cobalt chloride evaporates, pink crystals that contain six water molecules for each unit of cobalt chloride are formed. The formula for this compound is CoCl2 .H2O and is called cobalt chloride hexahydrate. You can remove water from these crystals by heating them. The resulting blue compound is called anhydrous, which means without water. When anhydrous (blue) CoCl2 is exposed to water, even from the air, it will revert back to its hydrated state. The plaster of paris shown in Figure 22 also forms a hydrate when water is added. It becomes calcium sulfate dihydrate, which is also known as gypsum. The water that was added to the powder became a part of the compound. To write the formula for a hydrate, write the formula for the compound and then place a dot followed by the number of water molecules. The dot in the formula represents a ratio of a compound to water molecules. For example, calcium sulfate dihydrate,

CaSO4 . 2H2O, is the formula for the hydrate of calcium sulfate that contains two molecules of water.

Naming Binary Covalent Compounds

Covalent compounds are those formed between elements that are nonmetals. Some pairs of nonmetals can form more than one compound with each other. For example, nitrogen and oxygen can form N2O, NO, NO2 and N2O5. In the system you have learned so far, each of these compounds would be called nitrogen oxide. You would not know from that name what the composition of the compound is.

Using Prefixes Scientists use the Greek prefixes in Table 6

to indicate how many atoms of each element are in a binary covalent compound. The nitrogen and oxygen compounds N2O, NO, NO2, and N2O5 would be named dinitrogen oxide, nitrogen oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and dinitrogen pentoxide. Notice that the last vowel of the prefix is dropped when the second element begins with a vowel, as in pentoxide. Often, the prefix mono- is omitted, although it is used for emphasis in some cases. Carbon monoxide is one example.

Describing Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions are taking place all around you and even within you. A chemical reaction is a change in which one or more substances are converted into new substances. The substances that react are called reactants. The new substances produced are called products. Chemical and Nuclear Reactions When chemical reactions occur, new compounds form when bonds between atoms in the reactants break and new bonds form. Recall that chemical bonds form when outer electrons, called valence electrons, are shared between atoms or are transferred from one atom to another. As a result, only the outer electrons of atoms are involved in chemical reactions. The nucleus of an atom is not affected by a chemical reaction. An atomic nucleus changes only when nuclear decay or a nuclear reaction, such as nuclear fission or fusion, occurs. The energy released by a nuclear reaction is millions of times greater than the energy released by a chemical reaction. Figure summarizes the difference between nuclear and chemical reactions.

Conservation of Mass
By the 1770s, chemistry was changing from the art of alchemy to a true science. Instead of being satisfied with a superficial explanation of unknown events, scientists began to study chemical reactions more thoroughly. Through such study, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier established that the total mass of the products always equals the total mass of the reactants.

The Father of Modern Chemistry When Lavoisier demonstrated the law of

conservation of mass, he set the field of chemistry on its modern path. In fact, Lavoisier is known today as the father of modern chemistry. Lavoisiers Contribution One of the questions that motivated Lavoisier was the mystery of exactly what happened when substances changed form. He began to answer this question by experimenting with mercury. In one experiment, Lavoisier placed a carefully measured mass of solid mercury(II) oxide, which he knew as mercury calx, into a sealed container. When he heated this container, he noted a dramatic change. The red powder had been transformed into a silvery liquid that he recognized as mercury metal, and a gas was produced. When he determined the mass of the liquid mercury and gas, their combined masses were exactly the same as the mass of the red powder he had started with.

Writing Equations
Consider the reaction: Nickel(II) chloride, dissolved in water, plus sodium hydroxide, dissolved in water, produces solid nickel(II) hydroxide plus sodium chloride, dissolved in water. This series of words is rather cumbersome, but all of the information is important. The same is true of descriptions of most chemical reactions.

Many words are needed to state all the important information. As a result, scientists have developed a shorthand method to describe chemical reactions. A chemical equation is a way to describe a chemical reaction using chemical formulas and other symbols. Some of the symbols used in chemical equations are listed in Table 1. The chemical equation for the reaction described above in words looks like this:

On the left side of the equation are the reactants, nickel(II) chloride and sodium hydroxide. On the right side of the equation are the products, nickel(II) hydroxide and sodium chloride.

Unit Managers
What do the numbers to the left of the formulas for reactants and products mean? Remember that according to the law of conservation of mass, matter is neither made nor lost during chemical reactions. Atoms are rearranged but never lost or destroyed. These numbers, called coefficients, represent the number of units of each substance taking part in a reaction. Coefficients can be thought of as unit managers. Knowing the number of units of reactants enables chemists to add the correct amounts of reactants to a reaction. Also, these units, or coefficients, tell them exactly how much product will form. An example of this is the reaction of one unit of NiCl2 with two units of NaOH to produce one unit of Ni(OH)2 and two units of NaCl. You can see these units in Figure 5.

Balanced Equations
Lavoisiers mercury(II) oxide reaction, can be written as:

Notice that the number of mercury atoms is the same on both sides of the equation but that the number of oxygen atoms is not the same. One oxygen atom appears on the reactant side of the equation and two appear on the product side.

But according to the law of conservation of mass, one oxygen atom cannot just become two. Nor can you simply add the subscript 2 and write HgO2 instead of HgO. The formulas HgO2 and HgO do not represent the same compound. In fact, HgO2 does not exist. The formulas in a chemical equation must accurately represent the compounds that react. Fixing this equation requires a process called balancing. Balancing an equation doesnt change what happens in a reaction t simply changes the way the reaction is represented. The balancing process involves changing coefficients in a reaction to achieve a balanced chemical equation, which has the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation.

Choosing Coefficients Finding out which coefficients to use to balance an equation

is often a trial-and-error process. In the equation for Lavoisiers experiment, the number of mercury atoms is balanced, but one oxygen atom is on the left and two are on the right. If you put a coefficient of 2 before the HgO on the left, the oxygen atoms will be balanced, but the mercury atoms become unbalanced. To balance the equation, also put a 2 in front of mercury on the right. The equation is now balanced.

Balancing Equations Magnesium burns with such a brilliant white light that it is often used in emergency flares. Burning leaves a white powder called magnesium oxide. To write a balanced chemical equation for this and most other reactions, follow these four steps.
Step 1 Write a chemical equation for the reaction using formulas and symbols. Recall that oxygen is a diatomic molecule.

Step 3 Choose coefficients that balance the equation. Remember, never change subscripts of a correct formula to balance an equation. Try putting a coefficient of 2 before MgO.

Step 4 Recheck the numbers of each atom on each side of the equation and adjust coefficients again if necessary. Now two Mg atoms are on the right side and only one is on the left side. So a coefficient of 2 is needed for Mg to balance the equation.

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Classifying Chemical Reactions

Types of Reactions
Chemists have defined five main categories of chemical reactions: combustion, synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, and double displacement.

Combustion Reactions If you have ever observed something burning, you have
observed a combustion reaction. A combustion reaction occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen to produce energy in the form of heat and light. Combustion reactions also produce one or more products that contain the elements in the reactants. For example, the reaction between carbon and oxygen produces carbon dioxide. Many combustion reactions also will fit into other categories of reactions. For example, the reaction between carbon and oxygen also is a synthesis reaction.

Synthesis Reactions One of the easiest reaction types to recognize is a synthesis

reaction. In a synthesis reaction, two or more substances combine to form another substance. The generalized formula for this reaction type is as follows: The reaction in which hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water is an example of a synthesis reaction. This reaction is used to power some types of rockets. Another synthesis reaction is the combination of oxygen with iron in the presence of water to form hydrated iron(II) oxide or rust.

Decomposition Reactions A decomposition reaction is

just the reverse of a synthesis. Instead of two substances coming together to form a third, a decomposition reaction occurs when one substance breaks down, or decomposes, into two or more substances. The general formula for this type of reaction can be expressed as follows: Most decomposition reactions require the use of heat, light, or electricity. An electric current passed through water produces hydrogen and oxygen

Single Displacement When one element replaces another element in a compound, it

is called a single-displacement reaction. Single-displacement reactions are described by the general equation . Here you can see that atom A displaces atom B to produce a new molecule AC. Example of a single displacement reaction: a copper wire is put into a solution of silver nitrate. Because copper is a more active metal than silver, it replaces the silver, forming a blue copper(II) nitrate solution. The silver, which is not soluble, forms on the wire.

The Activity Series Sometimes singledisplacement reactions can cause problems. For example, if iron-containing vegetables such as spinach are cooked in aluminum pans, aluminum can displace iron from the vegetable. This causes a black deposit of iron to form on the sides of the pan. For this reason, it is better to use stainless steel or enamel cookware when cooking spinach. We can predict which metal will replace another using the diagram shown in Figure, which lists metals according to how reactive they are. A metal can replace any metal below it on the list but not above it. Notice that copper, silver, and gold are the least active metals on the list. That is why these elements often occur as deposits of the relatively pure element. For example, gold is sometimes found as veins in quartz rock. Copper is found in pure lumps known as native copper. Other metals can occur as compounds.

Double Displacement In a double-displacement reaction, the positive ion of one

compound replaces the positive ion of the other to form two new compounds. A doubledisplacement reaction takes place if a precipitate, water, or a gas forms when two ionic compounds in solution are combined. A precipitate is an insoluble compound that comes out of solution during this type of reaction. The generalized formula for this type of reaction is as follows: The reaction of barium nitrate with potassium sulfate is an example of this type of reaction. A precipitatebarium sulfate forms,

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions One characteristic that is common to many

chemical reactions is the tendency of the substances to lose or gain electrons. Chemists use the term oxidation to describe the loss of electrons and the term reduction to

describe the gain of electrons. Chemical reactions involving electron transfer of this sort often involve oxygen, which is very reactive, pulling electrons from metallic elements. Corrosion of metal is a visible result of this type of reaction. Reduction is the partner to oxidation; the two always work as a pair, which is commonly referred to as redox.

Reaction Rates and Energy

All chemical reactions release or absorb energy. This energy can take many forms, such as heat, light, sound, or electricity. The heat produced by a wood fire and the light emitted by a glow stick are two examples of reactions that release energy.

Conservation of Energy in Chemical Reactions

According to the law of conservation of energy, energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can only change form. In compounds, chemical potential energy is stored in chemical bonds between atoms. In some chemical reactions, chemical potential energy is changed to other forms of energy, such as heat or light, and is released. In other chemical reactions, forms of energy such as heat or light are converted to chemical potential energy and stored in bonds that form, and energy is absorbed. In all chemical reactions, energy is never created or destroyed, but only changes form. All reactions follow the laws of conservation of mass and energy.

Activation Energy
As you learned earlier, atoms and molecules have to bump into each other before a product can be formed. In order to form new bonds, atoms have to be close together. In addition to being close, the reactants require a certain amount of energy in order to allow the reaction to start. This minimum amount of energy needed to start a reaction is called activation energy.

Heat Absorption When the energy needed is in the form of heat, the reaction is called
an endothermic reaction. The term endothermic is not just related to chemical reactions. It also can describe physical changes. The process of dissolving a salt in water is a physical change. If you ever had to soak a swollen ankle in an Epsom salt solution, you probably noticed that when you mixed the Epsom salt in water, the solution became cold. The dissolving of Epsom salt absorbs heat. Thus, it is a physical change that is endothermic. Some reactions are so endothermic that they can cause water to freeze.

Endothermic Reactions With an

endothermic reaction, the chemical reaction will not take place unless energy is added. A constant source of energy must be added to keep the reaction going. The products have more stored energy than the reactants. Figure shows an energy diagram for the reaction of carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen monoxide (NO). With an endothermic reaction, the reactants have a lower energy level than the products. In order for the products to form, an input of energy is needed for the reactants to overcome the activation energy barrier.

Exothermic Reactions When the

energy given off in a reaction is primarily in the form of heat, the reaction is called an exothermic reaction. The burning of wood and the explosion of dynamite are exothermic reactions. Exothermic reactions provide most of the power used in homes and industries. Fossil fuels that contain carbon, such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas, combine with oxygen to yield carbon dioxide gas and energy. Unfortunately impurities in these fuels, such as sulfur, burn as well, producing pollutants such as sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide combines with water in the atmosphere, producing acid rain. Energy Release The energy diagram for an exothermic reaction is the reverse of an endothermic reaction. With an exothermic reaction, the products have less stored energy than the reactants. As shown in Figure 21, the reactants, carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) have a higher energy level than the products. The molecules have enough energy to overcome the activation energy barrier.

Chemical Reaction Rates

According to the kinetic theory of matter, atoms and molecules are always moving. In order for a chemical reaction to occur, the atoms and molecules that are the reactants have to bump into each other or collide. The rate of reaction is the speed at which reactants are consumed and products are produced in a given reaction. Reaction rate is important in the manufacturing industry because the faster the product can be made, the less it usually costs. Sometimes a fast reaction rate is undesirable, such as the rate of reaction that causes food spoilage. In this case, the slower the reaction rate, the longer the food will stay edible. What conditions control the reaction rate, and how can the rate be changed?

Temperature Energy is needed by atoms and molecules to break old bonds and to
form new ones. One way to increase the activation energy is to add heat or increase the temperature. With an increase in temperature, atoms and molecules move faster and kinetic energy increases. With faster moving atoms and molecules, more molecules have kinetic energy greater than activation energy. The atoms and molecules now will have enough energy to break old bonds at higher temperature, which will increase the reaction rate.

Concentration When you walk through the hallways at school, you are more likely to
bump into another student if the hallways are crowded. The closer atoms and molecules are to each other, the greater the chance of collision. The amount of substance present in a certain volume is called its concentration. Increasing the concentration of a substance increases the reaction rate.

Surface Area Only atoms or molecules in the outer layer of a substance can collide
with other reactants. When a substance is finely divided, it has a larger surface area than when it was whole. Increasing the surface area increases the chance for collisions, which will increase the reaction rate.

Agitation If you are making lemonade, the water, sugar, and lemon juice are mixed in
order to get the product. Agitation or stirring is a physical process that allows reactants to mix. A low stirring rate will slow the reaction due to fewer collisions. Chemical reactions can be controlled by agitation.

Pressure Another way to influence the reaction rate is with pressure. By increasing the
pressure of gases, molecules have less room to move about and the concentration of the reactants increases. This will boost the chance of collisions, which means the reaction rate increases. Decreasing the pressure means fewer collisions, and lower reaction rate.

Catalysts and Inhibitors Some reactions proceed too slowly to be useful. To speed
them up, a catalyst reaction can be added. A catalyst is substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being permanently changed itself. When you add a catalyst to a reaction, the mass of the product that is formed remains the same, but it will form more rapidly. At times, it is worthwhile to prevent certain reaction from occurring. Substances that are used to slow down a chemical reaction are called inhibitors. The food preservations BHT and BHA are inhibitors that prevent spoilage of certain foods, such as cereals and crackers.

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How Solutions Form

A solution in which water is the solvent is called an aqueous (A kwee us) solution.

How Substances Dissolve

Fruit drinks and sports drinks are examples of solutions made by dissolving solids in liquids. Both contain sugar as well as other substances that add color and flavor. How do solids such as sugar dissolve in water? The dissolving of a solid in a liquid occurs at the surface of the solid. To understand how water solutions form, keep in mind two things you have learned about water. Like the particles of any substance, water molecules are constantly moving. Also, water molecules are polar, which means they have a positive area and a negative area. Molecules of sugar also are polar.

How It Happens Molecules of sugar dissolving in water are shown in Figure in the
next page. First, water molecules cluster around sugar molecules with their negative ends attracted to the positive ends of the sugar. Then, the water molecules pull the sugar molecules into solution. Finally, the water molecules and the sugar molecules mix evenly, forming a solution.

The process described in Figure repeats as layer after layer of sugar molecules move away from the crystal, until all the molecules are evenly spread out. The same three steps occur for most solid solutes dissolving in a liquid solvent.

Dissolving Liquids and Gases The same

process takes place when a gas dissolves in a liquid. Particles of liquids and gases move much more freely than do particles of solids. When gases dissolve in gases or when liquids dissolve in liquids, this movement spreads solutes evenly throughout the solvent, resulting in a homogenous solution. Dissolving Solids in Solids How can you mix solids to make alloys? Although solid particles do move a little, this movement is not enough to spread them evenly throughout the mixture. The solid metals are first melted and then mixed together. In this liquid state, the metal atoms can spread out evenly and will remain mixed when cooled.

Rate of Dissolving
When two substances form a solution, the dissolving occurs at different rates. Sometimes the rate at which a solute dissolves into a solvent is fast, while other times it is slow. There are several things you can do to speed up the rate of dissolvingstirring, reducing crystal size, and increasing temperature. Stirring How does stirring speed up the dissolving process? Think about how you make a drink from a powdered mix. After you add the mix to water, you stir it. Stirring a solution speeds up the dissolving process because it brings more fresh solvent into contact with more solute. The fresh solvent attracts the particles of solute, causing the solid solute to dissolve faster. Crystal Size Another way to speed the dissolving of a solid in a liquid is to grind large crystals into smaller ones. Suppose you want to use a 5-g crystal of rock candy to sweeten your water. If you put the whole crystal into a glass of water, it might take several minutes to dissolve, even with stirring. However, if you first grind the crystal of rock candy into a powder, it will dissolve in the same amount of water in a few seconds.

Why does breaking up a solid cause it to dissolve faster? Breaking the solid into many smaller pieces greatly increases its surface area, as you can see in Figure 5. Because dissolving takes place at the surface of the solid, increasing the surface area allows more solvent to come into contact with more solid solute. Therefore, the speed of the dissolving process increases.

Temperature In addition to stirring and decreasing particle size, a third way to

increase the rate at which most solids dissolve is to increase the temperature of the solvent. Think about making hot chocolate from a mix. You can make the sugar in the chocolate mix dissolve faster by putting it in hot water instead of cold water. Increasing the temperature of a solvent speeds up the movement of its particles. This increase causes more solvent particles to bump into the solute. As a result, solute particles break loose and dissolve faster. Controlling the Process Think about how the three factors you just learned about affect the rate of dissolving. Can these factors combine to further increase the rate, or perhaps control the rate of dissolving? Each techniquestirring, crushing, and heating is known to speed up the rate of dissolving by itself. However, when two or more techniques are combined, the rate of dissolving is even faster. Consider a sugar cube placed in cold water. You know that the sugar cube eventually will dissolve. You can predict that heating the water will increase the rate by some amount. You also can predict that heat and stirring will increase the rate further. Finally, you can predict that crushing the cube combined with heating and stirring will result in the fastest rate of dissolving. Knowing how much each technique affects the rate will allow you to control the rate of dissolving more precisely.

Types of Solutions
How much solute can dissolve in a given amount of solvent? That depends on a number of factors, including the solubility of the solute. Here you will examine the types of solutions based on the amount of a solute dissolved. Saturated Solutions If you add 35 g of copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4, to 100 g of water at 20C, only 32 g will dissolve. You have a saturated solution because no more copper(II) sulfate can dissolve. A saturated solution is a solution that contains all the solute it can hold at a given temperature. However, if you heat the mixture to a higher temperature, more copper(II) sulfate can dissolve. Generally, as the temperature of a liquid solvent increases, the amount of solid solute that can dissolve in it also increases. Table 2 shows the amounts of a few solutes that can dissolve in 100 g of water at different temperatures to form saturated solutions.

Unsaturated Solutions An unsaturated solution is any solution that can dissolve more solute at a given temperature. Each time a saturated solution is heated to a higher temperature, it generally becomes unsaturated. The term unsaturated isnt precise. If you look at Table 2, youll see that at 20C, 35.9 g of NaCl (sodium chloride) forms a saturated solution in 100 g of water. However, an unsaturated solution of NaCl could be any amount less than 35.9 g in 100 g of water at 20C.

Solubility of Gases
When you shake an opened bottle of soda, it bubbles up and may squirt out. Shaking or pouring a solution of a gas in a liquid causes gas to come out of solution. Agitating the solution exposes more gas molecules to the surface, where they escape from the liquid. Pressure Effects What might you do if you want to dissolve more gas in a liquid? One thing you can do is increase the pressure of that gas over the liquid. Soft drinks are bottled under increased pressure. This increases the amount of carbon dioxide that dissolves in the liquid. When the pressure is released, the carbon dioxide bubbles out. Temperature Effects Another way to increase the amount of gas that dissolves in a liquid is to cool the liquid. This is just the opposite of what you do to increase the speed at which most solids dissolve in a liquid. Imagine what happens to the carbon dioxide when a bottle of soft drink is opened. Even more carbon dioxide will bubble out of a soft drink as it gets warmer.

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Acids
Properties of Acids When an acid dissolves in water, some of the hydrogen is
released as hydrogen ions, H_. An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions in a water solution. It is the ability to produce these ions that gives acids their characteristic properties. When an acid dissolves in water, H- ions interact with water molecules to form H3O_ ions, which are called hydronium ions. Acids have several common properties. For one thing, all acids taste sour. The familiar, sour taste of many foods is due to acids. However, taste never should be used to test for the presence of acids. Some acids can damage tissue by producing painful burns. Acids are corrosive. Some acids react strongly with certain metals, eating away the metals and forming metallic compounds and hydrogen gas. Acids also react with indicators

to produce predictable changes in color. An indicator is an organic compound that changes color in acids and bases. For example, the indicator litmus paper turns red in acid. Common Acids Many foods contain acids. In addition to citric acid in citrus fruits, lactic acid is found in yogurt and buttermilk, and food, such as pickles, contain vinegar, also known as acetic acid. Your stomach uses acid to help digest your food. At least four acids (sulfuric, phosphoric, nitric, and hydrochloric) play roles in industrial applications.

Bases
You might not be as familiar with bases as you are with acids. Although you eat some foods that are acidic, you dont consume many bases. Some foods, such as egg whites, are slightly basic. Another example of basic materials is baking powder, which is found in some foods. Medicines, such as milk of magnesia and antacids, are basic, too. Still, you come in contact with many bases every day. Each time you wash your hands using soap, you are using a base. One characteristic of bases is that they feel slippery, like soapy water. Bases can be defined in two ways. Any substance that forms hydroxide ions, OH_, in a water solution is a base. In addition, a base is any substance that accepts H_ from acids. The definitions are related, because the OH_ ions produced by some bases do accept H_ ions.

Properties of Bases One way to think about bases is as the complements, or

opposites, of acids. Although acids and bases share some common features, bases have their own characteristic properties. In the pure, undissolved state, many bases are crystalline solids. In solution, bases feel slippery and have a bitter taste. Like strong acids, strong bases are corrosive, and contact with skin can result in severe burns. Taste and touch never should be used to test for the presence of a base or an acid. Finally, like acids, bases react with indicators to produce changes in color. The indicator litmus turns blue in bases.

Dissociation of Acids You have learned that substances such as HCl, HNO3, and
H2SO4 are acids because of their ability to produce hydrogen ions (H+) in water. When an acid dissolves in water, the negative areas of nearby water molecules attract the positive hydrogen in the acid. The acid dissociates into ions and the hydrogen atom combines with a water molecule to form hydronium ions (H3O+). Dissociation is the process in which an ionic solid separates into its positive and negative ions. An acid can more accurately be described as a compound that produces hydronium ions when dissolved in water, as shown in above Figure.

Dissociation of Bases Compounds that can form hydroxide ions (OH) in water are
classified as bases. When bases that contain OH dissolve in water, the negative areas of nearby water molecules attract the positive ion in the base. The positive areas of nearby water molecules attract the OH of the base. The base dissociates into a positive ion and a negative iona hydroxide ion (OH). This process also is shown in Figure.

Neutralization Advertisements for antacids claim that these products neutralize the
excess stomach acid that causes indigestion. Normally, gastric juice is acidic. Too much acid can produce discomfort. Antacids contain bases or other compounds containing sodium, calcium, magnesium, or aluminum that react with acids to lower acid concentration. What happens when you ingest an antacid tablet containing sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3? The acid (HCl) is neutralized by the base (NaHCO3). Neutralization is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base that takes place in a water solution. When HCl is neutralized by NaOH, hydronium ions from the acid combine with hydroxide ions from the base to produce water.

Acid-Base Reactions The following general equation represent acid-base reactions

in water. A few common salts are listed in Table.

Salt Formation The acid-base equation accounts for only half of the ions in the
solution. The remaining ions react to form a salt. A salt is a compound formed when the negative ions from an acid combine with the positive ions from a base. In the reaction between HCl and NaOH, the salt formed in water solution is sodium chloride.

An Exception Ammonia is a base that does not contain OH. In a water solution,
dissociation takes place when the ammonia molecule attracts a hydrogen ion from a water molecule, forming an ammonium ion (NH4+). This leaves a hydroxide ion (OH).

Ammonia (NH3) is a colourless pungent gas that is familiar to us as the smell of urine. In fact probably no other compound can be identified by its smell and correctly named by as many people as ammonia. It can be detected in the air at a level of only about 50-60 ppm, and at levels of 100-200 ppm it sharply irritates the eyes and lungs. At even higher concentrations it makes the lungs fill with fluid and can quickly cause death. Ammonia takes it name from the worshippers of the Egyptian god Amun - the Ammonians, because they used ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) in their rites. Ammonium chloride (also known as sal volatile) occurs naturally in cracks near volcanoes, and when it is warmed it decomposes into the pungent ammonia.

The Haber Process

Industrially ammonia is made by the Haber-Bosch process which converts nitrogen gas into the air into ammonia. This process was discovered by the German chemists Fritz Haber (nobel prize 1918) and Karl Bosch, just in time for the beginning of WW1. This had important consequences

for the length of the war, since without this process Germany would not have been able to make explosives (since it had no natural sources of nitrates from which explosives were made), and the war might have ended much sooner than it did.

The Haber-Bosch Process - which takes place at 400-500C and about 200 atm pressure, in the presence of an iron catalyst. In the mid-1980s, the annual production rate for ammonia was about 16 million tons. About 25% of this went directly for fertiliser, and the rest was used to make nitric acid (and from there into explosives), dyes, pharmaceuticals and cleaning agents. It has a relatively high heat of vaporisation, and so some ammonia is used as the heat-exchanger gas in large refrigeration units (rather than the ozone-destroying CFCs). With all of these important applications, it is no surprise that more molecules of ammonia are produced each year than any other industrial chemical.