Second Language Acquisition MPB (1313)

Topic

Implicit vs. Explicit Vocabulary Learning

(A Small-Scale Study: UTM Low Intermediate Students)
Prepared by:

Noura Winis Ibrahim Vahid Rafieyan

Somaye Mirzababaie Zahra Behzadi

Lecturer

P.M. Khairi Izwan Abdullah

Academic Session

2010/2011

Introduction Learning vocabulary is an important part of second language learning and developing vocabulary knowledge is a priority for learners. There are two approaches to learning second language vocabularies. Implicit learning which is to use natural, simple, and unconscious processes to gain the knowledge of structure and explicit learning which refers to the conscious operation of making and testing hypotheses while searching for structure (Ellis 1994b). Incidental and intentional learning have been also used interchangeably in this respect. Absence or presence of consciousness leads to incidental and intentional learning, but if we consider consciousness as awareness then absence or presence of consciousness leads to implicit and explicit learning. Therefore, incidental learning is composed of implicit processes which happen without the learners awareness and explicit learning processes which happen without learning intention while involving online awareness (Rieder 2003). The purpose of this paper is to shed light on whether learners learn vocabulary implicitly and/or explicitly. The paper is divided into five sections. The first part includes the introduction, statement of problem, purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, and hypothesis. The second part reviews the previous studies related to our area of study. Next will be the methodology which includes subjects, procedure, instrument, data collection, and data analysis. The last two parts will address the findings as well as the pedagogical implications, limitations, suggestions for future studies, and conclusion. Statement of Problem Although vocabulary plays an important role in second language classroom and almost all scholars and language practitioners believe that knowing the basic few thousand vocabularies are necessary for any of the four language skills, it has been neglected by teachers to a very great extent and the great emphasis has always been on listening and reading believing that vocabulary can be learned automatically through these practices. Therefore, the problem under investigation is that some researchers say that learners enrich

their lexical competence through explicit learning whereas others stated that implicit learning is responsible for this process. Purpose of the Study This study aims to provide a digest of previous research on vocabulary learning and to pinpoint areas that need further exploration. To this end, the researchers (we) centre on one particular area in depth, i.e., explicit and implicit vocabulary learning and which one is considered beneficial to learners. We need to find out whether the idea of implicit learning of vocabulary by focusing on receptive skills is correct or we need to supplement our classes with some explicit vocabulary exercises too. Objectives of the Study 1. To identify whether explicit vocabulary learning enhances learners lexical competence. 2. To identify whether implicit vocabulary learning enhances learners lexical competence. Research Questions 1. To what extend does implicit vocabulary learning improve lexical competence? 2. To what extend does explicit vocabulary learning improve lexical competence? Hypothesis In our opinion lexical competence is mostly developed through implicit vocabulary learning as focusing on explicit vocabulary learning results in large quantity of vocabularies which can be forgotten in a short time.

Literature Review The distinction between implicit and explicit learning forms the centrepiece of Krashens model of SLA. Krashen allows that both explicit and implicit learning take place, but denies that there is any interface between the two (Krashen, 1981). Krashen (1989) points out that incidental vocabulary learning involves unaware, implicit processes. Reber (1993) states while explicit learning involves online awareness, implicit learning both in learning process and production is an automatic, unaware process. According to Schmidt (1994) implicit learning is not an intentional but an incidental process which involves unaware induction. Ellis (1994b, 1994c) claims that implicit learning comes from frequent exposure to perceptual aspects of new vocabularies such as phonetic and phonological features while explicit learning requires conscious processing at semantic and conceptual

levels and noticing the form-meaning connections. According to Sokmen (1997) grammar translation method focuses on explicit vocabulary learning, but audio-lingual method as well as top-down, naturalistic, and communicative approaches focus on implicit vocabulary learning. However, now an implicit-explicit view of vocabulary learning is suggested. Ellis (1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1997) states that learning the form of a word, collocations, and grammar is an implicit process while learning semantic properties of vocabularies and mapping the form of a vocabulary to its meaning is an explicit one. He also mentions that implicit learning involves receptive and productive aspects of word forms while explicit learning involves learning semantic aspects and these processes are dissociated. However, Ellis notion of dissociated processes was criticized by Singleton (1999) and Borner (1997). Singleton (1999) suggests a possible interaction between implicit and explicit systems since even initiation of learning the form and meanings of new vocabularies by various mechanisms does not mean their separate management in all levels. Borner (1997) suggests in order to integrate various degrees of explicitness and to permit form features of both explicit and implicit learning, Ellis model needs to be modified. Hulstijn (1998) defines implicit vocabulary learning as a not taught, unconscious induction which requires learners attention to form and meaning of the vocabulary. Ellis (1999) implies that while in intentional learning attention must be placed on form, in incidental learning the focus is on meaning allowing peripheral attention to form. Therefore, learning either in the form of intentional or incidental can only happen with attention (Schmidt 1994). According to Gass (1999) in case of existence of recognized cognates between first and second languages, great exposure to second language, and other known related words; vocabularies have a greater chance to be learned incidentally. There exists a central debate emerging from the studies dealt with whether effective vocabulary learning should give attention to explicit or implicit vocabulary learning. In implicit vocabulary learning students engage in activities that focus attention on vocabulary. Incidental vocabulary learning is learning that occurs when the mind is focused elsewhere, such as on understanding a text or using language for communicative purposes (Celce-Murcia, 2001). Hulstijn (2003) stated that both intentional and incidental learning need attention and noticing, but in intentional learning deliberate attention is utilized in order to transfer information to memory while in incidental learning attention is not given to learning deliberately. Incidental vocabulary learning depends on a series of factors including the resources and procedures used in the process of inferring meaning (Nassaji 2003), reading and learners influence (Hulstijn and Laufer 2001), dictionary or glossing supports effect (Knight 1994),

or text type (Gardner 2004). Huckin and Coady (1999) believe that interesting texts contribute more to incidental vocabulary learning. Ellis (1994) states that recognition and production of vocabulary depends on implicit learning, but meaning and meditational aspects depend on explicit learning. Practicing decontextualized lexis, using dictionaries, or inferring meaning from context results in explicit vocabulary learning while practicing reading and listening results in implicit vocabulary learning (Hunt and Beglar 2005). Pulido (2007) pointed out that familiarity with the topic affects text processing, comprehension and lexical gain, but it has no effect on incidental vocabulary learning. According to Monsell (1985) for some reasons authentic contexts are beneficial to implicit vocabulary learning. First, deciding the meaning of vocabularies in context forces learners to develop inferring and predicting strategies which would lead to their self-reliance. Second, new vocabularies are systematically met in context which implies the communicational purpose of the vocabularies used in discourse. Finally, all mentioned factors help learners second language autonomy, facilitate transfer of knowledge, and improve mental presentation of a words meaning and its successive encounters in contexts. A review of research over implicit/explicit vocabulary learning reveals contradictory findings. Some scholars found implicit approach more beneficial to vocabulary learning. Huckin & Coady (1999) pointed out that the common agreement among most scholars is that most vocabularies are learned incidentally and only the first most common ones are learned intentionally. Huckin and Coady (1999) believe that vocabulary is mostly learned incidentally not explicitly. There are some limitations to incidental vocabulary learning. First, students do not know enough vocabularies. According to Hulstijn (1998) as in China a limited amount of time has been devoted to vocabulary learning, this cannot be a good way of learning vocabulary. Finally, retention of a words meaning cannot be guaranteed for a long time through inferring the vocabulary meaning. According to Nation (1990) guessing in context successfully requires knowledge of at least 95% of a texts vocabulary. Second, the process of inferring the meaning of a vocabulary is error-prone. Kelly (1990) believes that knowing 98% of a texts vocabularies does not guarantee correct guessing unless the new vocabularies are linked with known vocabularies in the text. Third, the inference of a Vocabularys meaning is slow. Gass (1999) argues that in incidental learning the active role of the learner is neglected since it is the side effect of other activities. Some scholars found that explicit vocabulary learning results in more vocabulary gain than implicit vocabulary learning. Atkinson (1975) claims by considering explicit meditation

strategies like the keyword technique in which word form is related to meaning through mnemonic devices, explicit learning enhances form learning. Cohen and Aphek (1980) suggest that for lower level learners, learning vocabulary out of context would be more beneficial than learning in context. Nation (1990) believes knowing a word does not involve only recognizing its meaning in the context, but grammatical patterns, collocations, and the way of using it in suitable situations are also involved. Therefore, the teacher should guide students to notice these aspects to deepen the knowledge. However, in incidental learning the teacher focuses on meaning of vocabularies and ignores the form. Huchin & Bloch (1993); Nation (1990); and Schouten & Van Parreren (1992) argue that incidental learning of vocabulary through reading improves retention, but guessing from context is complicated and difficult. Hulstijn (1993) believes that for learners of lower proficiency, context is not only unreliable but distracting. Luppescu & Day (1993) and Knight (1994) found that learners who used dictionaries while reading remembered vocabularies better than those who did not. Ellis (1994) found that interactionally modified input resulted in more vocabulary learning than pre-modified input. Cho and Krashen (1994) found that using dictionary develops better vocabulary learning than only reading. Schmidt (1995) believes that noticing is very important in learning process. Therefore, if in learning the learner does not notice new vocabularies, learning will not take place. Newton (1995) found that negotiation for meaning results in longer retention. Paribakht and Wesche (1997) found that vocabularies practiced in exercises are remembered for a longer time than those inferred from context. Paribakht and Wesche (1997) believe that explicit exercises require learners to manipulate words, provide connection between new vocabularies and already known vocabularies and their experiences, and justify their choices. Therefore, association of vocabularies will be reinforced and these vocabularies will be retained better than vocabularies inferred from context. Sokmen (1997) claims that guessing the meaning of vocabularies in context is a slow and error-prone process which results in frustration in low proficiency level students and the difficult task of correcting false guesses besides knowing a lot of vocabularies does not mean being good at inferring meanings. Schmidt (2000) believes intentional attention is necessary for learning as many features of second language input are infrequent, non-salient, and communicatively redundant. Some scholars found that a combination of explicit and incidental approaches to vocabulary learning would be more effective. Nagy (1985, et al) believe that learning incidentally is very little, limited and cumulative. Stahl and Fairbanks (1986) point to the connection of intentional vocabulary instruction to learning from context. Nation (1990)

states learning only in an incidental way cannot be enough. Hayenes (1993) claims that in order to learn more vocabularies quickly, intentional learning needs to be accompanied with incidental learning. Paribakht and Wesche (1993) imply that although contextualized learning through reading is useful, it would be much more useful if explicit instruction follows it. Paribakht and Wesche (1997) found that reading followed by various types of vocabulary exercises results in longer retention of vocabularies than only reading. Zimmerman (1997) found that those who practiced vocabulary exercises after reading learned more vocabularies than those who read the text only. Nation (2001) believes that since conditions necessary for incidental learning does not happen all the time, explicit learning activities are required to learn second language vocabulary. Barcroft (2002) believes that learning the form of vocabularies is more difficult than learning their meanings so it should not be neglected by the teachers. Hill and Laufer (2003) found more advantages of exercises practiced following the reading to focus on vocabulary than eliciting meaning of vocabularies through comprehension questions in vocabulary learning. Mondria (2003) found the results of providing second language learners with first language definition of vocabularies to be memorized is the same as inferring vocabularies and verifying them using a word list. Nation (2005) says it's important to balance deliberate learning with message-focused learning so that you can get the better of the two approaches Schmidt (2008) pointed out that incidental and explicit approaches to vocabulary learning are connected and complimentary. Methodology This part provides an overview of the design of the study. It discusses the subjects, the procedure, the instrument, data collection and data analyses. In this study we are going to examine the influence of implicit and explicit teaching on learning new vocabulary. Subjects of the Study 30 female students studying bachelor degree in UTM participated in this study. 10 of which who had the least vocabulary knowledge were selected using pre-test. They were divided into two groups of 5 students. Then each group was taught vocabulary implicitly or explicitly. Instrument A pre-test containing 27 words which were aggregated from easy to hard to help the study find the learners with lower vocabulary knowledge (Appendix A), a post-test containing 15 words out of 27 words used in the pre-test, which the students were less familiar with, to determine the best method of vocabulary teaching (Appendix B), and a

reading text selected from Advanced Vocabulary book (Appendix C) were used in this study. Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) software was also used to analyse data.

Procedure Pre-test In the pre-test, we used questions that comprised 27 words in order to measure participants knowledge of English words. Since the study should include standard tests, the pre-tests words and the reading text were selected from Advanced Vocabulary book. The author tried to select the words from 2000 academic words list. However, regarding the aim of this study, the population for the study should be selected from learners who really suffered from lack of knowledge of aforementioned vocabularies. Therefore, in order to achieve the appropriate population, the pre-test was conducted based on 27 normal questions rated from simple to complex. 30 pre-tests were distributed among UTM bachelor degree students. To make an appropriate scale on the study, 10 of the learners who achieved the lowest marks among respondents were selected. Teaching session The selected students were divided into two groups with 5 students in each group. Then each group was taught vocabulary implicitly or explicitly. The implicit method was implemented in 4 main steps. In the first step, the lecturer asked students to read the text individually. This text contained all words included in the post-test. In the second step, the lecturer asked students to present their understanding of the text to the class. In the third step, the lecturer asked students to define unknown words in the text. Then the lecturer tried to help students to upgrade their knowledge of unknown words using synonyms and antonyms as well as inferring the meaning of words based on the neighbouring words and also through the whole sentence or the paragraph. In the last step, the lecturer asked students to read the text again and discuss what they understand from it. In the explicit method, the direct referring to the meaning of words was targeted by the lecturer. The lecturer gave the list of the words to the students. Then, he taught the meaning of them to students. Finally the lecturer asked the students to describe and repeat the meaning during the class to ensure they understand words comprehensively. Post-test For final evaluation, the number of questions was narrowed down to 15 questions. In order to make a more precise post-test, the researcher deleted 12 simple words from pre-test.

These words were the words which were known and answered correctly by most of the respondents in pre-test. In other words, the post-test included 15 words which had been used in pre-test too. The post-test was conducted to evaluate the result of two teaching methods. Scoring 1 point was considered for each question both in pre-test and in the post-test. The pretest comprised 27 marks and the post-test comprised 15 marks. However, for easy comparison of the results of pre-test and post-test only the marks of 15 words common in both tests were considered in the pre-test results. The new results are shown in table 1. Data Analysis Table 1: result of conducted tests in current study STUEDENT 1(implicit) 2(implicit) 3(explicit) 4(explicit) 5(explicit) 6(explicit) 7(explicit) 8(implicit) 9(implicit) 10(implicit) PRE-TEST 4 7 4 5 1 3 3 10 4 5 POST-TEST 7 6 6 15 14 6 15 14 9 7

Table 1 illustrates the students marks in both pre-test and post-test. It indicates that all 10 selected students highly suffered from lack of vocabulary knowledge as the mean of their results in the pre-test is 3.73 out of 15. Thus, they were considered suitable for the study. These 10 students were divided into 2 groups of 5 students to learn the same words using two different methods (one group explicitly and the other group implicitly). Students in both groups were taught using mentioned methods. After one week, the post-test was conducted to all of them in the same situation. Moreover, dependent variables were created in order to evaluate the results more accurately. One of the dependent variables used in this study is the scale variable which presents the difference between the results of pre-test and post-test. Since this variable is a quantitative variable, ordinal variable which is

another dependent variable was defined based on the qualitative values. This can be shown in table 2. Table 2: Qualitative variable due to students' improvement improvement 0-5 5-10 10-15 linguistic Normal High Very high Q improvement 1 2 3

Regarding the number of students and the ordinal distribution of data, a nonparametric test was conducted to indicate any significant difference in learning between the two groups. non-parametric tests are used when one or more variables in the sets of data, including the dependent variable, are measured based on a nominal or ordinal scale or one or more variables in the sets of data, including the dependent variable, violates the normal assumption or the sample size is small (< 20 cases or subjects). The SPSS program was used to conduct Mann-Whitney U test. The Mann-Whitney U (Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney) is the test to compare the same task by comparing the mean rank (or median) between groups while parametric tests answer research questions by calculating and comparing the mean results of groups under study based on the dependent variable. This test has the same application as sample T-test in parametric test. Findings According to table 3 both explicit and implicit methods of vocabulary teaching could help to improve the vocabulary knowledge of students. Table 3: Descriptive Statistics

N pre-test post-test improvement Improve Q Valid N (list wise) 10 10 10 10 10

Minimum 1 6 0 1

Maximum 10 15 13 3

Mean 4.60 9.90 5.40 1.50

Std. Deviation 2.459 4.067 4.575 0.850

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Table 3 shows the descriptive analysis of some of the variables in this study. According to the results of the post-test although some students did not achieve the adequate mark, the mean result of the post test which is 9.9 and the mean result of the improvement which is 5.4 are in the acceptable level for educational reason. According to the improvement qualitative variable the mean of improvement in the study generally achieved a high rank. Table 3: The Mann-Whitney U (Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney) results Test Statisticsb pre-test Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z Sig. (2-tailed) (P value) Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)] a. Not corrected for ties. Moreover, to define any significant difference between the results of the learning methods, the Mann-Whitney U test was conducted. The results are illustrated in table 4. Table 4: table of the ranks type of learning pre-test explicit implicit Total post-test explicit implicit Total improvement explicit implicit Total improve Q explicit implicit N 5 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 7.00 4.00 35.00 20.00 6.80 4.20 34.00 21.00 6.10 4.90 30.50 24.50 Mean Rank 3.70 7.30 Sum of Ranks 18.50 36.50 3.500 18.500 -1.915 0.055 0.056a post-test 9.500 24.500 -0.640 0.522 0.548a improvement 6.000 21.000 -1.366 0.172 0.222a Improve Q 5.000 20.000 -1.936 0.053 0.151a

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type of learning pre-test explicit implicit Total post-test explicit implicit Total improvement explicit implicit Total improve Q explicit implicit Total

N 5 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 10 5 5 10

Mean Rank 3.70 7.30

Sum of Ranks 18.50 36.50

6.10 4.90

30.50 24.50

6.80 4.20

34.00 21.00

7.00 4.00

35.00 20.00

The results show that the Pvalue of all variables is more than 0.05. In some research the significant level which is accepted with P value is 0.1. However, the P value of Q improvement is 0.05 and the ranking followed by Mann-Whitney U in table 5 shows that the explicit vocabulary teaching method has a higher rank. In other words, based on the statistical analysis, there are not any significant differences between the results of either teaching methods. However, the results of qualitative variables indicate a higher level of improvement for explicit vocabulary teaching method. Pedagogical implications Various scholars have come up with some ways of applying implicit and explicit vocabulary teaching. Honeyfield (1977) has suggested some ways to improve learners skills to infer meaning from context including cloze or gap exercises in which words are deleted from a text, words-in-context exercises, and context enrichment exercises. Palmberg (1988) believes the teacher should present new vocabulary in context and then provide an opportunity for learners to practice them out of context. Krashen (1989) suggests that exposure to comprehensible input results in a great amount of vocabulary learning. Nation (1990) states learners must first learn basic vocabularies and after that go to the stage of guessing from context. Nunan (1995) states as language is best learned in context learning

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lists of decontextualized vocabularies would be criticized, students would be encouraged to infer the meaning of new vocabularies from context, and they would be instructed to use verbal and non-verbal cues to decide the meaning of new vocabularies. Swanborn and de Glopper (2002) believe that even if the reader does not intent to learn new vocabulary, extensive reading will lead to it. According to Syam (2010) setting a good context which is interesting, logical, and vivid has relevance to the lives of the learners, is an essential prerequisite for vocabulary teaching as it helps in both engaging the attention of the learners and naturally generating the target vocabulary. Maintaining the context and making sure the language surrounding the context is easy to comprehend, the teacher should start eliciting the target vocabulary. Elicitation ensures that the learners work towards understanding the meaning as this is more likely to help them remember and recall the vocabulary taught. As the findings of our research shows that explicit teaching of new words in the target language has a better result than implicit teaching, the teacher needs to provide the meaning of new words through definitions, pictures, realia, or mime. Then conduct some exercises to help students internalize the meanings. S/he can test their understanding of the meanings of words by asking them to define the words either immediately after practice or the next session. Limitations According to the literature review a great number of scholars agreed on the preference of a combination of both methods to teach vocabularies than the mere focus on implicit or explicit method, but such an option was not considered in our research. Some other scholars believed that explicit teaching could be best applied to beginners while implicit teaching could be best applied to students of higher levels, but our research tested only low proficiency students. Some other scholars also implied that vocabularies learned implicitly tend to have a longer stability while those learned explicitly tend to be forgotten over the passage of time although have a much greater affect at the beginning, but there was no time for a delayed post test. Research in the past few decades has also indicated that learners of different genders have a different attitude towards learning. However, the research was conducted only over female learners. The other deficiencies of the study can be attributed to the low number of participants which cannot represent a large group with different learning abilities and the low number of vocabularies used in the post test some of which were already known by the learners. Suggestions for the future studies

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It would be better to conduct the research over a wider population of students of both genders including both low levels and high levels then divide each level into tree groups teaching one group implicitly, the other explicitly, and a combination of both methods for the final group. The questionnaire needs to consist of more vocabulary item and the pre test should be used to specify those learners and those vocabulary items known by nobody. A delayed post test after a period of two weeks from instruction is also strongly suggested. Conclusion Although the data shows a slight difference between the influences of explicit or explicit vocabulary teaching, explicit vocabulary teaching implied a better influence over students competence which opposes our hypothesis. Implicit learning can be guided and governed by explicit learning and explicit learning can be reinforced by implicit learning. In addition, implicit and explicit learning are two sides of the same coin. We should not think in terms of better/worse or whether/or, but rather we should see the two approaches as complementary. Explicit teaching can be a very good first introduction to a word. In addition, repeated exposure from reading will help to strengthen the meaning(s) first learned.

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Stahl, S A and M M Fairbanks. (1986). The effects of vocabulary instruction A model based meta -analysis' Review of Educational Research, 56/1 72-110. Syam,A.C. (2010). Teaching Vocabulary in the ESL/EFL Classroom: Central Pedagogical Issues. Assam University, Silchar. Swanborn, M. S. L., & de Glopper, K. (2002). The impact of reading purpose on incidental word learning from context. Language Learning, 52, 95-117. N a t i o a I S P 1990 Teaching and Learning Vocabulary New York Newbury Hous

Wesche, M., and T. S. Paribakht. (1993). 'Assessing vocabulary knowledge Depth versus breadth' (draft manuscript) Second Language Institute, University of Ottawa Zimmerman, C. B. (1997). Do reading and interactive vocabulary instruction make a difference? An empirical study. TESOL Quarterly 31/1: 12140.

Appendix (A)

Vocabulary Learning Pre-test

Please find the best meaning of the words.

1-Supplement a. pay for 2- Factor a. causes 3- Distribute a. drink b. send c. cause d. I dont know b. effects c. people d. I dont know b. remove c. add to d. I dont know

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4- Exceed a. goes beyond 5- Furthermore a. however 6- Consumed a. paid for 7- Recycle a. use again 8- Current a. todays 9- Contrast a. are different from 10- Underlying a. beneath 11-Inadequate a. not to enough b. too much c. undrinkable d. I dont know b. besides c. above d. I dont know b. are similar to c. are an example of d. I dont know b. past c. future d. I dont know b. catch up c. pipe in d. I dont know b. wasted c. used d. I dont know b. in addition c. for example d. I dont know b. uses up c. adds to d. I dont know

12- Located a. not far from 13- Considerable a .moderate 14- Phenomenon a. fact b. news c. substance d. I dont know b .small c. great d. I dont know b. positioned c. far from d. I dont know

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15- Evident a. Surprising 16-Shortage a:deficiency 17-Interconnected a:between two countries 18-Destroyed a: descend 19-Draining a:to dry liquid flows away c:to cover something 20-Aquifer a:decorsting pattern of flowing lines c:seat that is surrounded by land 21-Uphill a:descend 22-Sinking a:move down to lower level c:decrease by large amount 23-Compact a:rambling 24-Settle down a: surrounding the place when something happen b: reach an agreement about something b:dense c:lengthy d: I dont know b:making your feel that something bad will happen d: I dont know b:subside c:ascending d. I dont know b:water under the surface of ground d. I dont know b:to make something more exciting d. I dont know b:destiny c:devastate d. I dont know b:related c:interact d. I dont know b:abundance c:decent d. I dont know b .serious c. obvious d. I dont know

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c:get in to comfortable position 25-Sewage a:waste matter from homes and factories

d: I dont know

b:to make somebody feel ashamed

c:a hill made of the waste material that remains when metal has been removed from rock d. I dont know 26-Fast growing a: evolvement 27-Threat a:menial b:mental c:menace d. I dont know b:deviate c:device d. I dont know

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Appendix (B)

Vocabulary Learning Post-test

Please find the best meaning of the words 1- Consumed a. paid for 2- Underlying a. beneath 3- Considerable a .moderate 4- Phenomenon a. fact 5- Evident a. surprising 6-Shortage a:deficiency 7-Interconnected a: related 8-Destroyed a: descend 9-Aquifer a:decorsting pattern of flowing lines b:water under the surface of ground b:destiny c:devastate d. I dont know b:between two countries c:interact d. I dont know b:abundance c:decent d. I dont know b .serious c. obvious d. I dont know b. news c. substance d. I dont know b .small c. great d. I dont know b. besides c. above d. I dont know b. wasted c. used d. I dont know

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c:seat that is surrounded by land

d. I dont know

10-Uphill a:descend 11-Sinking a:move down to lower level c:decrease by large amount 12-Compact a:rambling 13-Settle down a: surrounding the place when something happen c:get in to comfortable position 14-Fast growing a: evolvement 15-Threat a:menial b:mental c:menace d. I dont know b:deviate c:device d. I dont know b:reach an agreement about something d. I dont know b:dense c:lengthy d. I dont know b:making your feel that something bad will happen d. I dont know b:subside c:ascending d. I dont know

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Appendix (C)

Vocabulary Learning Reading Text

Mexico City: Water Shortage and Sinking City Like many other fast-growing cities around the world, Mexico City is facing server water shortages. Many of its 20 million inhabitants receive only one hour of piped water per week. Others receive none at all for weeks on end .Those who can affords the expends build their own home water system catch and keep rainwater to supplement the city water .the situation, according to international experts, is the result of a combination of factors .first, the system of pipes is old and poorly managed, with the result that the pipes lose almost 40 percent of the water that they distribute around the city. Second, the demand for water, which has grown with the rapid population growth, far exceeds the supply ,Furthermore, the water is consumed not only by resident for household use ,but also by thirsty industries such as beer brewers and soft-drink bottlers, and there is little incentive for them to conserve or recycle water . The current water shortages I n Mexico City contrast remarkably with the citys situation in the past .when the Spanish arrived at the capital in 1519,they found stone building and gardens set on an island in the middle of a vast series of interconnected lakes an enchanted vision, according to one Spanish soldier. The Spanish destroyed the buildings and began draining the water from the lakes to build what became Mexico City .For the next four centuries; the city was able to meet its water needs from springs, shallow wells, and the remaining lake water. In the mid-nineteenth century, the residents of the city began taking aquifer. In the twentieth century, as water needs grew and supplies from the aquifer became inadequate. city authorities brought water up from two nearby river systems. Twenty-five years ago, they began piping in water from 80 miles (130km) away. Because Mexico City is located on a highland, the water must all be pumped uphill at considerable expense Related to the shortages is another problem: The city is sinking .Other cities around the world (such as Venice, Italy) are also experiencing this phenomenon, but the situation is most dramatic In Mexico City .Some neighbourhoods are going down by as much as 15

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inches (40cm) a year, or a total of about 30feet (9.1) over the last century .The causes is simply the fact that water is being removed from the aquifers faster that it can be replace by rainwater .As water is removed .the spongy soil dries up and becomes more compact, and the city slowly settles down. The effects are evident. At the Monument to Independence, which was built at ground level in 1910, twenty-three more steps were recently added to reach the base from the current ground level. Building and streets have been damaged by the uneven settling of the city ,and so have the water and sewage systems .Since the city is now 6 feet below the level of nearby Lake Texcoco, flooding has become a frequent problem and because of the poor state of the sewage system, the flood waters are often full of untreated waste. Read each statement then circle the best meaning or synonym for the underlined world as it is used in the sentence.

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