ARTICLE IN PRESS

Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 16 (2003) 511527

Mathematical modeling and optimization strategies (genetic algorithm and knowledge base) applied to the continuous casting of steel
C.A. Santosa, J.A. Spimb, A. Garciaa,*
a

Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP) P.O. Box 6122, 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil b Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Center of Technology, P.O. Box 15021, 91501-970, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil

Abstract The control of quality in continuous casting products cannot be achieved without a knowledge base which incorporates parameters and variables of inuence such as: equipment characteristics, steel, each component of the system and operational conditions. This work presents the development of a computational algorithm (software) applied to maximize the quality of steel billets produced by continuous casting. A mathematical model of solidication works integrated with a genetic search algorithm and a knowledge base of operational parameters. The optimization strategy selects a set of cooling conditions (mold and secondary cooling) and metallurgical criteria in order to attain highest product quality, which is related to a homogeneous thermal behavior during solidication. The results of simulations performed using the mathematical model are validated against both experimental and literature results and a good agreement is observed. Using the numerical model linked to a search method and the knowledge base, results can be produced for determining optimum settings of casting conditions, which are conducive to the best strand surface temperature prole and metallurgical length. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Continuous casting of steel; Mathematical modeling; Optimization methods; Genetic algorithm

1. Introduction The continuous casting process is responsible for most of the steel production in the world, and has largely replaced conventional ingot casting/rolling for the production of semi-nished steel shape products. Fig. 1 shows a schematic representation of a continuous caster and the different cooling zones along the machine. The casters have been implemented with modern equipments for billets, slabs or blooms, multiple casting and process control. The quality control of continuous casting is fundamental for reducing production costs, processing time, and to assure reproducibility of the casting operation and increase of production. This cannot be achieved without a greater knowledge about the process, incorporating both operational parameters, such as
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +55-19-3788; fax: +55-19-3289-3722. E-mail address: amaurig@fem.unicamp.br (A. Garcia). 0952-1976/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0952-1976(03)00072-1

components of the machine, steel composition, casting temperature, and casting metallurgical constraints, such as thickness of solidied shell at mold exit and strand surface temperature prole along the different cooling zones. The use of optimization strategies, such as genetic algorithm, heuristic search, knowledge base, working connected to mathematical models of solidication, can be seen as a useful tool in the search of operational parameters that maximize or minimize any aspect of the dynamic process. The idea of using simulation to optimize a continuous caster is not just a theoretical concept and its practicality has already been demonstrated (Larreq and Birat, 1982; Lally et al., 1991a; Lally et al., 1991b; Kumar et al., 1993; Samarasekera et al., 1994; Spim et al., 1997; Filipic and Saler, 1998; Brimacombe, 1999; Cheung and Garcia, 2001). An expert system for billet-casting problems has been developed to guide caster operators in analyzing quality-related problems and to provide them with a ready source of fundamental knowledge related to caster

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Ladle

Tundish

Nozzle

Primary Cooling

Mold + Pinch Roll Flame cut-off Rolls Ingot Sprays

(s) and q3 represents the term associated to internal heat generation due to the phase change. It was assumed that the thermal conductivity and density vary only with temperature. Then, Eq. (1) can be rewritten in twodimensional form as  2  qT q T q2 T 3 k rc 2 q: 2 2 qt qx qy Approximating Eq. (2) by nite-difference terms, we have  n n1 n n n Ti1; j 2Ti; j Ti1; j Ti; j Ti; j rc k Dt Dx2  n n n Ti; j1 2Ti; j Ti; j1 3 q; 3 Dy2 where n 1 is the index associated to the future time, n is the index corresponding the actual time, Dt is the increment of the time, x; y are the directions, i; j are the positions and the stability criteria are given by Dto Dx2 2a or Dy2 ; 2a

Secondary Cooling
Unbending Point

Radiation Cooling

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the continuous casting equipment.

operation (Kumar et al., 1993). J.K. Brimacombe, I.V. Samarasekera, S. Kumar and J.A Meech projected this expert system. Filipic and Saler proposed and implemented a computational approach to the continuous casting of steel, which consists of a numerical simulator of the casting process and a genetic algorithm for real parameter optimization (Filipic and Saler, 1998). Cheung, Santos, Spim and Garcia have used a heuristic search technique for the optimization of the quality of carbon steel billets (Cheung and Garcia, 2001; Santos et al., 2002). The present paper describes a software, which was developed and is based on the interaction between a nite difference heat transfer solidication model and a genetic algorithm and a knowledge base. The heat transfer model is validated against experimental results concerning both static casting of AlCu and SnPb alloys and continuous casting of a low carbon steel slab and a high carbon steel billet. The software has been used to explore the space parameter settings in order to nd optimized cooling conditions, which result in best strand surface temperature prole and minimum metallurgical length.

where a k m2 =s: rc

The objective is to determine the future temperature n1 of the element i; jTi; j as a function of the actual known temperatures of the elements around the element n n n n i; jTi1; j ; Ti1; j ; Ti; j1 ; Ti; j1 : 2.1. Phase change In this study, a xed grid methodology is used with a heat source term due to the metal phase transformation (liquid to solid), which is given by an explicit solid fraction-temperature relationship as q rL
3

qfs ; qt

2. Mathematical model The mathematical formulation of heat transfer to predict the temperature distribution and the solid shell prole during solidication is based on the General Equation of Heat Conduction in Unsteady State, which is given for three-dimensional heat ux by qT 3 rc rk rT q; qt 1

where fs is the solid fraction during phase change along the solidication range (liquidus and solidus temperatures: TL and TS , respectively) and L is the latent heat of fusion J=kg. The solid fraction depends on a number of parameters. However it is quite reasonable to assume fs varying only with temperature in the mushy zone, and then Eq. (4) can be written as q rL
3

qfs qT : qT qt

where r is the material density kg=m3 ; c is specic heat J=kg K; k is thermal conductivity W=m K; qT=qt is the cooling rate K=s; T is temperature (K), t is the time

Substituting q3 into Eq. (3), the specic heat can be written as c0 c Lqfs =qT; where the term Lqfs =qT is called pseudo-specic heat. At the range of temperatures where solidication occurs for metallic alloys, the physical properties will be evaluated taking into account the amount of liquid and solid that coexists

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y

in equilibrium at each temperature: k kS kL : fs kL ; c0 cS cL : fs cL L dfs r rS rL : fs rL ; 6

i, j+1

x
8
i-1,j

i,j i+1,j

where sub-indices S and L; respectively, indicate solid and liquid states. If fs 0; the element is still liquid and only thermophysical properties of the liquid are considered, and if fs 1; the element is completely solid. For carbon steels, the fs is appropriately described by the lever rule, and Scheils equation applies for AlCu and SnPb alloys (these alloys will be used in model validation).     1 TL T fs Lever Rule; 9 1 ko Tf T Tf T fs 1 Tf TL  1=ko 1 Scheils Equation; 10

i, j-1 nodal point thermal resistance

Fig. 2. Nodal point.

i; j 1 to point i; j given by (Fig. 2) RTi Dx kAt or RTj Dy ; kAt 13

where Tf is the solvent melting temperature (K) and ko is the partition coefcient. 2.2. Analogy between thermal systems and electrical circuits In the continuous casting processes, heat is transferred from the liquid steel to the cooling system (mold, sprays and free radiation) through various media namely, the solidied shell, strand/mold interface, mold wall, cooling water, sprays/strand interface and air/ strand interface. The heat transfer through each of the media can be characterized in terms of a thermal resistance, analogous to an electrical resistance. To simplify the development of the mathematical model, is the analogy between thermal systems and electrical circuits applied. Multiplying the modied equation (3) by Dx; Dy; Dz on both sides, considering Dx Dy Dz; At Dy Dz or Dx Dz; and replacing c by c0 ; yields
At Dx r c Dt  n  n n n n n Ti1; j 2Ti; j Ti1; j Ti; j1 2Ti; j Ti; j1 : At k Dx Dy
0 n1 n Ti; j Ti; j

where Dx and Dy correspond to the distance between central points of nodes. Each thermal resistance between the central points is given by the sum of the partial thermal resistance from the center to the boundary and the boundary to the center, given by in x: RTi1; ji; j RTi1; j RTi; j ; RTi1; ji; j RTi1; j RTi; j ; in y: RTi; j1i; j RTi; j1 RTi; j ; RTi; j1i; j RTi; j1 RTi; j : 15 14

These terms are given by the sum of thermal resistances according to the following equations: RTi1; j Dxi1; j ; 2ki1; j At Dxi1; j ; 2ki1; j At Dyi; j1 ; 2ki; j1 At Dyi; j1 ; 2ki; j1 At or Dyi; j : 2ki; j At 16

RTi1; j

17

RTi; j1

18

RTi; j1

19

11
By analogy, the thermal capacitance CTi; j represents the energy accumulated in a volume element i; j from the grid, and is given by (Spim and Garcia, 2000), CTi; j Dxi; j Dy Dz ri; j c0i; j ; 12 CTi; j RTi; j

Dxi; j 2ki; j At

20

Then, expanding Eq. (11) and substituting CTi; j ; yields

n1 n Ti; j Ti; j

where Dx Dy Dz is the volume of the element i; j: Also by analogy, the thermal ux between central points has a thermal resistance at the heat ux line (RT ) from point i 1; j or i 1; j to point i; j or i; j 1 or

Dt

n n Ti1; j Ti; j

RTii; ji; j

n n Ti1; j Ti; j

RTi1; ji; j
n n Ti; j1 Ti; j

n n Ti; j1 Ti; j

RTi; j1i; j

RTi; j1i; j

21

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or
n1 Ti; j Dt

n Ti1; j

ti1; ji; j

n Ti1; j

ti1; j;i; j  n Ti; j ;

n Ti; j1

ti; j1;i; j

n Ti; j1

based on the following key assumptions: (1) Two-dimensional heat transfer phenomenon was considered, with heat ux being admitted to be negligible along the vertical direction z: qT 0: qz (2) A control volume element, with Dz 1 mm; was placed in a transverse section and was analyzed from the meniscus to the cut-off region. The distance below the meniscus z is given by Z Vcasting Dt z m; t s; Vcasting Fcasting speed m=s: (3) The billet/slab symmetry permits that only onequarter of the cross-section modeled for a full thermal evolution characterization (grid: 100 100 points). (4) The meniscus surface was assumed to be at z 0: (5) Effect of mold oscillation, mold curvature, segregation, and melt level uctuation in the mold were ignored. (6) The mold is considered uniform and with an initial temperature equal to the water-cooling temperature. (7) The surface temperature of molten metal is considered equal to the pouring temperature. (8) The turbulence in liquid metal is analyzed by a mathematical expedient, where the thermal conductivity in the liquid is multiplied by a numerical factor: kef kL A; where A varies between 3 and 7 (Toledo et al., 1993; Louhenkilpi, 1994). (9) The transient mold/strand and sprays/strand heat transfer coefcients (hm=s and hs=s respectively) used in this work, are those proposed in the literature (Samarasekera and Brimacombe, 1988; Brimacombe et al., 1984; Lait et al., 1974; Hills, 1969; Brimacombe et al., 1980; Mizikar, 1970; Nozaki et al., 1978; Bolle and Moureau, 1979), and they are related to the interface thermal resistances along the different regions on the machine, given by 1 RTm=s ; 28 hm=s At RTs=s 1 : hs=s At 29

ti; j1;i; j 22

 1

Dt ti; j;i; j

where ti1; j;i; j cTi; j RTi1; j RTi; j ; ti1; j;i; j cTi; j RTi1; j RTi; j ; ti; j1;i; j cTi; j RTi; j1 RTi; j ; ti; j1;i; j cTi; j RTi; j1 RTi; j ; 1 1 1 1 ti; j;i; j ti1; j;i; j ti1; j;i; j ti; j1;i; j 1 : ti; j1;i; j 23 24 25 26

27

Eq. (27) is generic and can be applied to any geometry, by varying only area and volume to be considered, as well as the thermophysical properties as a function of the temperature or state of the analyzed element in the grid. The stability criterion is Dtpti; j;i; j : 2.3. Boundary conditions The application of the solidication model to continuous billet/slab casting operation (Fig. 3) was

y x z
z mold grid

hm/s

hs/s

sprays

hr
Vcasting

radiation

3. Optimization strategies In this work, an algorithm is developed which incorporates optimization strategies to determine best

Fig. 3. Boundary conditions.

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operational parameters to the continuous caster. The algorithm employs search techniques for nding these operational parameters, including the type and characteristics of mold, mold taper, mold and sprays cooling systems, etc., which are incorporated in a knowledge base. The search includes nding the casting objective of maximum production rate as a function of casting metallurgical constraints. These constraints represents the product quality and process feasibility through limits on strand shell thickness SM ; metallurgical length LM ; minimum surface temperature Tmin surf ; casting speed Vcasting ; strand surface reheating between spray zones DTmin surf and temperature at the unbending point TLM : The algorithm modies the operational process parameters, such as mold and spray cooling efciencies and casting speed, with a view to attain the best conditions for the quality of the cast product at a maximum production rate without violating the metallurgical constraints. The functional structure of the algorithm is basically composed of three operating blocks: the rst consisting of the numerical heat transfer model, which generates results of simulations as a function of the input parameters related to operational con ditions and equipment limitations; the second block incorporates the knowledge base about the continuous casting process, and the third block consists of the decision rules (strategy), which are the managers of the algorithm. It determines the modications on the boundary conditions of the continuous casting process and is responsible for the insertion of new input variables into the numerical model. This block has a strong interaction with the results furnished by the numerical model. The algorithm works by iteration, and every result given by the model corresponds to an analysis performed by the decision rules block, thus indicating any need to modify the process boundary conditions. The algorithm includes a database of material properties for various steels. 3.1. Knowledge base The knowledge base required to transform molten steel into quality billets at a high production rate is, of course, quite large. The present knowledge base was based on a wide search in the literature on continuous casting operations and on information obtained in a continuous casting plant. It was structured in order to facility the examination of all important operational parameters. The outline of quality problems that includes the possible defects, their origin and suggested preventive techniques has been prepared as a function of rules and data collected in the literature and in the industrial practice, and linked

to a solidication mathematical model (solid shell thickness evolution and surface temperature distribution along the billet). The starting input parameters about machine, operational conditions and casting are rst compared with the knowledge base, and a report with suggestions is provided. After that, the operating conditions are submitted to the decision strategy and inserted into the numerical model, which generates a simulation representing the solidication in the continuous casting equipment. For developing the decision strategy it was necessary to acquire a knowledge base concerning the continuous casting of steel, containing two groups of information: (a) equipment information and (b) process information. (a) The equipment information represents the input variables of the heat transfer model and optimization program, and generally relates to the physical characteristics of the equipment and the quality of the cast steel. This information represents characteristics of operation, such as geometry of caster, casting rate, composition of steel, casting temperature, type of mold, mold length, mold taper, metal level, number and length of sprays zones, water ow rates in the mold and at the different sprays zones, unbending point and water temperature. (b) The process information represents the transient variables in the process, which can be classied as: boundary variables: which can be modied within an operating range to meet specications of the desired output, and can eventually be associated with economic features and a defect-free product; for instance, casting speed and primary and secondary cooling efciencies, and control variables, which are associated with the results of the continuous casting process and for instance, solid shell thickness, surface temperature proles and metallurgical length (Fig. 4). The knowledge base is a set of representation of facts about the process (rule-based system). Each individual representation is called a sentence. The sentences are expressed in a language called a knowledge representation language. The objective of the knowledge representation is to express knowledge in a computertractable form, such that it can be used to help agents perform well. The logic consists of the Boolean connectives and quantiers terms, and the structural knowledge implements rules and facts. Rulers are statements and procedures, such as condition statements and search strategies, and facts are classes of objects and values. Among these objects, various relations hold. Some of these relations are functions (relations in which there is only a value for a given input) with exclusive values and others are restrictions. The main rules used in knowledge base system are shown in Table 1.

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Mold Sprays Radiation Unbending Point

Shell Thi ck ness Point of complete solidification

Tpouring Tmax

Smin

Surface Temperature

T
radiation zone
Distance from meniscus

Tmin

mould

zone 1

zone 2

zone 3

Fig. 4. Metallurgical and equipment constraints applied to the continuous casting process.

3.2. Genetic algorithm The decision block contains a set of critical and limiting operational conditions imposed by metallurgical constraints, which is systematically compared to the simulations determining, when necessary, modications of the input variables. Such modications are performed by observing the functional limits of each variable. The present study was conducted to attempt maximum casting speed which depends on the settings of operating parameters, such as changes in the primary (mold) and secondary cooling (sprays), reected in heat transfer coefcients. These settings are dened as those which make it possible to run the caster at its maximum productivity, minimum cost and to cast defect-free products. 3.2.1. Metallurgical criteria 1. Shell thickness at the mold exit SM : The shell thickness at the mold exit must be greater than some minimum value Smin ; which is considered to be about 10% of the casting thickness. This constraint avoids breakout occurrences caused by extraction stresses and liquid ferrostatic pressure, and can be written as Position Lmold
exit

temperature either greater than the high-temperature limit of the ductility trough (soft cooling) or lower than the lower limit in order to avoid transverse surface cracking (hard cooling). The bottom of the ductility trough for steels is usually located between 700 C and 750 C; depending on steel composition, mainly in low carbon steels, which is the temperature where the g2a (austeniteferrite) transformation starts, so the surface temperature must be less than Position LM ) Tsurface oTg2a : The upper limit of the low ductility trough corresponds to the transition between the transgranular fracture and intergranular fracture Ttransition : Depending on the composition of steel, this upper temperature limit can vary between 900 C to 1100 C: Position LM ) Tsurface > Ttransition : Limiting the strand surface above the upper limit of the low ductility temperature, transversal cracks are also reduced. Longitudinal cracks at the unbending point are more usual in steels with carbon contents of about 0.08 0.14%, the maximum value being observed to be about 0.12%C. In this work it was considered that the strand surface temperature is kept above the upper limit of the low ductility range, called Tmin surface : 4. Reheating between zones Tmax surface Tmin surface ): The reheating effect occurs when the strand passes from a spray cooling zone with a high cooling efciency to one with a lower cooling rate, and must be limited as a function of steel grade and casting operating parameters. This reheating leads to the development of tensile stresses at the solidication front, which can induce cracking. The maximum permissible reheating range along the machine has been chosen to be equal to 100 C in order to avoid midway surface cracking (Brimacombe et al., 1984). Position Lsprays ) Tmax
surface

) SM > Smin 0:1ecasting :

2. Metallurgical length LM : The solidication of the ingot has to be complete before the point where a high deformation is given (unbending point) in order to avoid internal and transverse cracking and centerline segregation. This constraint is Position LM ) Tcenter oTsolidus ; that means that the center of the strand Tcenter must be at a temperature lower than the solidus temperature Tsolidus at the unbending point. 3. Temperature at unbending point TLM : The strand surface Tsurface must be at a temperature outside the low ductility trough observed in steels and at a

Tmin

surface p100

C:

Table 1 Denition of the main rules used in the knowledge base system
Classes Steel composition Division: Low carbon: o0:25% C Objects Relations Consequences References

o0:10% 0.100.14% 0.12% 0.17% (peritectic) 0.170.25%

Heat transfer decreases as the %C increases Billet surface is rougher (deeper oscillation mark) Lower heat transfer rate (thin solidied shell) dg phase change (B1490 C) Reduced ductility at elevated temperature

Medium carbon: 0:250:50% C High carbon: > 0:50% C

0.250.38% 0.42% 0.400.77% 0.77% (eutectoid) > 0:77%

Favor equiaxed grain zone Higher heat ux Large columnar zone (lowest heat transfer) Long freezing range 100 C Susceptibility of crack formation at elevated temperatures

Surface cracks, breakout (mold) (Brimacombe and Sorimachi, 1977), Surface cracks, breakout (mold) (Brimacombe et al., 1986, Brimacombe, 1999) Longitudinal, midway cracks, (Wolf and Kurz, 1981) breakout (mold) External, internal transverse (Billany et al., 1991) cracks Transversal, longitudinal cracks (Samarasekera and (solidication front) Brimacombe, 1982a; Samarasekera et al., 1982b; Samarasekera and Brimacombe, 1988) Difcult crack propagation (Kumar et al., 1999) Large solidied shell (mold) (Van Drunen et al., 1975) Breakout (small solidied shell) Breakout (small solidied shell), cracks External, internal cracks, breakout, laps, bleeds

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ARTICLE IN PRESS

Phase transformations o 0.09% C: 0.090.17% C 0.170.53% C 0.530.77% C 0.77% C > 0:77% C

L, L+d; d; d g; g; g a; a; a+P L, L+d; d g; g; g a; a; aP L, L+d; L+g; g; g a; aP L, L+d; L+g; g; g a; aP L, L+g; g; P L, L+g; g; g Fe3 C; P+Fe3 C

dg phase change (B14001485 C) dg phase change (1485 C) ga phase change B910727 C)

External, internal cracks (expansion) External, internal cracks (expansion) External, internal cracks (contraction)

Element alloys Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O)

o2 ppm o10 ppm

Minimize bubbles of gases

Pinholes, blowholes (surface/subsurface)

(Billany et al., 1991) (Brimacombe and Sorimachi, 1977; Brimacombe, 1999) (Thomas et al., 1987)

Nitrogen (N) Mn:S ratio

o20 ppm > 2530

Minimize bubbles of gases Avoid crack formation in interdendritic liquid

Pinholes, blowholes (surface/subsurface) Cracks in grain boundaries (surfaces are smooth)

517

518

Table 1 (continued ) Classes

Phosphorus (P) Sulphur (S) Copper (Cu) Cu:Sn ratio Ni:Cu ratio Aluminium (Al) Niobium and vanadium (Nb, V) Manganese (Mn) Chromium (Cr) Titanium (Ti) Transformation temperatures

Objects
o0:017% o0:015% o0:2% o4 >1 o0:02% o1% o1% > 3% o0:004% TL 1537 88%C 25%S 5%Cu 8%Si 5%Mn 2%Mo 4%Ni 1:5%Cr 18%Ti 2%V 30%P TS 1535 200%C 12:3%Si 6:8%Mn 124:5%P 183:9%S 4:3%Ni 1:4%Cr 4:1%Al

Relations
Decreases columnar zone Formation of FeS Tf 1200 C Low melting impurities in grain boundaries Minimizes craze crack formation in surface Form a miscible alloy with a higher Tf Formation of AlN 900 C Formation of nitrites, carbides Formation of oxides Formation of oxides Minimizes AlN formation

Consequences

References

Difcult crack formation and (Clyne et al., 1982) propagation Supercial, corner, longitudinal, midway cracks Cracks in grain boundaries (surfaces are smooth) Craze crack Minimize craze crack formation Surface transversal, grain boundaries cracks Surface transversal, grain boundaries cracks Transversal cracks Internal cracks Minimize internal cracks

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Cast structure Columnar grain zone Equiaxed grain zone

Small section 0.130.20%C and 0.0080.02%P 0.170.38%C Large section Superheat level o30 C Electro-magnetic stirring

Favor columnar zone Favor equiaxed zone Favor equiaxed zone (medium %C) Favor equiaxed zone Favor equiaxed zone (low, high %C) Favor equiaxed zone

Facilitate crack propagation Difcult crack propagation Difcult crack propagation Difcult crack propagation Difcult crack propagation Difcult crack propagation

(Bobadilla et al., 1993) (Van Drunen et al., 1975)

Mechanical properties High temperature zone:

TS Tx: 020:185%C 0.45%C S > 0:025% A3 to 1200 C 700900 C

Tx 40 C Tx 65 C Tx 80 C Mn:S rate and carbides and nitrites AlN, carbides and nitrites

Cracks due P and S

(Brimacombe and Sorimachi, 1977)

Intermediate temperature zone: Low temperature zone:

Cracks in grain boundaries Cracks in grain boundaries

Mold Liquid metal level Meniscus

depth: o100 mm (small depth)

Overow, distortion

Rhomboidity, laps, bleeds, transverse depressions

(Kumar et al., 1995, Kumar et al., 1997, Kumar et al., 1999)

Fluctuations Composition of the mold Alloy

=100 mm > 100 mm (very depth) o75 mm

Recommended Small solidied shell Recommended

Breakout (mold) Surface defects, breakout

C.A. Santos et al. / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 16 (2003) 511527

P: 200300 ppm; Ag: 1000 ppm

Smaller distortion

Minimize rhomboidity, cracks

Smoothing temperature su HB surface Thermal conductivity Mold wall thickness Section Thickness Distortion

> 500 C > 400 N=mm2 100500 > 70% to pure Cu

Smaller distortion Smaller distortion Smaller distortion Higher heat transfer rate

Minimize rhomboidity, cracks Minimize rhomboidity, cracks Minimize rhomboidity, cracks Large solidied shell

(Samarasekera and Brimacombe, 1982; Samarasekera and Brimacombe, 1988) (Chandra et al., 1996)

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Sections o200 200 mm B12:7 mm o0:05 mm

Recommended Recommended Minimal

Minimize rhomboidity, cracks Minimize rhomboidity, cracks Minimize rhomboidity, cracks

0.050:20 mm

Unsatisfactory

Rhomboidity, corner cracks

(Brimacombe, 1993; Brimacombe et al., 1986) (Bommaraju, 1991) (Samarasekera and Brimacombe, 1982; Samarasekera and Brimacombe, 1988) (Fukada et al., 1999; Chandra et al., 1993; Chandra et al., 1996)

> 0:20 mm

Severe

Rhomboidity, external and internal cracks

Mold constraint system System Slots Water channel gap Mold tube alignment Tolerances Corners

Conditions of the corners 2 or 4 (recommended 4) 4:8 mm (recommended)

Boiling at the channel gap Smaller distortion Similar heat ux at 4 faces

Rhomboidity, longitudinal corner cracks Rhomboidity Rhomboidity

o0:5 mm (in all faces) o4 mm (same radius of the mold/tube)

Non-symmetrical cast structure Different heat ux between corner/face

Breakout Transverse, longitudinal corner cracks, breakout

Taper mold Straight

No taper

Alloy composition (low %C)

Breakout, rhomboidity

(Samarasekera and Brimacombe, 1982; Samarasekera and Brimacombe, 1988)

Single or multiple taper Parabolic

Discrete taper Continuous taper

Recommended (high %C) More recommended

Breakout, rhomboidity

519

520

Table 1 (continued ) Classes

Cooling water quality Temperature range DT Presence of scale deposits Color and properties

Objects
o8 C Yes or no Red Black Light o20 mm o5 ppm

Relations
Recommended Heat transfer efciency Iron oxide and corrosion Magnetite Fe3 O4 or carbonaceous: oil, grease Excessive hardness Recommended Recommended

Consequences
Rhomboidity, breakout, cracks (boiling) Rhomboidity, breakout, cracks (boiling)

References
(Bakshi et al., 1993) (Berryman et al., 1989) (Chandra et al., 1996) (Mills et al., 1991)

C.A. Santos et al. / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 16 (2003) 511527

Thickness Impurities

Cooling water velocity and pressure Velocity (v) Pressure (P)

> 12 m=s Inlet and outlet

Recommended Outlet > 135 kPa; inlet > 400 kPa

Rhomboidity (boiling) Rhomboidity (boiling)

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Mold oscillation Frequency f Stroke length S Mold lead (ML) Negative strip time tn

o4 Hz or 240 cpm 916 mm > 4 mm 0.120:15 s

Oscillation marks Oscillation marks

Transversal, longitudinal surface cracks Transversal, longitudinal surface cracks Transversal, longitudinal surface cracks, laps

Oscillation marks

Mold lubrication Composition of the ux

Elements

SiO2 ; CaO; MgO; Al2 O3 ; TiO2 ; Fe2 O3 ; MnO2 ; Na2 O; K2 O; B2 O3 ; Li2 O; F; C; CO2 Large Bi Minimize breakout

(Pinheiro et al., 1995, Pinheiro et al., 1996, Pinheiro et al., 2000, Mills et al., 1991) (Billany et al., 1991)

Inclusion absorption rate (Bi)

Bi

1:53%Cao 1:51%MgO 1:94%Na2 O 1:48%SiO2 0:10%Al2 O3 3:55%Li2 O 1:53%CaF2 1:48%SiO2 0:10%Al2 O3

Lubrication index (LI)

LI

distance from meniscus to position where T Tf distance from meniscus to bottommold   500tn Vcasting pf d 2 f

Close to 1

Minimize breakout

(Brendzy et al., 1993); (Branion, 1986); (Bommaraju, 1991)

Depth of the molten ux (Yp)

Yp S sin

612

Minimize breakout

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C.A. Santos et al. / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 16 (2003) 511527 Note: ddelta ferrite, gaustenite, aalpha ferrite, Pperlite, Fe3 Ccementite, Lliquid, Ssolid, TL liquidus temperature, TS solidus temperature, Tf fusion temperature, f frequency, Sstroke length, tn negative strip time, dliquid metal uctuations. 521

(Bommaraju, 1991) (Brimacombe and Sorimachi, 1977; Brimacombe et al., 1980, Brimacombe, 1999)

3.2.2. Equipment constraints

*

(Brimacombe and Sorimachi, 1977)

Water ow: The water ow rate in a given region (or spray) has a lower and an upper limit depending on the hydraulic system, which is given in heat transfer coefcients hs=s (Brimacombe et al., 1980; Mizikar, 1970; Nozaki et al., 1978; Bolle and Moureau, 1979): Position Lsprays ) hmax
sprays phs=s phmin sprays :

Midway cracks Midway crack close to the solidication front

External, internal cracks

Midway crack close to the solidication front

Casting speed (Vcasting ): The casting speed is bounded with a minimum and maximum value, given by Vmin
casting pVcasting pVmax casting :

Rhomboidity Midway cracks

Central cracks Pinch-roll cracks

Objective and constraint functions used in the optimization framework were formulated to represent the productivity of the machine, quality of the cast strand and casting speed. Machine productivity is characterized by limitation of casting speed, metallurgical length and spray cooling, and the metallurgical constraints are solid shell thickness, metallurgical length, surface temperatures and reheating between sprays zones. The objective is to keep a cost function (J), dened as a sum of individual values of each constraint (i), close to zero. The process starts with nominal values of operating parameters, and as a function of results simulated by the heat transfer mathematical model (temperature eld in the strand), the cooling conditions are modied in such a way that the nal billet/slab metallurgical quality is assured. Each violation of any constraint corresponds to one numerical increase in this individual objective function. When the cost function reaches zero, the casting speed can be increased by a value DVcasting ; and the search begins again. The cooling criteria are formulated in such a way that the lower values of thermal gradients between cooling zones correspond to P the best situation, with n Ji 0: For each criterion a i1 weight (w) was used denoting the relative importance of the criterion. The solid shell thickness at mold exit and the point of complete solidication have maximum weight (10), and surface temperature and thermal gradients at the sprays zones have minimum weight (1). Eq. (30) presents the formulation for the objective function J: n X Ji Ji min J wi : 30 Ji max Ji min i1 The genetic algorithm applied for the continuous casting optimization consists of: Step 1: generate an initial population of results simulated by using the input parameters (nominal); Step 2: compute cost function; Step 3: store parameters setting; Step 4: modify cooling conditions in each region where the constraint was violated;

Asymmetrical spray cooling Intermediate low ductility zone

Intermediate low ductility zone Reheating of the billet surface (strain/stress)

Intermediate low ductility zone > 1100 C Unbending point Minimum surface temperature

Relations to heat-transfer coefcients > 1100 C

Sprays Water ux Minimum surface temperature

Point of complete solidication Center temperature

Surface reheating

Radiation zone Minimum surface temperature Maximum reheating

Tcenter oTs o1350 C

o100 C

> 1100 C o100 C

End of solidication High temperature zone of low ductility

Reheating of the billet surface (strain/stress)

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Step 5: apply a genetic operator to determine new parameter of process; Step 6: generate new results; Step 7: if cost function decreases, then SJmin is the result; Step 8: if SJ 0; increase Vcasting and go to step 1; Step 9: repeat steps 17 until SJ 0: The genetic algorithm was developed using a binary encoding, in the most common form, the Simple Genetic Algorithm (SGA). The mathematical model of the solidication process computes the temperature eld in the strand and the solidied shell thickness and assesses the metallurgical criteria. Each set of results of the simulation was used to form an individual, and a set of individual represents a population, where each member has a potential solution encoded in it. The simulations are performed varying the values of the sprays water ow, or spray heat transfer coefcients, and when possible, the casting

speed. In the water ow rate, a step of 0:03 l=s between the upper and lower limits was used, and for the casting rate, a step of 0:001 m=s was used. Fig. 5 shows the relation between the knowledge base, the genetic algorithm and the mathematical solidication model.

4. Experimental procedure To validate the proposed solidication mathematical model and the use of the different fS formulations, the results of the calculations are compared with experimental data obtained in an experimental setup monitored by thermocouples located both in the mold and in the metal. The casting assembly used in static solidication experiments is shown in Fig. 6. The main design criterion was to ensure a dominant unidirectional heat ow during solidication.

Tundish: temperature area, width, capacity, steel composition Mold: composition, metal level, support, thickness, taper, cooling Oscillation: frequency, stroke and negative strip time Lubrification: oil or powder flux Sprays: water temperature and flow rate

Input of operational parameters

Comparison with knowledge base

Heat transfer mathematical model

Possible changes for improvements

Determination of process variables to be implemented into the equipment based on metallurgical constraints

Rules conducive to better operational conditions (Search/Priority)

wt % carbon: cracks oscillation marks Mold cooling: cracks rhomboidity Meniscus: cracks inclusions Lubrification: breakouts laps Sprays cooling: segregation cracks

End Priority Scale Report with thermal profile, solidified shell and possible defects 1 variation of water flow rate 2 variation of casting speed

Fig. 5. Block diagram showing the relation between the heat ow model and knowledge base/genetic algorithm.

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FDM program

523

Thermocouples Insulating cover Mold Insulating walls Chamber IN Data acquisition OUT RS 232

Automatic Search t

Graphical display

Top view

Side view

123

24 24

63 Pouring Channel

24

A
3

20 20 100 10 3 Chill Heat Flux

44

60 Thermocouples Steel Chill Casting Chamber Insulating Material 24

24

Fig. 6. Casting arrangement and position of thermocouples in the mold wall and in the metal (mm).

Both copper and steel molds were used, with the heatextracting surface being polished. Experiments were performed with Sn210 wt% Pb and Al24:5 wt% Cu alloys, with the liquid metal being poured at a temperature of 10% above the liquidus temperature. The thermophysical properties of these alloys and chill are summarized in previous articles (Santos et al., 2001; Quaresma et al., 2000). These alloys were chosen due to two main reasons: all their thermophysical properties, which are fundamental for calculations are available in the literature, and they are quite easy to manipulate in the laboratory. Temperatures in the chill and in the casting were monitored during solidication via the output of a bank of thermocouples (1:6 mm diameter) accurately located with respect to the metal/mold interface, as indicated in Fig. 6. These sets of experiments were planned for a preliminary validation of the mathematical model with experimental data of solidication. To demonstrate the applicability of the solidication mathematical model to the continuous casting process, simulations will be compared with experimental data from the literature.

5. Results and discussion The temperature les containing the experimentally monitored temperatures during solidication in static molds were compared to the proposed mathematical

model with the transient metal/mold heat transfer coefcient, hm=s ; described in previous articles (Santos et al., 2001; Quaresma et al., 2000). Fig. 7 shows typical examples of temperature data collected in metal and chill during the course of solidication of Sn210wt% Pb alloy (Fig. 7A) and Al24:5 wt% Cu alloy (Fig. 7B). These experimental thermal responses were compared to those numerically simulated using the fs formulation given by Scheils equation. In any case a good agreement can be observed. To validate the application of the mathematical model for the continuous casting process, a set of simulations was performed and the results of both billet and slab surface temperatures were compared with literature data. The input parameters used in these simulations are presented in Table 2. For the billet case, experimental results of a high carbon steel (SAE 1080) were analyzed, and the simulations were based on metal/ mold heat transfer coefcients proposed by Toledo et al. (Toledo et al., 1993) and the metal/sprays heat transfer coefcients proposed by Brimacombe et al. (Brimacombe et al., 1980). For the slab, the literature data for a low carbon steel (SAE 1012), as well as the used formulations for heat transfer coefcients in mold and in the spray zones, were proposed by Samarasekera and Brimacombe (1988) and Lait et al. (1974), respectively. Fig. 8 shows the comparison between experimental and simulated surface temperature proles for the steel billet. The search space used in this analysis is shown in

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270

C.A. Santos et al. / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 16 (2003) 511527

700
240

210

600

Temperature [C]

150

Temperature [C]
Thermocouple (metal) 20 mm interface Thermocouple (mold) 3 mm interface Simulated
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

180

500

400

120

300

90

200
60

100

30

Thermocouple (metal) 20 mm interface Thermocouple (mold) 3 mm interface Simulated

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250

(A)

Time [s]

(B)

Time [s]

Fig. 7. Typical experimental thermal responses of thermocouples at two locations in casting and chill, compared with numerical simulations: (A) Sn10 wt% Pb and copper mold; (B) Al4.5 wt% Cu and steel mold.

Table 2 Input parameters for billet and slab continuous casting conditions (Louhenkilpi, 1994; El-Bealy et al., 1995) Units Dimensions Mold length Water ow rate Water temperature Metal Specic heat Density Thermal conductivity Latent heat of fusion Solidus temperature Liquidus temperature Sprays 1 (length/ow rate) Sprays 2 Sprays 3 Sprays 4 Sprays 5 Sprays 6 Sprays 7 Sprays 8 Casting rate Pouring temperature Metallurgical length mm mm l/s  C J=kg K kg=m3 W=m K J=kg  C  C (m) (l/s) Billet 160 160 600 20.08 25 1080 Steel cS 678 rS 7850 kS 30:13 260,000 1360 1458 2.800 1.800 2.700 0.0245 1485 10 Slab 1680 220 700 20.08 25 1012 Steel cS 700 rS 7400 kS 28 260,000 1471 1541 0.485 0.900 1.285 1.580 1.280 1.540 2.380 4.500 0.0183 1600 14

cL 758 rL 7300 kS 34:50

cL 700 rL 7400 kS 28

1.47 1.15 0.55

3.83 3.58 2.66 3.33 2.10 1.66 4.66 1.96

m/s  C m

Table 3. The number of candidate parameter settings is about 36 103 : It was considered a population of 50 parameter settings, and to alter the parameter vector, the uniform mutation was applied as the genetic operator. Although every parameter shown in Table 3 is taken as a variable, the search for each of them was restricted within a range of values provided on the basis of the current industrial practice. It can be seen that a similar simulated prole is attained for the two considered conditions (nominal and optimized) up to the end of spray zone 2. From this

spray zone up to the radiation zone, the optimized surface temperature along the equipment is more homogenous and with lower thermal gradients between adjacent spray zones. The water ow rates shown in Table 4 indicate that the optimized prole is accompanied by a decrease of ow rate in spray zones 1 and 2 (18:3% in zone 1 and 30% in zone 2), and an increase in zone 3 (21:4%). In this case, it was not possible to increase the casting speed because two metallurgical constraints were violated (solid shell thickness at mold exit and point of complete solidication).

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1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500
1600
Industrial - Louhenkilpi, 1994 Simulated - nominal Simulated - optimized
Tmin
1 Sprays 2 Sprays 3 Sprays

525

Strand Surface Temperature [C]

160x160 mm Billet 600 mm Mold 1080 Steel

Table 4 Water ow rates for nominal and optimized operational conditions Billet Spray zones Nominal water ow rates (l/s) 1.47 1.15 0.55 Optimized water ow rates (l/s) 1.20 0.80 0.70 Slab Nominal water ow rates (l/s) 3.83 3.58 2.66 3.33 2.10 1.66 4.66 1.96 Optimized water ow rates (l/s) 2.58 3.20 2.66 2.72 2.30 2.50 4.00 2.92

Tmax

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Mold

10

Distance from meniscus [m]

Strand Surface Temperature [C]
Fig. 8. Comparison between results of experimental and simulated (nominal and optimized) strand surface temperature during continuous casting of SAE 1080 steel billet.

1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000

6 Sprays

1680x220 mm Slab 700 mm Mold 1012 1010 Steel

The simulated surface temperature proles for the slab are compared with experimental results in Fig. 9. It can be observed that the optimized surface temperature along the equipment is more homogenous and with lower thermal gradients from a spray zone to the next, mainly in zones 6 and 8. As shown in Table 4, the optimized prole produces a decrease of water ow rate in zones 1, 2, 4 and 7 (32% in zone 1; 10% in zone 2; 18% in zone 4, and 14% in zone 7), and an increase in zones 5, 6 and 8 (8% in zone 5; 33% in zone 6, and 32% in zone 8), and zone 3 has the same value. In both cases (billet and slab), the strand is completely solidied just before the unbending point. For the slab case, it was not possible to increase the casting speed due to the violation of a metallurgical constraint (solid shell thickness at mold exit). This feature of GA acts as a natural safeguard against any solution which is likely to appear in other techniques where variables need not be specied (Chakraborti et al., 2001). The results of optimized water ow rates for the different spray zones are presented in Table 4 for both cases.

7 Sprays

2 Sprays

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0

4 Sprays

Mold 1 Sprays

3 Sprays

Industrial - El-Bealy,1995 Simulated - nominal Simulated - optimized

5 Sprays

10 11 12 13 14

Distance from meniscus [m]

Fig. 9. Comparison between results of experimental and simulated (nominal and optimized) strand surface temperature during continuous casting of an SAE 1012 steel slab.

6. Conclusions A mathematical model of solidication working integrated with a genetic search algorithm and a knowledge base of operational parameters has permitted

Table 3 Parameter space for optimization of a 1080 steel billet Parameter Casting speed (m/s) Water ow 1 (l/s) Water ow 2 (l/s) Water ow 3 (l/s) Minimum 0.0195 1.20 0.80 0.43 Nominal 0.0245 1.47 1.15 0.55 Maximum 0.0295 1.74 1.32 0.73 Discretization step 0.001 0.030 0.035 0.030 Number of possible values 11 19 16 11

8 Sprays

900

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526 C.A. Santos et al. / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 16 (2003) 511527 billets, Part 2. Lubrication and oscillation mark formation. Ironmaking and Steelmaking 20 (1), 6374. Brimacombe, J.K., 1993. Empowerment with knowledgetoward the intelligent mold for the continuous casting of steel billets. Iron and Steelmaker 20 (11), 3547. Brimacombe, J.K., 1999. The challenge of quality in continuous casting processess. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions 30A, 18991912. Brimacombe, J.K., Sorimachi, K., 1977. Crack formation in the continuous casting of steel. Metallurgical Transactions 8B, 489505. Brimacombe, J.K. Argarwal, P.K., Baptista, L.A., Hibbins, S., Prabhakar, B., 1980. Spray cooling in the continuous casting of steel. Steelmaking Proceedings of the NOHBOS Conference (ISS-AIME), Washington, DC, pp. 109123. Brimacombe, J.K., Samarasekera, I.V., Lait, J.E., 1984. Continuous CastingHeat Flow, Solidication and Crack Formation. Iron and Steel Society of AIME, Warrendale, PA. Brimacombe, J.K., Samarasekera, I.V., Bommaraju, R., 1986. Optimum design and operation of molds for the continuous casting of steel billets. Fifth International Iron and Steel Congress, Steelmaking Proceedings, Washington, DC, No. 69, pp. 409423. Chakraborti, N., Kumar, R., Jain, D., 2001. A study of the continuous casting mold using a pareto-converging genetic algorithm. Applied Mathematical Modelling 25, 287297. Chandra, S., Brimacombe, J.K., Samarasekera, I.V., 1993. Mould strand interaction in continuous casting of steel billetsPart 3, Mould heat transfer and taper. Ironmaking and Steelmaking 20 (2), 104112. Chandra, S., Samarasekera, I.V., Brimacombe, J.K., Bakshi, I.A., Walker, B.N., 1996. Online monitoring of moldshell interaction during continuous casting of steel billets. Ironmaking and Steelmaking 23 (6), 512520. Cheung, N., Garcia, A., 2001. The use of heuristic search technique for the optimization of quality of steel billets produced by continuous casting. Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 14, 229238. Clyne, T.W., Wolf, M., Kurz, W., 1982. The effect of melt composition on solidication cracking of steel, with particular reference to continuous casting. Metallurgical Transactions 13B, 259266. El-Bealy, M., Leskinen, N., Fredriksson, H., 1995. Fluctuated cooling conditions and solid shell resistance in continuously casting steel slabs. Ironmaking and Steelmaking 22 (3), 246255. Filipic, B., Saler, V., 1998. Evolving parameter setting for continuous casting of steel. Proceedings of the Sixth European Congress on Intelligent Techniques and Soft ComputingEUFIT98, Aachen, Germany (1), pp. 444449. Fukada, N., Marukawa, Y., Abe, K., Ando, T., 1999. Development of mold (HS Mold) for high speed casting. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 38 (5), 337346. Hills, A.W.D., 1969. A generalized integral-prole method for the analysis of unidirectional heat ow during solidication. Transactions of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (AIME) 245, 14711479. Kumar, S., Meech, J.A., Samarasekera, I.V., Brimacombe, J.K., 1993. Knowledge engineering an expert systems to troubleshoot quality problems in the continuous casting of steel billets. Iron and Steelmaker 20 (9), 2936. Kumar, S., Walker, B.N., Samarasekera, I.V., Brimacombe, J.K., 1995. Chaos at the meniscusthe genesis of defects in continuously cast steel billets. 13th PTD Conference Proceedings, Nashville, TN, pp. 119141. Kumar, S., Samarasekera, I.V., Brimacombe, J.K., 1997. Mold thermal response and formation of defects in the continuous casting of steel billetslaps and bleeds. Iron and Steelmaker 24 (6), 5369.

the optimization of cooling conditions (mold and secondary cooling) for the continuous casting of steel billets and slabs. The search method supported by the knowledge base based on metallurgical criteria permits a more homogenous strand surface temperature prole to be attained and with lower thermal gradients between adjacent sprays zones. The reasonable to good agreement observed between experimental data and simulations for both billet and slab analyzed in the present study, permits to conclude that the formulations used to calculate mold and spray heat transfer coefcients are able to provide an appropriate description of heat transfer efciencies along the different cooling regions, as well as to determine the maximum casting speed to attain highest product quality. However, more accurate simulations can be achieved if particular heat transfer formulations are developed for each continuous caster by using approaches like comparison between theoretical-experimental thermal proles or data obtained from ingot microstructure.

Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the nancial support provided by FAPESP (The Scientic Research Foundation of the State of S* o Paulo, Brazil) and CNPq a (The Brazilian Research Council). Marco Ol!vio Sotelo is also acknowledged for helping with the computer programming.

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