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INTRODUCTION
world of science and has reached to this 21ST century. In pre-cuts of perfection.
He has cared much for automation and product quality which is directly co
related to electronics.
stay as the most important branch of Engineering. Electronic devices are being
used in almost all the industries for quality control and automation. They have
electronics during recent years have demonstrated that this versatile tool can be
PURPOSE OF PROJECT
agencies.
and it is not possible to attain success for every engineer. An engineer should
stability.
to deal problem from a standpoint of view of the society. The engineer ultimate
efficiency. The DOL ( direct-on-line ) starters and star/delta starters used for
starting and running of induction motors provide coarse type of protect ions
against voltage fluctuations and single phasing. Induction motors are very
sensitive to low voltage and single phasing during which they draw a heavy
current and can burn out unless switched of within few seconds of occurrence of
motor).
distribution of electric energy for light and power, the field of application of a.c
manufacturers have tries, over the last few decades, to perfect various types of
a.c. motors suitable for all classes of industrial drives and for both single &
three phase a.c. supply. This has given rise to bewildering multiplicity of types
motors may however, be classified and divided into various groups from the
A) Synchronous motors
B) Asynchronous motors
a) Induction motors
b) Commutator motors
i) single phase
i) constant speed
mechanical power takes place in the rotating part of an electric motor .In
demotors, the electrical power is conducted directly to the armature (i.e. rotating
part) through brushes and commutator . Hence, in this sense, a dc motor can be
called a conduction motor. However , in a c motors, the rotor does not receive
electric power by conduction hut by induction in exactly the same way as the
secondary of a 2-winding transformer receives its power from the primary. That
is why such motors are known as induction motors. Infact, an induction motor
is the one which is extensively- used for various kinds of industrial drives. It has
Advantages :
Disadvantages:
efficiency.
load.
motor.
Construction
a) Stator
stampings which are slotted to receive the windings. The stator carries a 3 phase
winding and is fed from a 3phase supply. It is wound for a definite number of
poles the exact number of poles being determined by the requirements of speed.
Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa. The sattor
windings, when supplied with 3 phase currents, produce a magnetic flux which is
b) Rotor
ii) Phase –wound or wound rotor :- Motors employing this type of rotor
‘slip-ring’ motors.
THE CIRCUIT
with a DOL starter, the internal diagram of the same is given in Fig. 1. The three
phases (R. Y, and B) entering the starter are passed via fuses Fl, F2. and F3. The
current rating of the fuses would depend on contactor and motor current ratings.
The three phases from the DOL starter are extended to the automatic starter
circuit of Fig. 2 via points marked R ', Y', and B'. The other points which are to
be extended to Fig. 2 are marked C through F. All the points marked identically
contacts of relays RLI and RL2 in on and off conditions. These are discussed
below.
operation of the DOL starter, without protections offered by the circuit of Fig. 2,
is possible. The C and D points are shorted (via switch S1 in off position)
whereas E and F points remain open. in this state, relay contacts have no effect
operation of start switch s6. Please note that red ( R ) phase is always connected
gets extended to the other side of contactor coil through switch S6 (in depressed
state) , normally made contacts of stop switch s5 (red button) and shorted C and
D points (via switch S1 in off position). Once the contactor coil is energised, it
is latched via its own contact marked '5 ' and closed dry run points D1 and D2
to provide alternate path for B phase to the contactor coil. All three phases (R.
Y, and B) are extended to the induction motor via the closed contacts of the
connected to bottom end of transformer X2. In this state, sensing circuit and B-
Y phase detector circuits of Fig. 2 are effective. If all phases are available and
voltages are within proper limits, relay RL1 will get energized (as explained
later in the text) to close contacts C and D. However, contacts E and F remain
open irrespective of the state of relay RL2 (contacts of relayRL2 come in parallel
with the contacts of start switch, provided switch S2 is on. Thus in this condition,
although safety circuits are functional, auto starting is not feasible. Manual start
button S6 has to be pressed for starting the induction motor. This mode of
circuit (for under/over voltages and single phasing) as well as auto start circuits
are operational. The effect of switch S1 and relay RL1 has already been
explained above. Relay RL2, which remains, on for a short while, along with
start switch S6 to provide auto start/restart facility when 3-phase voltages are
induction motor after it has operated for a pre-programmed period selected with
the help of rotary switch S4. During mode 1 (switch 1 on and switch 2 off)
operation when switch 3 is on, the induction motor will be switched off when
power resumes (and if all phase voltages are within limits), the motor can be
restarted with the help of start switch manually, provided the programmed
switch S3 is on, the motor will keep restarting automatically whenever power
resumes (or all 3-phase voltages become all right) until the programmed
circuit of Fig. 2 is derived from R and Y phases, using two mains transformers
DPDT slide switch S1. Their secondaries rated at 6V-0-6V AC, 200mA are also
voltage conditions. The output across capacitor C1, after passing through diode
(ICI). The regulated output of ICI regulator is used for powering the entire
DESCRIPTION :
counters are advanced one count on the negative transition of each clock pulse.
The counters are reset to the zero state by a logical “I” at the reset input
independent of clock.
CHARACTERISTICS ;
3. Its lower power Transistor Logic is Fan out of two driving 741. or one
driving 74LS.
b) In Small-out-line 500 MW
and input voltage Vin is volts to VBD. Its operating temperature range ( T1) is
10o C to + 85o C.
DESCRIPTION .
power supply over a wide range. Operation from split power supply current
also have a unique characteristics that the input common-mode voltage includes
analog to digital converter, pulse, square wave any time delay generator. It has a
wide range of Vco. MOS clock timers multivibrators and single voltage digital
logic gates. This series was designed to interface directly with TTI and CMOS
logic where its law power drain is a distance advantage over other standard
comparators.
SILENT FEATURES :
1. If gives wide supply voltage range. Dual supply varies from 2 VDC to 36
4. It has low triasing current nearly about 25 mA and input offset current
upto ± 5 nA.
9. It’s output voltage is compatible with TTl, DTL, ECL and CMOS logic
system.
ADVANTAGES :-
DESCRIPTION :
self contained having fixed voltage capability upto 1.5 amperes load current and
input voltage upto 15ov. It has a unique feature to set the output voltage on
chips. The 7809 version is now much improved with load regulation
characteristics.
voltage can he increased through us of simple voltage divider. The low quiescent
drain current of device insures good regulation when this method is used. In this
we give positive dry battery voltage to input terminal of 4809 and get + 9v.
SILENT FEATURES :
3v.
time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external
resistive and capacitive for a stable operation as an oscillator, the free running
frequently and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled. With two external
resisters and capacitors. The ckt. May be triggered 7 reset on falling waveform
and the output structure can source or sink upto 200 ml. Or drive TTL ckt.
temperature ratings. The general purpose type NE – 555 operates reliably only
FEATURES
1. Timings from microseconds to hours
2. Operates in both stable & monostable modes
3. Adjustable duty cycle
4. High current output, can source or sinks zero ma.
5. Output can drive TTL
6. Temperature stability of 0.005/ deg. Centigrade.
7. Normally ON and normally OFF output.
APPLICATIONS .
1. Precision Timings
2. Pulse Generation
3. Sequential Timing
2. 2. Power dissipation - 60 mw
4. NE - 555
The external connections facilities for free tuning and self triggering mode for
operation are shown. The three equal register R for the deference level of upper
STUDY OF COMPONENTS
a) Capacitor
b) Transistors
c) Resistors
d) Diodes
a) CAPACITOR :
of two parallel metal plates separated by layer of air or some other insulating
material that is, dielectrode such as ceramic, mica etc. The capacitor ‘C’ of
1. Electrolite Capacitors
2. Air Capacitors
3. Paper Capacitors
4. Polystyrene Capacitors
these different capacitors in general each type of capacitors is based in its own
operating range.
b) TRANSISTORS
c) RESISTORS :-
Current to a predetermined value Resisters are made in many sizes and shapes
and in a variety of materials. The wire wound type makes use of a special alloy
wire or ribbon as the resistance element and is wound on an insulting form with
metal deposited. On insulating form. Both the carbon and the deposited metal
types are low current units and are available in resistance values from several
ohms to as high as mega ohm and is having voltage rating from ½ watts to 2
d) DIODES :--
region and an N - type region in the same crystal structure. There are different
1. Zener Diodes.
4. Photo Diodes
5. Tunnel Diodes
6. Varacter Diodes
rapidly and a number of new Opto-electronic product have come in the market of
various types, sizes & colours of LEDs have been developed to unit all
requirements.
reversed biased, it does not conducts and hence does not emit light. When the
diode is in forward biased, electrons are moved from N-side conduction band to
the P-side valance band. In making this transitions the electrons cross the
energy gap 'E.g.' that separates the two bands and hence they radiate energy. In
ordinary rectifier diode this energy is given off as heat but in Light emitting
operating voltage are much more than the forward voltage v.f. (2F), then first
Precaution to be taken is to see that the LED does not exceed the maximum rated
Polarity of LED :
an anode and the other with larger area in an anode and other with larger area
in cathode. Usually in red LEDs the terminal is shorten than the other. The
General Description
available with several fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range
HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment. Although designed primarily as
fixed voltage regulators these devices can be used with external components to
TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0 A load current if adequate heat sinking
is provided. Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current to a safe
value. Safe area protection for the output transistor is provided to limit internal
power dissipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the heat
sinking provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from
overheating.
LX78XX series of regulators easy to use and minimise the number of external
components. It is not necessary to bypass the output, although this does improve
transient response. Input bypassing is needed only if the regulator is located far
RELAYS :-
various in the conditions of one electric circuit and thereby affect the operation
circuits. The term "relay " does not over devices, such as magnetic starters,
Control systems. There may be a total of several hundred various relays in some
of them.
relationship. The output y jumps from y1 to y2 only after the input x has
changed to x2 ( the subscript “0” stand for “operate” ). Any further increase in
x will not affect the value of y. As the value of x falls stands for “release”, the
opposite of “operate”.
start its contents and to complete its function after a control signal
has been
that any further increase in the pull will cause the relay to pick up.
after the armature just starts off, until the relay completes its
intended function.
which the relay controls. Accordingly, all relays are classified as electric,
i. Electromagnetic.
ii. Moving-coil.
iii. Inductive.
iv. Electronic
iii) Hifh-power ( 10 W )
i) Quick-response.
ii) Normal
iii) Delay.
fact that when the control current is fed to the -winding of the electric magnet its
core gets magnetised and attracts the armature. The movement of the armature
of relay action. These relays can be utilised for direct current of any polarity and
pull in armature.
TRANSFORMER :-
electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the
inductive coils which are electrically separated but magnetically linked through
in the-laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it
flows in it and so electric energy is transferred from the first coil to the second
coil. The first coil. in which electric energy is fed from the a. c. supply mains, is
called primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is called
iv) Where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of
each other.
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION :
coils having mutual inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are
insulated from each other and the steel core. Other necessary parts are : some
suitable container for the assembled core and windings, a suitable medium for
insulating the core its windings from its container : suitable bushings ( either of
porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor - type ) for insulating and bringing out the
path with the minimum of air gap included. The steel used is of high silicon
content, some times heat treated to produce a high permeability and low
hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux. Densities. The eddy current loss is
minimised by laminating the core, the laminations being insulated from each
other by a light coat of core - plate varnish or by an oxide layer on the surface.
0.5 mm for a frequency of 25 Hz. The core laminations are joined as shown in
fig.
types. Distinguished from each other merely by the manner in which the primary
and the secondary coils are placed around the laminated steel core. The two
2. Shell – type
FABRICATION UNIT
copper foil. The final is shaped by etching the copper in a chemical. The copper
foil acts as a wire, or conductor in the ckt. Components parts like resistors,
transistors and capacitors are soldered to the conductive foil to complete the
Production of PCBs.
film master on the copper clad laminate is done by two methods. They are
1. Photo Printing
2. Screen printing
expensive though accurate. The screen process uses a resist ink applied
throughout a stencil or mask to the surface of the blank circuit board. The stencil
is produced and attached to the fine mesh, metal, polyester, nylon or silk screen.
The resist ink is kept forced through openings in the stencil on to the surface of
the blank board. This process produces a positive of the cleb on the copper foil.
When dry, the board is ready for etching. In our project instead of stencil we
Etching Process
For preparing etching solution take one part of ferrite chlorides in power form
with two parts of water heat the solution upto 40 o C to 50o C till the vapour just
starts forming, add a small quantity of HCL for fast etching action the quantity
of solution required should be just enough to immerse the PCB. Give some base
to the PCB so that it does not touches the bottom of the container. Always keep
the printed circuit side on the upper side. For fast action of etching stir the
solution without disturbing PCB. By this process the copper other than the areas
which are covered by point is etched away. Continue the process for 45 min. By
holding the board in light it can be seen that, whether the board is completely
etched or not ?
solution changes from yellow to green. Wash the board under running water and
remove the paint. After etching give a coat of varnish to the PCB so that it
remain shining.
final equipment reliability as the circuit design or PCB design and fabrication.
minimum trace is introduced on the solder joint. During bending the component
lead no damage to the component should occur. The bend lead should fist into
the holes perpendicular to the board so that any trace on the component lead
junction is minimised.
the PCB. In double sided PCBs, the component side is usually opposite to the
requirement.
and then soldered. The IC sockets are available in the market. These sockets are
available in the market. These sockets are first mounted and leads of the sockets
part of the lead coming out, must be cut with a cutter. It is recommended that
before soldering the lead the extra portion of the lead must be cut and then
soldered. The lead cutting after soldering is still common in the smaller
fabricate total unit after testing of each component and after preparing power
supply for unit. The circuit works successfully and we get results which are given
8-pin dual comparator LM393N (IC3) in DIL (dual-in-line) package. The output
of the two comparators (at pins 1 and 7) has been combined in a wired-OR
fashion. This output is high as long as sampled voltages being monitored are
within precept limits. When sampled voltages are out of limits, the wired-OR
is used as reference voltage for both the comparators. The potmeter VR1 is so
adjusted that when the phase-to-phase (R-Y) input voltage across primary of
transformer (X1 and X2 combined) is less than a specific desired level (sav 350V
RMS), the voltage at its contact goes less than 4.2 volts. Thus, the output of
comparator IC2( b ) and also the wired-OR output goes low, irrespective of
the voltage between R-Y phases exceeds certain desired value (say 480V AC
RMS), the voltage at its wiper contact goes higher than 4.2 volts, and the output
of comparator IC2( a ) goes low. Thus, we observe that whenever the R-Y phase-
to-phase voltages are beyond acceptable limits, the output of comparator goes
low to switch off the motor after a delay of four seconds, as explained in the
following section.
suitable (i.e. all 3 phases are present and the phase-to-phase voltages are also
within limits), if all conditions are all right (at the time of start-with slide switch
would take about 12 seconds to make pin 2 of 555 high, so that its output
(at pin 3) goes low to cut off transistor T3. As a result, base of transistor T4 gets
forward biased via resistor R9 (andR13 ) to energise relay RL1 to short points C
and D (refer Figs 1 and 2) through its contacts, and energise contactor in the
DOL starter of Fig. 1 via the start switch ( in pressed state) or due to
covered under ‘Auto start unit’ subheading ). Thus motor starts after an on-time
delay of 12 seconds.
voltage condition, its output goes low and capacitor C'4 discharges via
resistance R4. This will take about jour seconds before it causes pm 2 of IC3
logo low or its output to go high, which in turn causes de-energisation of relay
RLI to eventually switch off the motor. This is the off-time delay which allows the
motor not to s-witch off if the voltage returns to normal state within this 4-
second period. If the voltage does not return to normal state within this period
then only the motor is s-witched off. This avoids unnecessary switching off of the
occurs, the motor will continue to run on remaining two phases, drawing heavy
load current. This would result in overheating of windings and its eventual
employed here is very simple and it has the capability to sense all three phases ,
supply to the circuit and relays RBI and RL2 will he in de-energised state and
the motor is, therefore. Switched off. In Y-B single phase detector part of the
circuit, the diode D12 in Y phase path rectifies the voltage before potential
divider network, comprising resistors R16 and R17, reduces the voltage with
respect to phase B. Capacitor C7 smooth the voltage across resistor R17. If this
voltage is greater than 27V, zener D11 as well as the diode inside opto-coupler
cut off. This causes the compactor output to he applied to pin 2 of timer NE555
without any change (modification). But in case the B-phase voltage is very low,
discharging capacitor C4 via resistor R5. As a result, pin 2 of timer 555 would
go low immediately and eventually switches off relay RLI to cut off the con
Many auto start units are available in the market. The auto start circuit
comprises the circuitry around relays RL1 and RL2 (and their contacts), slide
state is reached. The capacitor C.6 will he charged through resistor R11.
However, the base of transistor T5 will he held to ground potential by diode D6,
which is forward biased due to the condition of transistor T3. As a result, relay
RL2 will he in off state due to non-conduction of transistor T5. When NE555 IC
changes its out-put state from high to low after 12 seconds, diode D6 will he
will get discharged via resistor R11 and transistor T5 will come to conduction
stale due to the positive voltage at its base. As a result, relay RL2 will get
energised. The discharge action of capacitor C6 continues for about two seconds
‘Functions of relays and switches’ subheading. After two seconds, the base of
transistor T5 will fall to ground potential and relay RL2 will he switched off.
However, relay RLI will continue to he on and hold the motor in on stale.
comprising resistor R24 and capacitor C8, is selected lo gel an approximate off-
time delay of 20 minutes at Q7, 45 minutes at Q8, 1.5 hours at Q9, 3hours at
Q1O, 6 hours at Q11, 12 hours at Q12 , and 24 hours at Q13 out-put. The timer
is not affected by power cuts as it is provided with a backup, using a 9V, PP3
battery. The timer function comes into play when switch S3 is flipped to on
position.
absence of any forward bias voltage at its base. This forward biases diodeD14,
which makes pin II of the counter high and the counter suspends further
counting. When power resumes, the counter proceeds further and the time count
is thus not lost. The same thing occurs when an unhealthy condition of line is
detected. Pin 3 of timer 555 goes high and diode D13 causes suspension of
counting. When the final count is reached, the corresponding output pin of IC5
goes high. The IC5 output is coupled to pin 11 via diode D12 to suspend the
counting. At the same time this high output is also connected to the base of
transistor T3, which starts conducting and takes the base of transistor T4 to cut-
rotary switch S4 and then flip switch S3 on to start the timer. To reset the timer
S1is on and R-Y phase supplies and 9V output from the regulator ICI are
available. LED2, when on, indicates that relay RL1 has energised. LED3 is on
Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 3 . The component layout/or the PCB is given in Fig 4.
All switches, relays, and transformers are to he mounted externally. As the B-Y
phase detector circuit contains high voltages, it is recommended to cut out the
phase detector part up lo opto-coupler from the PCB and install the same
externally. Only the output leads from the opto-coupler may be soldered on to
PARTS LIST
Semiconductors :
IC 3 - NE555 timer
IC 5 - MC2TE opto-coupler
D 1-D3,D5-D10,
R4 - 47-kilo-ohm
R6 - 220-kilo-ohm
R11, R 14 - 4.7-kilo-ohm
R15 - 470-kilo-ohm
R22 - 22 –kilo-ohm
R23 - 1-mega-ohm
R26 - 22-kilo-ohm 1W
Capacitors :
Miscellaneous
- Battery PP9V
7-throws
- DOL starter
Bergstrip connectors-male/female
REFERENCE