APT Unit-1 1

ADVANCE PRODUCTIVITY TECHNIQUES

UNIT NO.1
Q.1 Explain in detail the cycle of production functions.
Ans:
Delivery products Customer Market information

Inspect Distribution sales sale forecast

Products

Quality
control finance

Production budget
Finished
products

Manufac- work schedules

turing Engineering

Issue material
Material Drawing
Delivery Procurement Prodn specifications
Planning and standards
& control
Inventory
Control
Material Material
Requisitions schedules
Legend:
Instructions
Material flow
Progress report

Fig. Cycle Production Functions

The cycle starts and ends with the customer:
1) The sales department studies the reception of products
in the market and consumer reaction to new modifications
and designs. Market research is also carried out
regarding proposed new products.
2) The collected data are analyzed by the sales
department, which prepares a sales forecast.
3) A production budget is prepared by the financial
department, in consultation with the manufacturing
department.
4) The engineering department is instructed to prepare
drawing, parts list, specifications or to check and modify
existing ones.
5)The technical information is obtained from the
engineering department (including drawings, part lists,
APT Unit-1 2

specifications, standards, etc.) and passed on to the

planning section.
6) One of the first functions of the production planning
and control department is to be well informed about
availability of materials and expected delivery dates
of materials already ordered. Production planning is
carried out and detailed schedules are prepared.
7) The inventory levels are checked to determine the
orders for procurement of materials and standard parts
that have to be issued. Parts and assemblies that are
sub contracted are also ordered by the purchasing
department.
8) The production planning section supplies complete
data on methods, machine loading, and utilization, as well
as production schedules, to the control section for
dispatching.
9) The product is manufactured as per the given
specifications.
10) Inspection orders are released. The purpose of
quality control during the production process is to
ensure that specifications as laid down are confirmed
with.
11) The products after passing through various
channels of distribution reaches to customer.
12) The customer after comparing the product
characteristics with those of its competitors and with his
expectations, is ready to contribute his views and
reactions to market researchers.

Q.2. Define the production system. Quote the examples

of a production system . OR
What is system? Give examples of production system. How
it is distinguished.
APT Unit-1 3

Ans: The definition of production is modified to

include the system concept by stating that a production
system is the design process by which elements are
transformed into useful products.

INPUT CONVERSION OUTPUT

PROCESS

Element Transformation Use of products

Material Machine Products
Data Interpretation Knowledge
Energy skill service
Variable Fixed Cost Revenue

Fig. Block diagram and examples of a production system.

A process is an organised procedure for
accomplishing the conversion of inputs into outputs as
shown in fig. A unit of output normally requires several
types of inputs. In an industrial process, the inputs
account for most of the variable cost of production.
Conversion facilities are associated with fixed cost,
and the output produces the revenue. Elementary
accounting declares that profit depends on the
relationship of variable and fixed cost to revenue the
interaction of input and conversion costs to output
revenue.
Example of production system :-
The production of any component or service can be
viewed in terms of a production system. For example, the
manufacture of furniture involves such inputs as wood,
glue, nails, screws, pains, sand paper, saw, workers
etc. After these inputs are acquired, they must be
APT Unit-1 4

stored until ready for use. Then several operations, such

as sawing, nailing, sanding and painting can occur
through which inputs are converted into such outputs as
chairs, tables etc. After the finishing operation, a
final inspection occurs. Then the outputs are held in
stock rooms until they are shipped to the customers.
Any system is a collection of interacting components.
Each component could be a system into itself in a
descending order of simplicity. Systems are distinguished
by their objectives. The objective of one system could be
to produce a component that is to be assembled with other
components to achieve the objective of a larger system.
More sophisticated techniques are required to deal with
more complex systems. It is a nip-and-tuck race
between the development of ever more intricate system
and the development of capable management tools to
control them.

Q 3. What are the importance of system synthesis? OR

"System synthesis is a cause to effect
process that integrates the elements of production"
Discuss. OR Explain in detail `System synthesis ‘
Ans:

Human
Factor
Planing Analysis

Machines Material control

Management

Fig. The central position of system synthesis.

APT Unit-1 5

System synthesis is effectively pictured by

its core position in the emblem of this text. As shown
in fig, systems synthesis incorporates planning,
analysis, and control throughout the production function.
It is concerned with people, machines, and materials from
a perspective that emphasizes the integration of
production activities for the benefit of the total system.
Fulfilling this objective is as difficult as the goal is
worthwhile.A broad perspective demands that allegiance to
pet the smaller systems considered at lower levels and
the adjacent environment.

Q.4. What are the various attributes of productivity

measurement?
Ans. The various attributes of productivity measurement
are :
1. Measure both firm and operating units (ideally,
the measure should aggregate so that the firm’s total
productivity is the sum of the productivity of its
component parts).
2. Be understandable and reasonably easy to calculate-
less complex formulas are usually better understood by
employees and requires less time for data collection
(ideally, the formula should be compatible with the
organization’s accounting system).
3. Be accurate enough to present a realistic assessment-
perfect accuracy is an unreasonable expectation and is
not cost effective (ideally, the measure should provided
a consistent gauge of significant operations from one
period to the next).
4. Be insulated from changes in monetary values and
external
APT Unit-1 6

disruptions-factors that a firm cannot control should not

distort the measure of performances it does control
(ideally, an index tracks the efficiency of the
utilization of key resources within the organization).
5. Stimulate motivation by associating measurements
with achievable objectives- define criteria for productive
performance that are modest enough to be an incentive but
have standards that are a challenge for improvement
(ideally, trade off proportions among criteria would be
clearly evident, as in time versus cost, versus quantity,
versus quality.)
6. Make the measurement system practical-data to fuel the
system should be obtainable without excessive effort, and
the mechanism for generating ratings should operate with a
minimum administrative burden (ideally, the people whose
performance is being measured should participate in
designing the system, in collecting data, and in
monitoring results, as well as in the recognition process
that rewards superior productivity).

Q.5.Explain in detail the total productivity index. OR

Define and explain total productivity index.
Ans. Total productivity Index is a single figure that
expresses the efficiency of an entire organization.
Its formulation includes an inclusive statement of the
value of the product or service produced and a
summary value for all of its inputs. Dollar dimensions
are typically used for both the numerator and denominator
to allow diverse products and resources to be
expressed in equivalent terms. The familiar ratio of
output/labour hours approaches a total productivity index
only when the organization is extremely labour intensive.
A measure of total productivity is obtained from
APT Unit-1 7

Product + Service
Total productivity index = -------------------------------
Labour + Material + Energy +
Capital
From this basic expression, adoptions can be made to
represent more closely the functions of a particular
organization. The intent of customizing the index is to
reflect the firm’s objectives. Consequently, many
versions have been developed. For instance, one
organization might believe that purchases of raw material
represent some one else’s productivity effort and should
therefore be excluded from the user’s input. Other firms
with larger material inputs might disagree that the
exclusion is justified. Still another firm might have
small and constant energy usage, suggesting that the
energy input can be ignored in the model. An aluminum
producer would, of course, feel differently. One of
many possible total productivity models has the
following formula :
Sales + Inventory change + Plant
Total Productivity Index = ------------------------------
Labour + Material + Services
+ depreciation + investment.

Q.6. Define the productivity ratio. OR

In productivity ratio, why distribution factors
should be considered in concert with output and input.
Ans. The basic productivity ratio,
Output
Productivity = ---------
Input
can be applied to almost any human endeavor. As a
measure of production efficiency, the ratio commonly
takes the form of output per labour hours, with dollars
or production units as the dimension of the numerator.
But the ratio to be adapted to rate most production
APT Unit-1 8

functions. For instance, the ratio could take the

following forms:

Paper processed Materials handled

productivity = ---------------- OR ------------------
Labour hours Labour hours

Patient bed days student credit hours

= --------------- OR ------------------
Staffing hours Number of teachers

The preferred ratio is the one that best fits the

mission, character and resources of the organization.
An increase in productivity occurs when the output-
to-input ratio rises from one period to the next.
An increase in production does not necessarily lead to a
productivity increase. For example, productivity rises
when the output/input ratio goes from.
What is done with a productivity increase
affects opportunities for future gains. If a higher
quantity of output is involved in the productivity rise,
there has to be a demand for the additional output, or
benefits from the gain cannot be realized. Similarly,
continued gains cannot be sustained unless those
responsible for the increased productivity share the
resulting benefits. Therefore distribution factors
should be considered in concert with output and input.

Q.7. Explain in detail the system theory.

Ans. System Theory : The study of the system controls is
a rapidly growing field of management research. Various
labels have been pinned to the effort, with the most
intriguing one called cybernetics. A thermostat used to
control the heating system of building is the classic
example. A furnace produces the heat. The temperature
APT Unit-1 9

of the building it heats is measured by thermometer. A

thermostat compares the actual temperature with the
desired temperature to regulate the heat. The key to
operation is feedback; information about deviations from
the system’s objectives feeds back to regulate inputs and
thereby control the process.
Some physical mechanisms for self-regulation are
easily visible, such as the old Watt governor for steam
engines. Although the basic principle is the same as
that shown in figure 2.9, highly complex mechanical-
electrical systems and management systems use more
sophisticated feed back loops and regulators.
Feed back loop Feed back loop

Monitor (decision rules)

Process

Fig 2.9 Input, Output, and process control.

Managers relay on the flow of information from above,
below and across for the feed back that connects input
to output. When executives monitor the flow to regulate
input, they do so by applying their decision rules to
output feedback. A kind of self-regulating system emerges
when these decision rules are passed to sub-ordinates in
the form of policies and rules that allow then to control
the process input without the executive’s attention.
Systems theory encourages the identification of
significant interactions and the consideration of their
combined influence on a decision. Although it may seem
like a step backward,“ the first step in applying systems
theory is to understand the functions of the system’s
individual parts and thereby be able to recognize what
APT Unit-1 10

factors could affect then.“ In subsequent chapters, we

shall investigate the evolution tools suggested by systems
theory, but before then, it is necessary to become
familiar with the production functions within the
production system.

Q.8. What is system’s approach? Discuss. OR

"A `System Approach’ to management is a password
to current, fashionable thinking" Discuss.
Ans. “ A Systems approach to management is a password to
current, fashionable thinking. Today we have "Weapons
System" designed by "Systems engineers" and evaluated
by "System analysis" .The modern emphasis is not
surprising in a production context, because more
complicated outputs logically require more intricate
conversion process. We also have the high-speed data-
processing potential to integrate and control the refined
processes.
A fascinating part of the system approach is
that a system can be almost anything you want it to
be. The formal view interprets a system as a
collection

Regional Regional
System system

Purchasing shared purchasing

System sub system system

Fig.System boundaries within the organizational structure.

of functional components interacting to achieve an
objective. A person working with a machine is a
system. The operator-machine system is just a
APT Unit-1 11

component in the production line system and so on, systems

within systems within.........
If we let a triangle, as in fig. represent the
hierarchical structure of management, the system concept
will be illustrated by the meandering borders of the
shaded areas. Within each of these areas are the parts
of the organization related by a common objective, often
a particular problem to solve. The purchasing function
could be a system with the objective of acquiring
materials economically and on time. Another system
could be a division according to shared regional
interests, with the objective of serving markets within a
defined geographical section. The boundaries of the
systems probably would overlap. Then the ancient problem
of serving two master is created for the shared portion of
the organization.

Q.9.Explain planning, analysis & control of production

system.
Ans. The end product of planning, analysis, and
control efforts is a decision. The techniques associated
with each phase of an evaluation are useful only if they
contribute to that end. Mathematical tools provide a
degree of confidence that is lacking with intuitive
judgment, but hunch aspects will always be a part of
decision making. Intuition informally embraces past
experiences and current events to provide a "feeling"
for a particular action. Any gambler knows that hunch
players sometimes win; yet even the player cannot say why
or how. Perhaps hunch explanations are just beyond the
ken of our current knowledge; in the meantime it is
comforting to explain the why’s and how’s in quantitative
terms whenever possible. Therefore, though recognizing
APT Unit-1 12

the value and need of intuitive judgment, we shall

emphasize the quantitative analytical methods leading
to decisions.
Planning, analysis, and control are more descriptive
of the mental set of a decision-maker than of a rigid
problem solving procedure. Each phase is distinguished by
an objective to anticipate, to investigate, to
regulate, to design. The definition of the objective
points to the most suitable quantitative technique and
acts as a guide to information collection. An
evaluation of an existing system might have the objective
of reducing costs & would likely begin with an analysis
of current operating conditions and procedures. The
results of the analysis phase could lead to planned
improvements for which the collected data would fuel
planning and control efforts. Later the entire system
could be subjected again to all three phase, starting with
planning based on a new technological development.
Objectives to update and to improve a system
continually direct recurring studies in the pattern shown
in fig.

Recurring
Study cycles
In a production Process or control
System modifications

Planning or process Planing 4 An

modification Planing 3 Analysis 3 con
Planning 2 Analysis2 Control 2
Planning 1 Analysis 1 Control 1
Time

Fig.1.2. Cycles of production, planning, analysis and

ontrol.
APT Unit-1 13

As intimated in fig. 1.2, the planning-analysis

control cycle can be entered at any of the three stages;
the point of entry is determined by the object of the
study. Consequently, the analysis section could be
encountered before the planning section. It is more
important to relate the quantitative tools and the
qualitative concept within the sections that to be
concerned about the relationship among the sections.

Q.10. Explain in detail the factors influencing

productivity in manufacturing system.
Ans. FACTORS AFFECTING PRODUCTIVITY IN MANUFACTURING
AND SERVICES.
1. Product or System Design.
2. Machinery and equipment.
3. The skill and effectiveness of the worker.
4. Production Volume.
1. Product (or system) design.
If through better product design, a product
can be simplified by eliminating some of its parts, it is
obvious that the material these pieces are made of will
no longer be needed. or will the equipment, tooling,
and labour to make them be required. Value Analysis
can bring out many product design changes that improve
productivity. R & D is a vital contributor to improved
product design. Standardization of product and the use
of group technology are other design factors that
make possible greater productivity in the factory.
2. Machinery and equipment.
Once the product is designed, then how it is made
offers the next opportunity for productivity
improvement. The equipment used machines, tools,
conveyers, robots, the way the factory is laid out all
APT Unit-1 14

are important. Computer has helped design the products

(CAD), it helps operating complicated machine tools (
CNC machines) and it controls the inventory of
material and parts. It has become an essential
ingredient in productivity improvement.
3.Skill and effectiveness of the worker.
The trained and experienced worker can do the same
job in a much shorter time and with far greater
effectiveness than a new one.
However, even the well-trained employees must be
motivated to be productive.
4. Production Volume.
Assume that the volume of output is to be doubled.
The number of direct workers would have to be doubled
and a few indirect workers might also be needed. But
there would probably not be a need for more engineers,
research scientists, head quarters staff people or
other support personnel. So if the output is doubled,
the productivity of these support people is in effect
doubled.

Q.11. What is system performance ?

Q.12. Define following terms.
1. Total productivity Index.
2. Productivity Ratio.

Q.13. What are the characteristics of functional

division of an organization?‚
Ans. Most functional divisions of an organization exhibit
the following characteristics:
1. Regardless of the division of functional areas, they
overlap. Overlapping areas often require special
APT Unit-1 15

attention and usually provide high returns for control

effort.
2. Links between functional areas form a communication
net work by which activities of an organization are co-
ordinated.
3. Management actions within all functional areas are
basically the same. The administrative duties generally
common to all subsystems include planning, organizing,
staffing, directing and controlling. Such recurring
patterns give rise to the "Universal truths" or "Rules"
of good management. They also add substance to the
"generalist" role of the manager: good executives operate
effectively regardless of the production system’s
output or organization.
4. Each functional area can be divided, subdivided, and
redivided again and again to reveal ever-smaller operating
components. Multiple divisions help define
responsibilities, but they increase the danger of
conflicts from overlapping areas of influence. One section
of the purchasing function is procurement. Part of
procurement is the legal division. One source of legal
advice is the clerical subsection. And on and on
As shown in fig.

other
Procurement offices
Section legal sections,
Div sion clerical department
etc.

purchasing Procurement legal sub clerical sub

function sub-function sub-function sub-function
Fig.2.11 Operational subsections within basic
functions.
APT Unit- 4 16

UNIT NO.2
Q14. What are the steps required for model development?
OR
What is the basic approach to model development?
Ans. 1) Ascertain the need of the user. What is the
problem? How will the model be used? When is it needed?
2) Identify the component of the system. What machines,
what material handling system, what storage locations
will be used?
3) Determine the pattern of workflow through the system.
Do all jobs follow the same path? what diversity
rooting is there?
4) Find the typical values of key parameter, what are
the production targets.
5) Choose the modeling approach. Use simulation or
analysis models?
6) Identify the performance measure of interest to the
user. Which aspect of performance are more important,
which are less so? What are the economic and social
consequences of the system failing to meet its owner’s
goals?
7) Develop a preliminary model in order to obtain some
results quickly and to develop the communication with
the user that a model demands in order for the user to
be convinced that the modeler understands the
situation.
8) Produce some results using the model and access their
accuracy. This step will also serve to make the user aware
of the data which use of model will require.
9) Develop a more detailed model and collect necessary
data. Several decisions may required in order to develop
an adequate model.
APT Unit- 4 17

10) Document, implement, and educate the user in the use

of the model. What can it do? What can it not do? How
accurate is it likely to be?
Q15) Explain in detail the seven-digit system of
codification.
Explain Nine-digit system of codification?
1 05 05 04 06

Size

Specification

Shape / form

Basic Metal

Primary category

In this system, the materials are divided into the

following categories represented by first digit of the
code number i.e. first digit represents primary category
such as 1. Metals 2. Insulating materials 3. Insulated
cables etc.
The second and third digit indicates the basic metal.
4th and 5th digit indicates the shape or form of the
material. This means that first five digits codify the
material into a basic category and the 6th and 7th digits
are assigned to cover specification detail which have not
been controlled in the basic code. or example 105020406
means 105-Alloy steel, 02-Round steel bar.
When 2 more digit is added to seven digit system,
it be becomes 9 digit system. In Nine digit system of
codification, the size of the material is also taken care
by last two digits of code number. Thus nine-digit code
number identifies the material fully with respect to
grade, shape and size.

Q.16.What are the advantages of codification.

OR Brief out the benefits of codification.
APT Unit- 4 18

Ans. 1. Codification system is advantageous not only to

purchase department and drawing office, but also to the
pricing clerk in the cost department.
2. It eliminates ambiguity.
3. Materials and items in the store can be clearly
identified and easily located due to codification.
4. If a material is described by its trade name, as well
as by a serial number and also by its function, it is
quite likely that different quantities of the same
material might be located at three different places in
the same store. This increases size of the inventory
and creates an unnecessary confusion. Codification of
material removes this difficulty and avoids
duplication of material.
5. Facilitates data processing.

Q.17. Explain the various models of m/c breakdowns?

OR
Explain in brief models of machine breaks downs?
Ans. There are three models of m/c breakdown.
1. Machine Interference.
2. Parallel and stand by system.
3. Transfer line models.
1. Machine Interference: -
Consider a number of machines under the care of a
single operator. This operator is required to repair or
adjust each machine as the need arises. However, two or
more machines could require service at the same time.
Since the operator can only work on one at a time, the
other machine requiring attention will be idle, with
consequent loss of production. This is the classical
machine interference problem. This model also
represents a variety of other situations. Suppose each
APT Unit- 4 19

member of a group of workers requires facility from time

to time such as a grinding wheel to sharpen tools.
Another situation to which this model has been applied
arises in the steel industry. There is no of soaking
pits in which steel ingots are heated until they have
uniform temp. Then when the Contents of soaking pits are
ready the ingots are removed one at a time for rolling
the contents of one pit are rolled before the next pit is
opened.
It can be seen that the focus of machine interference
models is on determining how the performance of a system
of "Machines" is affected if they share a common facility
and only one machine at a time can use that facility.
Otherwise the machines operate independently.
The assumptions being made in the above machine
interference problem are the following.
1. There are N identical machines and a single repairman.
2. Time between failure of each machine is
exponentially differed with parameter; that is the
failure rate of a machine.
3. Repair time of a machine has an exponential
distribution with parameter.
4. Machines are served in order of failure ( FCFS, first
come first served. queue discipline)
5. The repairman is always available to repair failures
and there is no delay between the occurrence of a failure
and the beginning of repair unless the repairman is
working on another failed machines.
2)Parallel and stand by system :-
The next group of break down models looks at the
effort of using parallel or stand by machines.
Sometimes such an arrangement is used to increase
production because the gross production rate of a
APT Unit- 4 20

single machine is insufficient. In other cases, while

the gross production rate is adequate, the net
production rate is not, so stand by or other arrangement
is used.
3) Transfer line Models :-
If the machines of a production system are
connected in series so that work flows from one machine
to the neat in the line, then the failure of any
machine will result in flow being interrupted.
In a transfer line, where all jobs transfer
simultaneously, there is no inventory bank between
machines. Then failure of one machine stops all other
machines in the line at the next transfer instant. This
linkage between machines has a critical effect on the
overall performance of the system. The assumptions
being made in transfer line problem are as following
1. Jobs transfer simultaneously if all machines are
working. If any machines fail, no transfer can occur.
2. No jobs are scrapped. All jobs entering the line
eventually complete processing.
3. Time to failure has a general distribution.
4. Time to repair has a general distribution.
5. A forced down machine cannot fail.

Q.18. What are the various types of production system

models? Explain any one in detail. OR
Distinguish between Analytical Model to Simulation
Model.
Ans. There are two basic types of production models
analytic models“ and Simulation models.“
Simulation Model : A simulation model is usually able to
describe a system in considerable detail, but this means
that it does not give general rules. Simulation models
APT Unit- 4 21

are particularly useful for fine testing a design, but

they are not so useful at the initial stages when a
designer is trying to determine the order of magnitude of
key parameters.
Analytical Models:-
It can be further sub divided into
1. Exact model
2. Approximate model.
Exact meaning that the equations describing the
system can be solved and approximate meaning that, owing
to the number of equations or their numerical
characteristics, no solution can be found within a
reasonable amount of computer time or space. Thus some
assumptions are made that change the model in some way so
that solutions can be obtained. Testing the validity
of an approximate model requires the use of a
simulation model, so developing approximate models is
only worth while if the approximate model is easy to
use and by its structure provides insight into the
system behaviour. Some exact models provide algebraic
formulae while others require a computational algorithm to
be used in order to obtain numerical results.

Q.19. Compare seven digit coding system with nine digit

coding system.
Ans. “ Comparison of seven digit coding system with nine
digit coding system;
The scheme of seven-digit codification system had been
studied thoroughly and investigations revealed the
following facts:
1. The seven digit coding system was not sufficiently
flexible to take care of all the specifications, which are
likely to be issued in the future. Wherever a particular
APT Unit- 4 22

block fell short for particular group to accommodate

the new materials all the lists needed revision.
It had been noticed that in the past material code
number had been revised many times.
ii) The seven-digit system was not significancial and
sequential because, blocks of numbers had been reserved
for various grades of materials. Consequently it resulted
in allocation of more than one code number to the same
material and vice-Versa, thus resulting in duplication
of Bin-Cards.
iii) After studying the various aspects, a new
scheme of nine/digit coding system was evolved, the main
features of this system are:
a) Upto seven digit it is purely significancial system
thus reducing the charges of duplication.
b) The materials have been classified into basic“ Generic
Groups thus eliminating the chances of duplicating,
which may arise if materials are classified from
application point of view.
c) The proposed system is flexible enough to take care
of any future expansion at any stage.
d) While evolving nine digit coding structure the items
have been classified by features, which are permanent,
the basic principle of codification. Classification on
these lines ensures that there is only one number for a
material and thus eliminating the duplication of Bin
Cards.

Q.20.Explain the models of task time variability.

Ans. Another source of disturbances is variability in
the time required to perform a task. This can arise for a
variety of reasons. If tasks are performed by human
operators, then there will be an inherent variability in
APT Unit- 4 23

the time required to do them. Alternatively, due to the

variety of jobs, each with its own processing time, it
may be appropriate to treat the set of jobs is having
some probability distribution of task time.
1. No limit on In-process Inventories:
This system is represented by a queuing network with
jobs queuing at servers that represent the machines and
work stations. The classical job shop model is due to
Jackson. Assumptions follow:
1. There are M machines.
2. All jobs processed by machine have an exponential
service time with parameter.
3. Jobs are send at machine using FCFS queue discipline.
4. There is no limit on the number of jobs allowed in the
system.
5. There is no limit on the size of queue at any machine.
6. Jobs arrive at the system with exponential inter
arrival time with mean time between arrivals

Q.21. What are the principles for identifying the system?

Q.22. What do you mean by `Model Development’?

Development of a production model of a
particular class of production system involves making a
compromise between the detail of system description,
the computational requirements of model, and the time and
difficulty of model development. Simple models are easy
to develop and easy to use. However, simple models do
not include much of the reality of system behaviour. Yet
to capture all the features of a system would
generally impose an impossible modeling task. Model
development thus always involves making compromises. The
skill of the model list lies in choosing compromises
APT Unit- 4 24

that do not distort the reality of the representation of

the system by the model yet enable requires to be
obtained in a reasonable time. Often, rather than having
one model, it is desirable to have a set of models, each
focusing on different aspects of system performance.
Simpler models are more likely to lead to insight being
gained.

Q.22. Explain modification to the machine interference

model.
MODIFICATION TO THE MODEL
1 a. Machines not identical but repair time the same for
all machines. The results depend on the order in
which failed machines are repaired.
1 b. Number of repairman = S
It can be shown that
1
Po = ---------------
G(X,S,N)
G (X,S,N) = (N/n)X N
2. General distribution of time to failure. The results
for O and hence E remains unchanged if is now
interpreted as the inverse of the main time to failure.
3. General distribution of repair time. The above results
are no longer valid, see Barlow for the appropriate
results. Ashcroft has results for deterministic repair
time. In general the change from exponential to
deterministic repair time does not make a large
difference to the results.
4. Machines serviced according to some priority rule.
Various results are available for different priority
rules; for example, the repairman patrols the machines
and services the closest machine first. Another set of
models has considered what is the optimal order in which
APT Unit- 4 25

the repairman should serve the machines waiting for

repair. If the machines are not identical, then the
machine with the lowest failure rate should be served
first.

Q.23. What are the various approaches for modeling

flexible manufacturing system(FMS)?
Various approaches have been suggested for modeling
FMS. There are two main types of models, the closed
queuing and open queuing networks.
1) Closed Queuing Network:“
The closed queuing network has an equal number of
customers and pallets. The servers are the machine or
work centers of the FMS; in addition, material handling
between machines may be represented by one or more
servers. The best known approach is (AN. Q due to
solberg.
2. Open Queuing Network:
The open queuing network has a limited number of
customers in the system with an external queue of jobs
waiting release to the system. Were it not for the
external queue, the system could be modeled as an open
queuing network with a limit on the number of customers
allowed in it. An appropriate method is to analyze the
system, including the queue of jobs waiting release, as
a closed queue in which departures are immediately fed
back to the beginning of the release queue.
FOR COACHING IN SUBJECTS LIKE

O.R.T.(OPERATION RESEARCH TECHNIQUE)

THEORY OF MACHINE
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMEMT
AUTOMATIC CONTROL

CONTACT Er. RAJESH JARUDKAR PH. NO. -453117

APT Unit- 4 26

UNIT NO.3

Q.24. Explain the factors affecting make or buy decision.

OR
What are criteria for make or buy decision?
Ans. Factors to be considered in Make or Buy Decisions.
(a) Volume:- If the volume of the components to be made
are not big enough to justify capital and inventory
investment, it would be better to go for buying.
(b) Space:- If the plant is not having sufficient space
to manufacture the components; under consideration, then
evaluate the economics, and if possible buy from outside.
(c) Benefits of Specialization:-
Sometimes it is desirable to have benefit of
outside suppliers specialized ability in such cases, it
is worth while to go for buying.
(d) Demand fluctuations:-
If the demand of the certain component is
very much fluctuating in nature then it is worth while
to go for outside buying rather than making as it will
lead to huge inventory.
(e) Availability of skill:-
If the firm has not developed the skill of
making the particular component, and if the volume is
also not very big then it is advisable to buy from
outside.
(f) Quality and Quantity Aspects:-
If the item is of standard type and does not
involve any specific quality aspects such as hard ware,
channels, angles, etc. and also quantity is not very
large then it is worth for considering buying.
(g) Quicker Delivery:-
APT Unit- 4 27

If delivery is required immediately and quantity

is also large, then, purchase from outside if it is
available ready-made in the market.
(h) Cost consideration:-
If the overall incremental costs are very
less in buying than making then go for buying.
POINTS FOR MAKE DECISION
(i)Design Secrecy :- If the firm does not want that
its designs should be widely known, then it is better to
make rather than buying.
(j)Integration of plants Operation.
If the main aim of the company is to integrate the
plant operations then it is desirable to have make all
components in its premises.
(k) Distance, transportation ease:-
If the quantity is very less and it is to be
brought from quite far, then better to make rather than
to buy.
(l) Un-reliability of Suppliers:-
If the vendor is not very much reliable in
delivery time quality, or quantity etc.; then it is
desirable to go for making equipment or investing the
components rather than buying.
(m) Unusual Complex Parts:-
If the components are of unusual complex type
requiring direct supervision for maintaining the quality
then better to make rather than to buy.

Q.25. What do you mean by simplification? Discuss the

advantages of simplification.
Ans: The concept of simplification is closely
related to standardization. Simplification is the
process of reducing the variety of products
APT Unit- 4 28

manufactured(known as variety reduction) Simplification is

concerned with the reduction of product range,
assemblies, parts, materials and design. A manufacturer
may reduce the number of different types of radio sets
from a dozen to three or four to simplify his range.
Simplification makes a product, assembly or design,
simpler, less complex or less difficult.
ADVANTAGES
(1) Simplification involves fewer, parts, varieties and
changes in products; this reduces manufacturing
operations and risk of obsolescence.
(2) Since simplification reduces variety, volume of
remaining products may be increased.
(3) Simplification provides quick delivery and better
after-sales services.
(4) Simplification reduces inventory and thus results in
better inventory control.
(5) Generally speaking, Simplification implies fewer
parts and fewer the parts, the lower the production
costs.
(6) Thus, simplification reduces price of a product.
(7) Simplification improves product quality.

Q.26 What are the post effects of competition on product

design? Explain.
Whatever the proclaimed policy of the
organization, it is in fact a definition of the tactics
by means of which the company hopes to achieve a
more fundamental aim; to be competitive. Being
competitive implies that special features of the product
are offered so that potential customers will be
persuaded to exchange some of their money for the
privilege of owing or using the product, even if by doing
APT Unit- 4 29

so they are deprived of purchasing power for other

attractive commodities.
The fact can never be over stated that
competition is not confined only to articles of the same
class performing the same or similar functions. An
industrialist with limited resources who wishes to charge
some of his equipment may be torn between the desire to
buy a new are welding or a stamping machine. By having to
make a choice between these two, the industrialist has to
make a decision in a situation where the are welding and
the shaping machines are in direct competition with each
other. There are many aspects to this competitive
situation over which the manufacture has little
influence.(Such as the technical condition of the existing
equipment and the amount of maintenance it involves, or
the expected increase in productivity of the proposed new
equipment compared with the existing one, or some
financial aspects, e.g. the industrialist preferring at
this stage to invest in the cheaper of the proposed new
items, etc.)
However, competitiveness should be measured
against the general background of consumption and not
compared only with success of direct competitors.

Q.27 What is modification? Give classification of

modifications.
Q.28 Discuss the various types of design charges.
Ans. The various design charges are :
1. Design & Engineering.
2. Production planning.
3. Tooling, jigs, fixture, resetting of machines etc.
4. Purchase of special machines or equipment.
5. Changes in layout.
APT Unit- 4 30

Q.29 Explain the various functions on which the product

analysis depends.
Following are the functions on which product
analysis depends.
1. Marketing aspect.
2. Product characteristics.
i) Functional aspect.
ii) Operational aspect.
iii) Durability and Dependability aspects.
iv) Aesthetic aspect.
3. Economic Analysis.
i) The profit consideration.
ii) The effect of standardization, simplification, and
specialization.
iii) The break-even analysis.
4. Production aspect.
MARKETING ASPECT
First it is necessary to establish that the proposed
product will satisfy a demand in the market, that what it
is supposed to do and the service it can offer are
both desirable and acceptable. If no consumption is
envisaged, there is no point in proceeding with product
design.
FUNCTIONAL ASPECT
When the marketing possibilities have been
explored, the functional scope of the product has to be
carefully analyzed and properly defined. The definition
of the objective itself rarely tells us very much about
the functional scope envisaged. A washing machine, for
example, has a clearly defined objective: to wash
clothing. This does not state, however, how the
washing should be carried out, whether the machine should
APT Unit- 4 31

be capable of heating the water prior to washing, whether

rinsing or drying, or both, are to be done by the
machine, and if so by what method, and what should the
proportion be between automatic functioning and manual
supervision. A functional analysis of this kind
obviously effects the design of the machine, its
complexity, its appearance, and its price.
OPERATIONAL ASPECT:
After determining the functional aspect, the
operational aspect has then to be considered. Not only
must the product function properly, it must be easy
to handle and simple to operate. Sometimes it has to
be adaptable to various operational conditions, and very
often it is subjected to varying degrees of skill of
potential operators.
For more details see page 67 of Samuel Elion.

Q.30 Explain in brief assembly line balancing.

NOTE:- ASSEMBLY LINE = PRODUCTION LINE
Ans. Line balancing means balancing the line, for
example balancing the“ production line or an assembly
line. Suppose there are three machines (workstations) A,B
and C, which can process 5, 10 and 15 pieces per unit time
respectively and the pieces flow from A to B to C
(procedure constraint). Since A has minimum capacity, i.e.
of processing only 5 pieces per unit time naturally, work
station (or machine) B will remain idle for 50% of its
time and machine c for 66.60% of its time. It shows that
the line is unbalanced. One way to partially balance the
line is to have 3 machines of type A, 2 of type B with
every machine of type C. Another approach to balance the
line will be to give some other task to machines, B and C
so that they do not remain idle. The main objective of
APT Unit- 4 32

line balancing is to distribute tasks evenly over the

workstations so that idle time of man and machines is
minimized.
Line balancing aims of grouping the facilities Or
tasks) and workers in an efficient pattern in order to
obtain an optimum or mast promising balance of the
capacities and flow of production on assembly processes.
Tasks are grouped so that their total time is preferably
equal to or a little lesser than the time available at
each work station-this reduces the idle time.

Q.31 What are the assumptions for a line balancing study?

Following are the assumption for line balancing.
1. The activities are invisible(can not be broken down
into
2. The work method is fixed and the activity
duration is constant.
3. There is no operator fatigue or learning.
4. The cycle time must be greater than or equal to, the
maximum activity duration and the activities performed
at one workstation can not exceed the cycle time.
Q.32 Explain in detail product development process.
Ans. Product Development Procedure.
The various steps involved in developing a
product are discussed below
(a) Get new ideas,
(b) Separate the good and feasible ideas,
(c) Evaluate ideas technically,
(d) Evaluate ideas from markets point of view,
(e) Take the final decision,
(f) Get into production, and
(g) Introduce product into the market.
(a) New ideas can be obtained;
APT Unit- 4 33

(i) By Imitation.
(ii) By Adaptation.
(iii) By Invention(i.e., R and D).
(iv) From dealers and customers
(v) By advertising-asking people to send their
ideas and announcing prizes for the best idea.
(b) Separate the good, meritorious and feasible
ideas from amongst the many, received in step (a) above.
Screening of ideas may be done by a committee
consisting of managers of R and D, Production, sales
and other departments related with the product
development.
(c) The selected ideas are evaluated
technically as regards,
The method of manufacture,
Labour and equipment requirements,
Performance characteristics of the product,
Cost of manufacture, etc.
(d) Selected ideas are evaluated as regards
their acceptability by the customers.
- The first evaluation is simply a cursory
survey by salesmen.
- If the idea looks promising a nation wide market
survey can be conducted.
(e) Based on the information collected on
technical and market aspects of the new product, it is
decided finally as whether to go ahead for production
or to forget the idea.
(f) If it is decided to take up the idea,
- The product is designed,
- Equipments are ordered,
- Materials are procured.
- Workers are selected and trained.
APT Unit- 4 34

- Control systems etc., are established, and it is

decided whether to manufacture the product on mass
scale or job-lot basis.
(g) While the product is under manufacture,
preparations are done to introduce the product into the
market and to impress the market with the developed
product. The following aspects are explored:
(i) Size, location and characteristic of market,
(ii) Advertisement policies,
(iii) Appealing packaging,
(iv) Channels of distribution,
(v) Price, discount and guarantees,
(vi) Service after sale, etc.

Q.33 What are the requirements of a good product design?

Ans. REQUIREMENTS(OR CONSIDERATIONS) OF A GOOD PRODUCT
DESIGN
It is not possible to specify exactly what
constitutes a good design, but the essential
requirements are that it should bring:
(a) Customer satisfaction, and
(b) An adequate profit.
(c) In order to achieve customer satisfaction,
- The product should function correctly.
- It should possess desired degree of accuracy.
- It should have required standard of reliability.
- Product should be easy to operate e.g., a
number of controls may be operated from one position.
- Product design should be such that it is easy to
achieve accessibility for servicing. Product design
should obtain good space utilization.
- Product should be sufficiently rugged to withstand
all but exceptionally rough handling.
APT Unit- 4 35

- Product should have pleasant appearance. Colors

play an important role in product design.
- Product should be of reasonable price to compete
other products in the consumer market.
(b) Making adequate profit means that
- It should be easy to manufacture the product
within the available resources.
- Manufacturing process should be decided on the
basis of the product quantity to be manufactured.
Small parts on mass scale may be produced by Die
casting rather than the sand casting.
- The use of standard component parts wherever
possible can lead to great saving.
- A well-designed product will consist of minimum
number of parts.
- Good product design will call for minimum
number of operations.
- Good product design should not extend the throughput
time.
- A well-designed product should be easy to pack
and distribute.

Q.34 What are the advantages of standardization?

Ans. Advantages of Standardization
All sections of a company benefit to some
degree from standardization.
1. Design department
- Fewer specifications, drawings and part lists have
to be prepared and issued.
- Thus more time is available to develop new designs
or to improve established designs.
- Better resources utilization.
2. Manufacturing department
APT Unit- 4 36

- Lower unit costs.

- Better quality products.
- Accurate delivery dates.
3. Marketing department
- Marketing section gets better quality products of
proven design at reasonable prices. This leads to a
greater sales volume.
- Increased margin of profit.
- Less pressure of after-sales-services.
4. Production planning section
- Scope for improved methods, processes and layouts.
- Opportunities for more efficient tool design.
- Greatly reduced pre-production planning activities.
Fewer issues of new planning card.
5. Production control department
- Well-proven design and methods improve planning
and control.
- Chasing small batches(of products) consumes less
time.
- Fewer delays arise from waiting for
materials, instructions, tools, etc.
6. Purchase and stock control section
- Holding stock of standard items,(i.e., less
variety of materials and components) means less
paperwork and fewer requisitions and orders.
- Storage and part location can be improved.
- Because of large purchase quantities involved,
favorable purchase contacts can be made.
7. Quality control department
- Better inspection and quality control is possible.
- Operators become familiar with the work and
produce jobs of consistent quality.
- Quality standards can be more clearly defined.
APT Unit- 4 37

8. Work-study section
- Efficient break down of (limited) operations into
short repetitive cycles and effective work measurement
afford considerable opportunities for work-study.
9. Supervision - All the above points help the
supervisor to run his department efficiently and more
effectively.
- Less time is wasted in resolving production snags
such as wrong information, faulty tooling, etc.
- Reduced rejections and scrap.
10. Costing
- Costing can obtain better control by installing
standard costing.

Q.35 What are the reasons for diversification? OR

What are the factors motivating diversification?
Ans. Reasons for diversification
Given below are the reasons why companies diversify:
(A) Survival
- To offset declining or vanishing markets.
- To offset obsolete facilities.
- To offset declining profit margins.
- To compensate for technological obsolescence.
(B) Stability
- To offset seasonal slumps.
- To offset cyclical fluctuations.
- To provide balance between high margin and low
margin products.
- To maintain market share.
- To meet new products of competitors.
- To tie customers to the firm.
- To distribute risk by serving several small
markets.
APT Unit- 4 38

- To develop a strong competitive supply

position by offering several close substitute products.
(C) Productive utilization resources™
- To utilize waste or by-products.
- To make use of basic raw materials.
- To utilize excess productive capacity.
- To make use of innovations from internal
technical research.
- To make full use of management resources.
- To capitalize on a firm’s market contacts.
(D) Adaptation to change in Customer needs
- To meet the demands of diversified dealers.
- To meet the specific requests of important
groups of customers.
- To improve performance of existing products through
adding accessories.
(E) Growth
- To counter market saturation on present products.
- To reinvest earnings.
- To take advantage of unusually attractive
opportunities.
(F) Miscellaneous
- To maintain reputation for industrial leadership.
- To realize maximum advantages from the tax
structure.
- To comply with the desires(or whims) of
owners or management. Probably the easiest route to
diversification is through merger™ or acquisition.

Q.36 What is long-range planning?

Ans. The importance of product development and design
for long/range planning by management is further
emphasized by the period of time that elapses from the
APT Unit- 4 39

inception of the idea for the new design until

production starts. Some surveys in industry revealed
remarkable figures for this “incubation” period:
Automobile bodies .. .. .. .. 2 years
Automobile engines .. .. .. .. 4-7 years
Radios and television sets .. .. 6-12 months
Specialized welding equipment .. .. 6 months
Telecommunications equipment .. .. 4 years
Aircraft .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 10-15 years
Household equipment .. .. .. .. 2 years
Metal-cutting equipment .. .. .. 4-5 years
Shipbuilding(depending on size of 6-12 months
vessels; special shipbuilding designs (1-2 years
may be developed over several years) in design
and experimentation
alone)
Fashion Several weeks

In defense projects, where development and design are

rather lengthy because of the complexity of the problems
involved, some designs may become "obsolete" even before
their production has begun, as new models are being
hammered out on the drawing boards and in the testing
laboratories.

Q.37 Explain in brief various line balancing techniques.

Ans. For solving line balancing problem a number of
methods are available, for example
1. Heuristic
2. Linear Programming
3. Dynamic Programming
4. Consoal(a computer method for sequencing operations
of assembly lines)
APT Unit- 4 40

(See page 4-31 of O.P.Khanna for detail.)

Q.38 What are the different criteria for formulation of

company policy? Explain in detail with relation to
product development and design.
Ans. Company Policy
What is the product policy of an organization, and
how does it affect the design of the product? Surveys in
industry, by use of questionnaires and interrogation of
key executives of manufacturing firms, have revealed
that there is no such one policy for all concerns. One
large chain of department stores aims at offering
commodities to the public at a minimum price, whatever
the quality. In fact one may be quite sure that
articles bought at this firm cannot be obtained cheaper
anywhere else or even at the same price. The company
bases this policy on the assumption that the type of
goods it offers need not have a very long life and that,
if sold cheaply enough, the volume of sales is likely to
be very large, so that even a very marginal profit per
unit will lead to substantial gains. Other companies
(for instance, in the aircraft industry and many
precision instrument makers) define their aim as maximum
quality, whatever the cost.
In some cases the need for safety is so paramount,
that cost is of secondary importance. In other
cases, precision and prestige play an important part,
as in the case of a reputable manufacturer of
automobiles, whose main business is now in the aero-engine
field. The firm produces what may be considered the best
automobile in the world, but the number produced per annum
is rather small, and in spite of the high price of the
finished article, the firm cannot expect to yield a very
APT Unit- 4 41

high profit from this line of business alone. Another

automobile firm, on the other hand, aims at large volume
production of a low-priced car that will complete with
more expensive models by having some of their successful
and popular features and innovations. Most companies,
however, say they aim at striking a satisfactory balance
between very high quality and a reasonable price. Others
go further and endeavor to improve this balance in favor
of the customer, by improving quality and leaving the
price unchanged or by improving production methods and
offering the same quality at a reduced price.
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APT Unit- 4 42

UNIT NO.4
Q.39 Define `Delegation. In what circumstances and to
what limitations it can be applied?‚
Ans. Delegation is the process by which an individual
manager transfers part of his legitimate authority to a
subordinate but without passing on the ultimate
responsibility which has been entrusted to him by his
own superior.
OR
Delegation means assigning work to others and
giving them authority to do it.
Circumstances for Delegation.“
1. Delegation occurs when responsibilities of one
individual
becomes so great that he has to get help from others to
get his job done.
2. To relieve the burden on senior management.
3. When it is required to speed up the decision making
process.
4. When there is a need of specialized service for doing
complex work.
5. When the branches or units situated away from the head
office are to be run.
6. When there is a need for subordinate’s moral
growth and moral.(Managerial development)
Limitations for Delegation.
1. Span of control i.e. how many subordinates can be
effectively supervised by any one manager.
2. Level of knowledge and experience of sub-ordinates.
3. Complexity of task.
4. Degree of hazard and danger associated with work.
APT Unit- 4 43

Q.40 Discuss how office system, procedure and methods

are related terms. Elaborate with appropriate examples.
Ans. Office System:
It refers to a complete picture of personnel,
forms, record, machines and equipment involved in
completing a major phase of office work.
Office Procedure:
An office procedure may defined as "a series of
steps in the performance of the office work, each step in
the series being performed in the same order and in the
same way every time."
Relationship:
Office work is composed of many System
Procedure“ and Methods.
For carrying out the functions of office,
detailed procedure of doing different activities is
generally laid down before hand. For example“ whenever
vacancies are to be filled in a definite system has to
be followed i.e. applications are invited, then
scrutinized, interview letters are issued, personal
interview is taken and finally appointment letter are
issued. Thus, system and procedures are concerned with
how, where and when various operation will be performed.

Q.41 What are the advantages and disadvantages

of Decentralization of Authority?‚
Ans. Advantages of decentralization are as follows:
1. Distribution of executives burden.
2. Saving of time.
3. Enthusiastic and energetic subordinates.
4. Greater efficiency and output.
5. Expansion facility.
6. Maintenance of secrecy to the maximum possible extent.
APT Unit- 4 44

7. Utilization of available talents to the maximum.

8. Quick decision is possible at every level and stage.
Disadvantages of decentralization are as listed below:
1. Difficulty in personal leadership.
2. Distribution of workload equitably is rendered
difficult.
3. No uniformity of activities.
4. Specialization suffers.
5. Operation costs are up.
6. Not as quick decision possible as it is possible in the
other centralized set-up.
7. Inelastic.
8. Lack of standardization of work and equipment.
9. Lack of integration.
10. Difficulty in supervision.
11. No possibility of unified control.

Q.42 What are the various steps involved in

controlling the office forms?
Ans. Steps in Forms Control
I. To have a centralized authority for exercising
forms control. This is the first but most important step
the management has to take in this regard. Usually an
executive of the middle order or lower middle order, says
supervisor, is asked to look after the forms control
function. If the office is large and serves various
departments of varied nature, a committee may be formed
and separate cell may be created for the purpose. This
committee cell may be put under the charge of a Forms
Supervisor or someone like him for effective functioning.
II. To collect office forms already in the office
itself somewhere else. Office forms be collected and
pasted in the formbook or in the register maintained for
APT Unit- 4 45

the purpose. A list of office forms being currently used

in the office must by prepared. The Forms Supervisor
must also be intimately acquainted with office
procedure and functioning of the department(s) where the
forms (particular) are being used.
III. To classify and to mark the forms according
to the office procedures and need of the concerned
department.
IV. To examine and analyze the forms in use with
a view to(a) eliminate,(b) combine, or (c) improve.
V. To analyze the office routine and procedure
if however, an overhauling is planned or a new form
is to be introduced.
VI. To produce the forms.‚ the forms required will
then have to be produced. The same may either be
stencil-duplicated or printed depending upon the number
required at a given time and cost involved in producing
the forms.
VII. To eliminate the obsolete forms.‚ forms not in
use or now outdated have to be declared obsolete and thus
be eliminated.

Q.43 What are the common barriers to communication? How

do you over come them?
Ans. Barriers to Successful Communication
- A barrier to successful communication does not
permit the transmission of accurate and full information
at the receiving end.
- A communication barrier breaks down, obstructs,
delays, distorts and tends to give another color to the
information by the time it reaches the destination.
- Various barriers to successful communication are:
APT Unit- 4 46

(1) More levels in the organization structure through

which an information has to pass.
(2) Long and ill-structured channels of communications.
(3) Heavy work-loads at certain levels in the
organization structure.
(4) Attitude-either not to hear or to hear what one
expects to hear.
(5) Prestige and superiority complex.
(6) Sender and Receiver having different perceptions.
(7) Sender unable to symbolize the information correctly.
(8) Prejudiced and biased attitude of the receiver.
(9) Receiver unable to get the information(subject to
different meanings)clarified.
(10) Receiver ignoring conflicting information.
(11) Receiver tending to evaluate information from his own
angle.
(12) Receiver emotionally upset.
Techniques to overcome Barriers and Improve
Communication they are:
1. Sending direct and simple messages.
2. Feedback system to know whether the message has
been understood correctly or not.
3. Using many communication channels.
4. Adopting face-to-face communications.
5. Be sensitive to the private world of the receiver, try
to predict the impact of what you say on his feelings
and attitude and tailor your message to fit the
receiver’s vocabulary, interests and values.
6. Time the message carefully. Communicate when the
receiver is motivated to listen and he is not worried
about other things.
APT Unit- 4 47

7. Reinforce the works with actions, e.g., employees

are more likely to accept the change when they
themselves participate in the process of change.
8. Introduce a proper amount of redundancy in
the message,i.e.some amount of repetition of information,
so that the information is not misunderstood.
9. Create cordial and peaceful atmosphere in the
organization.

Q.44 Suggest a situation in which each of the following

types of files should be advantageous.
(1) Alphabetic (2) Subjective (3) Numerical (4)
Geographic.
Ans. Alphabetic :“ This will be advantageous when
there is a requirement of.
1. Simplicity.
2. Flexibility.
3. Easily accessibility.
4. Less number of records.
Subjective: This type of classification proves better
where the subject is more important than the name of the
correspondent.
Numerical: This system is advantageous when there are
more than one file of any correspondent.
Geographic: This is advantageous when it is possible to
classify the files on geographic basis and when
subject is not as important as geography.

Q.45 Discuss the advantages of mechanization in an

office.
Ans. Following are the advantages of mechanization.
(1) Labour Saving : Mechanization aims at saving labour in
one of the two ways, either it may reduce the total
APT Unit- 4 48

wage bill or the same numbers of employees carry on

larger volume of work.
(2) Time Saving: Saving in time is another
objective of mechanization. The work that would take
hours can be done in no time with machines.
(3) Accuracy: The work done by machine is more accurate
and hence one major objective might be to ensure accuracy.
(4) Elimination of monotony: Repetitive processes are
monotonous and office machines aim to eliminate the
monotony of these repetitive processes.
(5) Standardization: Standardization of work procedures
is desirable which can be best achieved with the help of
machine.
(6) Lesser frauds: Machines also minimize the chances of
fraud in office work.
(7) Best work and control: Machines make it easy to
effectively exercising the control and the quality of work
also improves to a greater extent.
(8) A good impression on those who come into contact
with the office using machines because they are(the
work) neat and clean, without any cutting and
overwriting, and no errors, mistakes, fraud etc. is
expected. This brings goodwill for the office.

Q.46 Discuss `line Organization’ and functional

Organization’ in office.
Ans. Line, Military or Scalar Organization‚
- It is the simplest form of organization structure,
- It was called military organization because it
resembled to olden military organizations.
- Line organization is based upon relative authority
and responsibility rather than on the nature and kind of
operation or activities.
APT Unit- 4 49

- The authority flows directly from the Works

Manager(WM) to Superintendent to Foremen(F/M) and from
them to workers.
- Line organization is direct and people at different
levels know to whom they are accountable.
- The immediate superior(or boss) gives orders to
the subordinates, assigns duties, dismisses and takes
disciplinary action against them.
- Any enterprise that starts small probably starts with
a line type of organization.

Q.47 State the benefits which an organization is expected

to get from the de-centralization of control.
Ans. Advantages of Decentralization“
The following are the advantages of decentralized
set-up of an organization:
1. Distribution of Executive’s Burden.‚
Certainly the decentralized set-up offers an
opportunity to the executive to share his burden with
others at lower level in the process making himself free
for more urgent and important work requiring his
undivided attention.
2. Saving in Time.‚ The work originating at a
particular level in an organization may be accomplished
at the same level, if it falls within the limit of the
authority of that level.
3. Enthusiastic and Energetic Subordinates.‚ The
subordinate, who is asked to shoulder the
responsibility with sufficient authority feels
enthusiastic and functions with extra zeal and energy.
4. Greater Efficiency and Output.‚ Since the
responsibility is given with authority and power,
APT Unit- 4 50

everyone entrusted with such a responsibility takes care

of fulfilling his responsibility with more care.
5. Expansion Facility.‚ It offers greater scope for
expansion of business a decentralized set-up makes free
the top managing people from routine and other matters
and thus time available to them may be utilized by them
or new thinking and new ideas.
6. Secrecy maintained.‚ Comparatively here in such
a self secrecy can easily and effectively be maintained
without much and unnecessary trouble.
7. Utilization of available talents.‚ the talents
available can be best utilized in decentralized set-up as
everyone is given an opportunity to prove his worth.
8. Quick Decisions.‚ For decisions one is not
required to reach on the top.

Q.48 Discuss the significance of office forms.

Ans. Office form is a printed sheet of paper with
marked headings leaving suitable blank spaces for
entries to be made therein. Entries in the form may
either be made by hand or with the help of the
typewriter. It is a tool-rather basic tool-for all
offices. It is these forms which help us in collecting,
analyzing, preserving and distributing the information.
The forms help in efficient conduct of business. It helps
us in systematizing the office operations. It saves
time. It makes the operations easy and efficient. It is
also a tool of management control and ensures better
working and effective coordination. An office form is,
therefore, one, which is used as a tool of the office
operations in order to make the same smooth, systematized
and efficient.
APT Unit- 4 51

Q.49 What are the principles of form designing?

Ans. Principles of Forms Design
(i) Ease of entering data.“ The form should be
printed on a good paper so that its surface is smooth
and entering data is easy.
(ii) Facility of use of data.“ If the above is
followed, the analysis, classification, interpretation
of information etc. received shall naturally be easily
understood and can be used according to the need for
which they have been collected.
(iii) Elimination of chances of errors.“ The alignment of
lines, columns, carbon copying, nature of data etc.
should be such that the chance of errors creeping
into is either reduced or altogether eliminated.
(iv) Economy.“ The size, quality of paper, printing,
space provided etc. should be such which should reduce
the cost of production of operations and also of
labour who shall be using the form in order to fulfill
the objectives.
(v) Ease of identification and handling.“ The color of
the paper on which the form is printed should be
different for each of the form so that it can be easily
identified and handled. The printing, numbering,
titling, design etc. should also be different for
facilitating the identification.

Q.50 Define filling and explain its importance.

Definition:- Filling is a system of keeping records in a
proper order so that whenever needed they are available
with ease and without wastage of energy and time.
IMPORTANCE OF FILLING:
From the above we may conclude that the following
are the objectives of a good filing system:
APT Unit- 4 52

1. Protection of all relevant papers and documents.

2. Facilitating the references required.
3. The orders may be repeated by simply asking the
supplier for compliance of the past order this time as
well.
4. Facilitating the follow-up for compliance etc.
5. Facilitating the settlement of difference, if any
arising in future.
6. Legal compliance, if the law requires that
certain reports, documents or papers must be kept safe
either for a definite period or for life.
7. Providing an evidence in the court of law, if need be.
8. Providing a base for planning and decision making.
9. Helping in the preparation of the reply of the letter.
10. Providing all sorts of documentary help, if needed.

Q.51 Describe the common types of office organization.

Explain with reasons what type of organization appears to
be most useful now-a-days?‚
Ans. The common types of office organizations are
1. Line organization 2. Line and Staff Organization.
Now-a-days line and staff organization appears to be
most useful because of following advantages:
1. Expert advice from specialist staff executives can
be made use of.
2. Line executives are relieved of some of their loads
and are thus able to devote more attention towards
production.
3. Less wastage of material, man and machine hours.
4. Quality of product is improved.
5. There is no confusion as exists in functional
organization.
APT Unit- 4 53

6. Line and staff organization possesses practically all

the advantages of both the line and functional
organizations.

Q.52 What are the various equipment and machines

used in offices?
Ans. The usual furniture found in any modern office are
as enumerated below:
(i) Desks (vii) Sorting trays
(ii) Tables (viii) Lockers
(iii) Chairs (ix) Safes
(iv) Filing racks (x) Stools
(v) Cabinets (xi) File Boxes
(vi) Cupboards (xii) Cases and others
Various Types of Machines
Following are the types of machines, which are
generally put to use in a large office:
1. Typewriter.
2. Duplicating Machines.
3. Imprinting Machines.
4. Computing, Accounting and Tabulating Machines.
5. Punched Card Machines.
6. Electronic Computers.
7. Dictating Machines.
8. Mailing Machines.
9. Other useful machines - Time Recording Machines, Pay
Roll Machines, Protectograph Cheque Writer Machines, Tod
Cheque Writer etc.

Q.53 What are the advantages of filling?

Ans. Advantages of Filing
An office keeping systematic filing on scientific
lines can derive the following advantages
APT Unit- 4 54

(1) Proper Handling of Correspondence. A good filing

system helps the office to keep a track on all the
correspondence. It can be handled properly without any
delay.
(2) Referencing: Quick and Easy.“ A good filing
system helps in arranging the records in proper and
systematic order. The assistant working on them shall
be able to connect the relevant papers etc. quickly and
easily. This will again result in higher reputation.
(3) Documentary Evidence. A good filing system
provides a documentary proof to the facts and thus
filing may be conveniently used in setting disputes
even the court of law.
(4) Facilitating the Policy and Decision Making. A
good filing system provides all past information
quickly. Past records and experiences preserved therein
helps in planning the future and making policies for the
present as well as for the future.

Q.54 What is continuous stationary? Describe its

merits and Demerits.
Ans. Continuous Stationery:
Continuous stationery is defined (as "a device
whereby office forms are produced in a continuous strip
and separate forms are separated from one another by
perforation The following are the main advantages of
continuous stationery:
(i) the saving in time and energy;
(ii) Doing away with laborious process of assembling
different copies of a form, interleaving with the
typewriter and then detaching them afterwards; and
(iii) maintaining, rather increasing, the efficiency
and consequently the work output.
APT Unit- 4 55

The disadvantages of continuous stationery are :

(i) No alteration and correction is easily made
possible;
(ii) The forms may get a little but soiled by the
pressure of the friction of rollers or the hand(s) with
the carbon paper already interleaved;
(iii) The forms may get out of alignment creating
problems, particularly when several forms are
interleaved with carbon papers; and
(iv) Certainly continuous stationery are costlier which
every business house may not be in a position to sustain
for a longer period.

Q.55 Explain the need for good communication system

in any office.
Ans. IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
1. It helps in organization and coordination.‚
Certainly good communication helps in better organizing
the activities and co-ordinating the efforts to the best
advantage of both the staff and the organization as a
whole.
2. It forms the basis of control.‚ Through downward
and then upward communication the management can convey
what it wants to be achieved and also it may come to
know what is happening downward and how the staff is
performing and behaving.
3. It helps in motivation and providing leadership.
Effective communication is the best way to motivate
the people and extract best of them. This also provides a
basis for leadership.
4. It helps in exchange of informations.‚
Informations come from within and also from outside. By
adopting downward and upward communication, informal
APT Unit- 4 56

communication and horizontal communication the exchange

of informations is made possible.
5. Liaison with outside world is‚ also made possible
with the help of an effective method of communication.
This also is helpful in building goodwill for the
organization.

Q.56 What is meant by office form? Explain the points to

which attention should be paid in designing an office
form?
Ans. Office form is a printed sheet of paper with
marked headings leaving suitable blank spaces for
entries to be made therein. Entries in the form may
either be made by hand or with the help of the
typewriter.
The points to which attention should be
paid in designing an office form are as follows:
(i) Designing must correspond to the purpose of the
use to which it is to be put.‚ Certainly this is the
most important guideline list the very purpose of
having the forms shall be defeated. Particularly the
designer has to know and refer to the nature of
information to be collected with the help of the form,
the source and scope of information to be collected,
alternative means of collecting the said information-a
study of, and the stages through which the collection of
informations would pass.
(ii) Designing must be such which may make its use
simple and easy.‚ A form to be used on typewriter, a
form to be used on accounting machine, a form to be used
on computer and a form to be used by hand must be designed
accordingly.
APT Unit- 4 57

(iii) Forms must provide the title and number.‚

This facilitates the use. This also standardizes the
form and helps in its identification.
(iv) The size should be according to the requirement
of the purpose. No guideline is possible over here except
to say that the size of the form should be in accordance
with the purpose and the size of paper on which the form
is to be printed.
(v) The type-face of form.‚ The type-face of the form
should be neat and compact. It should never be clumsy.
It should be such, which may be clearly and easily read
without any difficulty.
(vi) The coloring.‚ The forms should be printed on
colored papers distinguishing each form with the help of
color so that it can be easily identified.
(vii) If need be adequate provision in the form
should be made for punching, sewing, perforating etc.‚
This is provided for filing, preserving, making notes,
detaching etc. as per the requirement of the office
operation.

Q.57 What do you expect for sound office organization?

Explain in detail.
Ans. The following are the expectation for sound
office organization
1. Defining the objectives.‚ We must clear to know
what our objectives are and how best we can serve the
same. What actually is required to be done? This must be
precisely known to all who are to work and who are to
guide, supervise and control.
2. Division of work.‚ When objectives are clear it
will be possible to divide the work between the
available office personnel according to the need of the
APT Unit- 4 58

office work considering fully as to who is equipped with

skill, experience, temperament and requirement of the
work.
3.Balancing the powers given and accountability
requirements. One works and fulfills his duties. He
enjoys certain powers and is also accountable for his work
assigned and the performance.
4. Centralized order, i.e.,one command.‚ Order
from one authority does not create any confusion.
Moreover, the order coming from one authority will
naturally be neither overriding nor complex.
5. Limited personnel under one control.‚ It is always
good to have a limited personnel under one control in
order to exercise better supervision and effective
control.
6. Minimum but well defined hierarchy.‚ Management
hierarchy should not only be well-defined but the stage
through which it passes should also be as limited as is
possible.
7. A balance between centralized and decentralized.
A cent per cent centralized activity or decentralized
activity is dangerous for any office organization.
8. Even distribution of work. Even distribution
creates harmonious relations and better understanding
lest there is a chance of heart burning and unnecessary
strained relations.
9. Elasticity. Organised well but less elastic
organization may not deliver the goods. What is required
is adaptability of the organization in the prevailing
conditions and circumstances.
10. Continuity.‚ The organizational structure should
be such which may provide the personnel as well as
APT Unit- 4 59

the required equipment etc. Without any interruption.

The functions may continue and plans may be executed.
11. Simple.‚ The organization, its structure and its
defined goals etc. should be simple to understand and
simple to act upon. Complexity creates more problems than
it solves.
12. Development of leadership. Leadership is
required to give directions. The direction should also
be effective as well.

Q.58 What are different methods of communication ? State

common barriers to communication.
Ans. Broadly methods of communication may be divided
into the following four kinds :
1. Formal and Informal Communication.
2. Oral and Written Communication.
3. Downward and Upward Communication.
4. Horizontal Communication.
Formal Communication:
Formal Communication is one wherein the
importance‚ attached to the status or position of the
communicator as well the receiver in the hierarchy of
the organization. Formal communications usually maintain
a relationship between two positions. The one
executive usually communicates with another executive
either of the same status or with one who is
immediately subordinate to him.
Informal Communication:
This is based on informal relationship that grows
up in any organization informally. This s actually
referred to as the grapevine system of communication.
Oral Communication:
APT Unit- 4 60

Through spoken words, if messages etc. are conveyed,

it is then termed as oral communication. It is good. It
hardly needs any explanation. Written
Communication. Communication in the form of circulars,
bulletins, manuals, handbooks, notes, orders,
instructions official notifications, telegrams are the
various forms of communication in writing.
Downward Communication:
When communication flows from the superiors
to subordinates, it is called downward communication. It
is effectively in line organization.
Upward Communication:
When communication moves upward from
subordinates to the superiors it is called upward
communication. Suggestions, reactions, responses,
altitudes etc. are usually communicated by this method.
Again it is effectively used in line organization.

Horizontal Communication:
This method is also known‚ as lateral or
crosswise communication.‚ Such a communication takes
place between two personnel of the same status.

Q.59 Define `indexing’. Explain its importance.

Ans. Indexing is a process of indications to the desired
materials so as to facilitates its location and find it
out with ease and without wasting time and energy.
IMPORTANCE
1. It is useful assistant to both filing system and
location.
2. It ensures cross-referencing.
3. It increases efficiency.
4. It increases office output.
APT Unit- 4 61

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APT Unit-6 62

UNIT NO.5
VALUE ENGINEERING

Q.60 Brief out various types of values.

OR What are various types of values?
Ans. TYPES OF VALUES
(a) Cost Value: It is the cost of
manufacturing a product/component. OR‚ Properties, which
are the sum of labour, material, other cost required to
produce that object
(b) Use Value: It may also be called functional
value. It considers the work done, functions performed
or services rendered by a product/component. Properties
which accomplish a use, a work or a service.
(c) Esteem Value: It involves the qualities and
appearance of product (like TV set or a car) which
attracts persons and creates in them a desire to posses
the product. OR‚ Properties which make the ownership of
that object very desirable. Take, for example, a
rolled-gold tie pin. An ordinary paper clip costing two
paise will do the same job of this pin. But no one uses
it. The costlier the tie pin, the greater the esteem
value. Another example is possession of imported car.
(d) Exchange Value: A product is said to possess
exchange value if the same (because of its qualities) can
be exchanged for something else. OR‚ Properties that make
the object possible of being traded for other items. A
person posses gold ornaments because it has an exchange
value.
There are seven classes of value:
1. Economic Value 2. Aesthetic Value
3. Moral Value 4. Social Value
5. Political Value 6. Religious Value
APT Unit-6 63

7. Judicial Value
Of these, only the economic classification
can be considered to be objective. It is the only one,
which can be measured. The others can be evaluated only
subjectively.

Q.61 What are the advantages of value analysis? OR

What are the benefits of value Analysis?
Ans. 1. Value analysis is a much faster cost
reduction technique.
2. It requires little expenditure because the
value-Analysis team can be formulated out of the staff
available in different sections like purchase,
production, finance etc.
3. Value analysis reduces production costs and
adds to sales income of the product.
A company can benefit in several ways by
using of this technique. Some of salient benefits are :
4. The cost of existing product or services gets
reduced.
5. In new products or new service, the
unnecessary costs are identified and eliminated.
9. Finally, a greater return on investment results. In
other words, greater profits accrue.

Q.62 Discuss various techniques of value analysis?

OR
What are value analysis techniques for selecting a
product?
Ans. Value Analysis Technique.‚ A number of questions
as framed by Miles at G.E. and others are given
below. Each component part of the product is analyzed in
the light of these questions(or tests).
APT Unit-6 64

(i) Does it(i.e. component) contribute value to end

product?
(ii) Is its cost proportionate to its function?
(iii) Can some of its features be combined or
eliminated?
(iv) Would there be a better product?
(v) Can a component be produced by less costly
process? For example G.E.(U.S.A.) changed from die-cast
cover to a stamping and saved $39,000 annually.
(vi) Can one go for an available standard
product/component?
(vii) Taking into account the quantity required, is
the product being made with proper tools?
(viii) Does the product has reasonable selling price?
(ix) Can the product/component be procured at less
cost from elsewhere?
(x) Is any body purchasing the product/component at
lower rates.

Q.63 Discuss the concept in detail of value Analysis?

OR
What is concept behind value analysis?
Ans. Value Analysis a more fundamental and far-
reaching concept than the simple technique of price
analysis used in purchasing as it goes into the causes
of price. Further it has the practical objective of
applying direct. Corrective action to minimize these
causes and reduce costs, instead of leading only to
comparison and negotiations on the basis of existing
costs. Primarily, value analysis is an organized way of
challenging unnecessary costs.
APT Unit-6 65

The British Productivity Council elaborates this as

follows. Value Analysis is not a new technique common
sense approach to a job which begins with work study.
It is concerned with security of the design function
and cost of any product, material or service, with the
object of reducing cost by modification of design or
material specification, more efficient processes,
charge in source of supply (external or internal) or
possibly, the elimination of the item or its in
corporation into a related item. The overriding
consideration is that reliability and quality must be
maintained.
Let us understand this concept by an example :
A simple example will explain this concept. A
house wife is out shopping for vegetables. There are four
varieties of tomatoes to choose from costing Rs.4.00
respectively. Which will she buy? The answer is simple.
She will buy the quality which serve her purpose. For
example, if her husband’s loss is coming for dinner and
tomatoes are required for Salad, the Rs.4/- variety
will be obvious choice. If she wants to make tomato
rasam, then she will purchase the Rs.2.50/- quality. In
other words, her choice will depend on the function the
tomato is to perform. Each of the four varieties has a
value and this value depends on the function it is
expected to accomplish.
Value analysis is a study of function.
The idea behind value analysis is not now new. The
approach to the problem essentially differs from that of
the other cost reduction technique.
A customer when buying a product weighs its
functional and other features(appearance,
attractiveness, get up) against its price and judges the
APT Unit-6 66

value of the product. Manufacturer in turn, in order to

enhance the value of his products must ensure that he
offers all the necessary functional features at the
lowest possible prices. This functional approach is the
basic criteria of value Analysis.

Q.64 What is aim of value analysis?

Ans: Aim of Value Analysis.
(i) Simplify the product,
(ii) Use(new) cheaper and better materials,
(iii) Modify and improve product design,
(iv) Use efficient processes,
(v) Reduce the product cost,
(vi) Increase the utility of the product by
economical means, and
(vii) Save money or to increase the profits.

Q.65 Explain in detail the procedure for value analysis.

OR
What are the various phases of value analysis?
Ans. Value Analysis Procedure:
The basic steps are:
(a) Blast Identify the product(1)
(Collect relevant information(2)
Define different functions(3)
Create different alternatives(4)
(b) Create Critically evaluate the
alternatives(5)
Develop the best alternative(6)
(c) Refine Implement the alternative(7)
Step-1. The first step is to Identify the product for
which Value Analysis is to be carried out. The product
should be one, which if re-designed can add to the sales
APT Unit-6 67

income, and would not become obsolete in near future.

Value Analysis may be applied to the product as a whole
or to only some of its component parts.-
ORIENTATION PHASE
Step-2. The information relevant to the product may
be as follows.
(i) Technical specifications with drawings,
(ii) Manufacturing processes, machine layout and
instruction sheets - INFORMATION
(iii) Time study details and manufacturing capacity -
PHASE
(iv) Complete cost data and marketing details, and
(v) Latest developments in related products.
Step-3. Identify the primary, secondary, and
tertiary functions of the product. Specify value
content of each function and identify the high cost
areas.- FUNCTION PHASE
Step-4. Knowing the functions of each component part
and its manufacturing details, generate the ideas and
create different alternatives so as to increase the
value of the product. The Value Analysis team can
hold Brainstorming sessions. All suggestions feasible or
non-feasible are recorded without any criticism; rather,
persons are encouraged to express their views freely.-
CREATION PHASE
Step-5. The different ideas recorded under step-
4 are compared, evaluated and critically assessed for
their virtues, validity and feasibility as regards their
financial and technical requirements. Ideas technically
sound and involving lower costs are further developed.-
EVALUATION PHASE
Step-6. Detailed development plans are made for those
ideas, which, during step-5, appear, most suitable and
APT Unit-6 68

promising. Development plans comprise of, drawing the

sketches, building of models, and conducting discussions
with the purchase section, finance section, marketing
division, etc.-INVESTIGATION PHASE
Step-7. The best found idea under step-6 is converted
into a prototype manufacture, which ultimately goes into
operation, and its results are recorded. The product
cost and functional analysis is carried out to assess
the net saving as the result of Value Analysis.-
RECOMMENDATION AND IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

Q.66 Explain in brief the function evaluation in V.E.

OR
Explain Evaluation of function.
Ans. FAST = FUNCTION ANALYSIS SYSTEM TECHNIQUE
When all the basic and secondary functions
of the product have been listed, the next problem is to
evaluate each function. This is done in two ways.
1.EVALUATE BY COMPARISON.
2.EVALUATION OF B FUNCTIONAL AREAS
Evaluate by comparison:
Placing value on a function by using the
value of something readily known. In the example
of the lamp, the function was `Provide light`, this
could be evaluated by using the cost of a match or an
incandescent lamp.
Evaluation of Functional areas:
Often, in analyzing a product, it is
easier to determining functional areas rather than
specific functions. This is done by first dividing the
product or assembly into that position which make it
work(performance) and that portion which make it
sell(features, attractiveness). The performance portion
APT Unit-6 69

can be broken into mechanical, electrical, chemical,

magnetic etc. Mechanical components may be divided into
translating, rotating etc. Features include convenience,
accessories etc. While attractiveness may cover such
things as machine finish, surface coatings, shape or
form.

Q.67 Distinguish between value analysis and

value engineering.
Ans: VALUE ANALYSIS: An organized procedure for the
efficient identification of unnecessary cost.
VALUE ENGINEERING: Value engineering is the
application of the concept of, value analysis at the
design or pre-manufacture stage of the component parts
with a view to cut down the unnecessary costs,
without impairing the function or utility of the product.

Q.68 How the FAST Technique is used?

Ans. Mr.J.J. Kaufman, a value specialist explains
the process with a basic FAST model and some ground
rules:
A) Scope of problem under Study.
Remarked by two vertical dotted lines.
B) Highest Order Function(s)
The objective or output of the basic
function(s) and subject under study, is referred to as
the highest order functions, and appears outside the
left scope line, and to the left of the basic functions.
Any function to the left of another on the critical path
is a "higher" order function.
C) Lowest Order Functions(s)
These functions to the right and outside of the
right scope line represent the input side that "turn on"
APT Unit-6 70

or initiates the subject under study and are known, as

lowest order functions.
Any function to the right of another function on the
critical path is a "lower" order function.
D) Basic Functions(s)
Those functions to the immediate right of the
left scope line representing the purpose or mission of
the subject under study.
E) Concept
All functions in the right of the basic
function(s) under the approach chosen to achieve the basic
function(s). the "Concept" represents either the existing
conditions or proposed approach. Which approach to
use (current or proposed) is determined by the task
team and the nature of the problem under study.
F) Objectives or Specifications
Objectives or specifications are particular
parameters or restrictions , which must be achieved to
satisfy the highest order function in its operating
environment. Although they are not in themselves
functions, they may influence the concept selected to
best achieve the basic functions(s), and satisfy the
users requirements. They should be placed above the
basic function and shown as dotted boxes.
G) Critical path Functions
Any function on the how or why logic is a
critical path function. If the function along the why
direction enters the basic function(s) it is a major
critical path, otherwise it will conclude in an
independent(Supporting) function and be a minor critical
path.
H) Dependent Functions
APT Unit-6 71

Starting with the first function to the right

of the basic function, each successive function is
"dependent" on the one to its immediate left or higher
order function, for its existence. That dependency
become more evident when the How question and direction
is followed.
I) Independent(or supporting) Functions
Functions that do not depend on another
function, or method selected to perform that function. In
dependent function are located above the critical path
functions(s) and are considered secondary, with
respect to the scope, nature, and level of the problem,
and its critical path.
J) Functions which are shown vertically in the
diagram:
Functions which do not have a time
sequence relationship should be shown below a particular
function in a horizontal line of functions.
K) Function:
An end or purpose that a "thing" or
activity is intended to perform, expressed in verb-noun
form.
L) Activity:

Q.69 What is Real Value Product?

Q.70 Explain Role of creativity in V.E.?
OR
Explain how creativity change the value concept of
product and production Organization.‚
Ans. Successful application of Value
Engineering(VE) requires the use of creative problem
solving techniques. It takes creativity to innovate
alternative designs, systems, methods or processes,
APT Unit-6 72

that will perform the necessary function at the lowest

possible cost.
Creative application in V.E. is directed
toward achieving best value. The finding of the best
ways to achieve value in product design is the
engineer’s most important problem. He should ask himself
the following questions concerning the product:
1. What is its required function?
2. What alternative ways can the necessary
function be performed?
3. Which of the alternative ways is the lowest
overall cost of ownership?
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODS
There are two approaches to problem solving: the
analytical and the creative. The two approaches are
discussed below.
Analytical Approach
The strictly analytical approach is substantially
singular in purpose. The problem is stated exactly. A
direct approach to the solution is taken, proceeding
through a step-by-step progression of experiments,
evaluation and mathematical manipulations to arrive
at a single answer. An analytical problem is one that
frequently has only one solution that will work.
CREATING APPROACH
The creative approach is used when there appears to be
either no solution or more than one solution to a
particular problem. The creative approach is an idea
producing process intended specifically to generate a
number of solutions, each of which will solve the
problem at hand. All solutions will work, but one is
better than the others; it is the optimum solution among
APT Unit-6 73

those available. The best solution to the problem may

not even have been generated.

Q.71. What is value?

Ans. Value differs from both price, and cost in the
sense that it is the cost proportionate to the function
i.e.
Function(or utility)
Value = --------------------------
Cost
It can therefore be seen that the value of a
product can be increased either by increasing its
utility with the same cost or by decreasing its cost for
the same function.

Q.72. Explain following techniques for value

analysis (Engineering)
(i) FAST (Functions Analysis System technique)
(ii) Quantitative evaluation of ideas.
Ans. FAST is a method of stimulating organized
thinking about any subject by asking, thought- provoking
questions. It is a tool; it is the process used in
creating the diagram that is
Identifying the function, defining it in two
words, a verb and a noun, distinguishing between basic
and secondary function, all remaining the same, FAST
helps to test the functions for dependency,
priorities, and to display them in logical sequence, in
a diagram or model form, leading to create speculation on
how the necessary functions can be best implemented.
It also helps to check for missing functions that might
be overlooked and selling the resulting changes to the
decision makers.
APT Unit-6 74

Quantitative evaluation of ideas:

The different ideas recorded under step 4 are
compared, evaluated and critically assessed for their
virtues, validity and feasibility as regards their
financial and technical requirements. Ideas technically
sound and involving lower costs are further developed.

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APT Unit-6 75

UNIT NO.6
GROUP TECHNOLOGY

Q.73 `Group Technology’ is new approach to work

organization, which can help to solve many of industrial
present problems. Discuss at length.
Ans. Before starting discussion on Group Technology
let us first understand the meaning of work organization.
An organization which deals with the
analysis of the work to be done is called work
organization.(The work depending on techniques and
resources available).
The work changes with change in method.
Which change in work, the role is changed. With the
change in role, the organization needs a change.
1. Broadly, it is these problem of flow,
controlling excessive work-in-progress, excessive
manufacturing time, and excessive variety, with which
group technology is concerned.
2.Group technology is the realization that many
problems are similar, and that by grouping similar
problems, a single solution can be found to a set of
problems, thus saving time and effort.
3.Group technology in manufacturing, is the
replacing of traditional jobbing shop manufacture by the
analysis and grouping of work into families and the
formation of groups of machines to manufacture these
families on a flow line principle with the object of
minimizing setting times and throughout times.

Q.74 What are the applications of Group Technology

in machine tools?
APT Unit-6 76

Ans. Applications of Group technology in machine

tools is cell layout or cell design.
The layout design is not according to the
functional characteristics of machines but different
machines (called cells) are grouped together for the
production of families of parts. The first group of
parts is of ring-type and requires operation such as
turning, milling, drilling and cylindrical grinding.
The second group part are cylindrical and requires
operation on a turning (lathe) machine milling machine,
drilling machine and surface grinder and so on for other
one families of parts.

T CG
M1 D
CG

M2 D SG

M1 M2 CG

T – Turning SG – Surface grinding

M – Milling CG – Cylindrical grinding
D - Drilling
Fig. Group layout.
In case of Machine tools group technology
attempts to reduce the time and cost of component
manufacture.
Cells will be created to manufacture defined
types and size-ranges of components. This approach can
be contrasted with that of the traditional functional
factory layout, where specialization is concentrated
APT Unit-6 77

on manufacturing processes, rather than on component

types.
Groups of machines, chosen for each family, are
situated together in a group layout in such a way that
component flow from one machine to next in sequence of
operation. It is not necessary for every component to
pass to each machine but the machines within the cell
should ideally be capable of carrying out all
operations required in the family.

Q.75. How the production lot and family is formed?‚

Ans: Grouping of similar parts into part families
is the key to group-technology implementation. Three
basic methods are used to form part families.
(1)MANUAL VISUAL SEARCH :
Very simple but is limited in its
effectiveness when dealing with a large number of parts.
(2)PRODUCTION FLOW ANALYSIS :
A technique to analyze the operation sequence
and the routing of the part through the machines and
workstations in the plant. So the parts are grouped and
identified as a part family if the parts with common
operations and routes follow- Similarly the machines and
work-stations used to produce the part families can be
grouped to form the machine group or cell.
(3) CLASSIFICATION AND CODING SYSTEM :
It provides an effective means for sorting the
coded parts in forming part families based on the
specific parameter of system. It is very useful
especially for CAM applications.
Classification involves arranging items into
groups according to some principle or system where by
like things are brought together by virtue of their
APT Unit-6 78

similarities and are then separated according to a

specific difference.

Q.76 How group & families are formed in Group technology?

Ans. The group of related parts into part families
is the key to group technology implementation, the
problem immediately arises, is
how are the parts to be grouped efficiently
into these families OR
What are the various ways for finding the best
division of component into families and group?
These are the four ways.
1. MATERIAL VISUAL SEARCH.
2. NOMENCLATURE FUNCTIONS.
3. PRODUCTION FLOW ANALYSIS.
4. CLASSIFICATION AND CODING SYSTEM.
1. VISUAL INSPECTION METHOD OR MATERIAL VISUAL SEARCH :
This method is obviously very simple, but
limited in its effectiveness when dealing with a large
number of parts.
This method involves the classification of
part into families by the physical parts and
arranging them in the families. This method is
generally considered as a least count method out of these
four methods but lease expensive one.
2. NOMENCLATURE FUNCTIONS:
This method is neither scientific nor reliable.
3. PRODUCTION FLOW ANALYSIS :
Production flow analysis is a technique for
forming part families and/or machine group/cells by
analyzing the operation sequence and the routing of a part
through the machines and work-stations in the plant. To
use this method successfully, one should ensure that a
APT Unit-6 79

company has a reliable data source of routing or

operation sheet.
Part families can be formed with or without
a classification and coding system, since production flow
analysis requires only operation sheet and production
data.
CLASSIFICATION AND CODING SYSTEM:
A classification and coding system is a
fundamental of group technology application.
"Classification" means the arrangement of items into
groups according to some principle or system whereby
items are grouped together by their similarities. A
`Code’ can be a system of symbols used in
information processing in which number and letters are
given a particular meaning.

Q.77 What are the limitations of G.T.?

Ans. Following are the limitations of G.T.
1) Problem of rearranging the machine into
G.T.Cells.
2) It is very much expensive and disruption
associated with this transaction to G.T. machine cells.
3) Problems of identifying part families
arrange the many component produced in the plant.
Because it is very expensive to part classification
and coding.
4) General resultant from its operating
personnel when changing over to a new system is
contemplated.
5) Human problems occurs while introducing a
charge.
6) Implementation costs.
7) Rate of charge in product range and machine.
APT Unit-6 80

8) Difficulties without of cell operations.

9) Coexistence with non-cellular systems.

Q.78 Explain concept of GT in APT?

What is the importance of GT and why
it is introduced?
Ans. IMPORTANCE OF GROUP TECH.
In future there will be more stress on
short/run production. This is possible with computer
aided and NC machine tools. Group technology classify
the parts into families hence handling of these parts
during manufacturing becomes robot work.
From the above discussion we can say that GT
can co-exist with modern method of manufacturing.
Group technology is a technology improvement and
hence company can gain largest manufacturing productivity
increase.
The other benefits of GT are:
1) Reduced resetting time.
2) Smooth work flow.
3) Increased ability to meet deliveries.
4) Time saving due to reduction in
transportation between two operations.
5) Increased ability to meet deliveries results in
less pressure on production personnel.
6) Improved customer relations form better
delivery performance may increase sale.

Q. 79 Why GT is introduced?
Ans. For achieving higher productivity in design
& manufacture many industries have become increasingly
interested in group technology implementation to meet
their needs.
APT Unit-6 81

By one forecast, approximately 50-75%

industries will use GT during 1980-1990. It is evident
that the computer automated factory will be a full-
blown reality in rear future. It is further evident
that new technological innovations such as Direct
numerical control(DNC); CNC, microprocessor will lead the
way toward mere automated, computer integrated
manufacturing system involving CAM and thus ensure more
integrated applications of G.T. for optimum many
featuring , resulting in higher productivity.

Q.80 Define G.T. and brief out the various field

of applications.
Ans. Group technology is a manufacturing philosophy or
principle with far reaching implications. The basic
concept is relatively simple: Identify and bring
together related or similar parts and processes, to
take advantage of similarities which exist, during all
stages of design and manufacture.
GT`s Field of applications are
1. Tooling
2. Designing
3. Scheduling
4. Process planning
5. Software development for N.C. machines
6. Layout designing
7. Manufacturing
8. CAD/CAM applications

Q.81 What are the advantages and disadvantages of GT?

Ans. Advantages of GT.
1) Better lead time to give test response and more
reliable delivery.
APT Unit-6 82

2) Work in progress levels are reduced.

3) Output is improved because of improved resource
utilization.
4) Less materials handling is needed.
5) Better space utilization.
6) Better production planning and control.
7) A smaller variety of tools, jigs and fixtures.
8) Improved quality and reduced scrap.
9) Simplified estimating, accounting and work
measurement.
10) Improved job satisfaction, morale and communication.
11) Improved plant replacement decisions.
12) Reduced product design variety.
The main disadvantages are the following.
(1) Implementation costs.
(2) Rate of change in product range and mix.
(3) Difficulties with out-of-cell operations.
(4) Coexistence with non-cellular systems.

Q.82 Define 1) Group 2) Family.

Ans. Group:- A group is a collection of two or more
things having some relationship between them.
Family:- It may be defined as a group of related
parts that have some specific sameness and similarities.
They may have same design feature such as geometric shape
and/or they may share similar processing requirements.

Q.83 What are the desirable characteristics of group?

Ans. Following are the desirable characteristics of
group.
1) The group should be collection of similar(or
related) geometrical shape.
APT Unit-6 83

2) It should be collection of similar geometrical

sizes.
3) It should require similar machining operation.
4) It should have similar material.
5) It should have similar accuracy limit.
6) It should have similar sequence of operation.
7) The members of group must have same holding
requirements i.e. Jig/fixture arrangement.

Q.83 What are the methods of group Scheduling?

Methods of group scheduling are
1. Optimum sequencing for single part family.
2. Optimal sequencing for set of part families.
3. Machine loading analysis.

Q.84 Discuss the various aspects of Group Technology?

Ans. Following are various aspects of Group technology
1) Group technology provides the possibility of
improving quality of working life.
2) Group technology provides opportunity for members of
group
- to become multi-skilled.
- to share work
- to plan
- to exercise control over their work activities.
3) Group technology offers flexibility
4) Group technology offers maximum exploitation of machine
tools.
Q85. What are the methods of Group Scheduling?
Ans: 1) Longest imminent operation(LIO)
2) Shortest imminent operation(SIO)
3) Cost over time value(COVERT)
4) First come first served(FCFS)
APT Unit-6 84

5) Random(RANDOM)
(Note: There are two types of scheduling methods. 1)
Manual
2) Computer based. The above are manual and earlier
explained were computer based .

Q.85 GT`s field of application in detail.

Group Tooling:-“ For maximum utilization of
tooling, the tooling set for operations with in a part
family should be arranged so that all the parts or as
many as possible can be processed with one group jig
fixture and or one set up.
DESIGN RATIONALIZATION:‚ An important application of
the group technology concept. A suitable classification
and coding system helps in design data retrieval and
design rationalization.
GROUP SCHEDULING: Group scheduling simplifies general
production scheduling. Group scheduling effectively
reduces total through put time and leads to the reduction
of work in progress inventory.

Q.86 Explain & define following terms:

1. Group
2. Family
3. Group Scheduling
4. Economics justification for group
Group: It is a group of machines for one or more
part families, arranged to perform all the operations
required for the family or families of parts. The machine
themselves are arranged in a semi-flow line to minimize
transportation.
APT Unit-6 85

GROUP SCHEDULING :
Production scheduling associated with the
application of group technology is called group
Scheduling.
Efficient group scheduling efficiently reduces
total throughput time and leads to the reduction of work
in progress inventory. Group scheduling has some
specific advantages.
1. Optimization of group and job sequence and
machine loading.
2. Possibility of flow shop pattern.
3. Reduction of setup times and cost
4. Economic saving.
Economic Justification for Group:
Group offers advantages like reduced
throughput and resetting times, more ordered work flow,
lower levels of work in progress, increased ability to
meet deliveries and so on. The major proportion of the
time saving result from reduced transportation. The above
benefits results in direct cost saving.

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APT Unit-6 86

Siddhivinayak Computers
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Ph. 422684
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5) Sophisticated Programmable Industrial Robotic Arm
6) Generation of Electricity from Wind Power
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9) Study, Design And Fabrication Of Variable Inclinable Belt Conveyor
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6) Energy Saving in Home Lighting
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12)Selecting Transformers For Hydro Power Plants
13)Solar Energetics in Space
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1) A Solar Chimney Power Plant - Kale
2) Holography - Ambhore
3) Robotization of Forging Industries-Bhoyar
4) Strategic About Manufacturing - Boob
5) Design Innovation Through Digitalisation - Catia
APT Unit-6 87
6) Round Printing Machine - Chavan
7) Crash Safety-crash~1
8) Droplet Welding - Desai
9) Flying Train - Gawande
10)CAD CAM - Revolutionising The Aircraft Industry - Goel
11)Buffering of Serial Production Line - Gokhale
12)Human Factor In Product Design - Gole
13)Basic Technology & Drive System of Industrial Robots - Harde
14)Simplified CPM / PERT Simulation Model - Jambhe
15)Components of missile - Jindal
16)Technological Options for Future Manufacturing - Kakrania
17)Indian Industry in a Liberal Market - Mahobia
18)Automobile Air Conditioning - Marathe
19)Tubeless Tyres – A Recent trend in Automobile - Mukkawar
20) BENCHMARKING - Narkhede
21)Bluetooth - Rupali~1
22)The Quartz Industrial - Trade System (QITS) – Seminar - Seminar1
23)Computerized Lubrication System – Seminar - Seminar1
24)Computer Aided Process Planning – Seminar - Seminar1
25)How To Achieve Fuel Economy In Automobiles – Seminar - Seminar1
26)Information Technology in Production Systems – Seminar - Seminar1
27)Manufacturing challenges – Seminar - Seminar1
28)Role of Robotics in Assembly – Seminar - Seminar1
29)Solar heater system – Seminar - Seminar1 - Tayade~1
30)Automatic Control of Production – Seminar - Seminar2
31)Computer Communications – Seminar - Seminar2
32)Computer Integraded Manufacturing – Seminar - Seminar2
33)The Electropolishing Process – Seminar - Seminar2
34)Production Management and Control – Seminar - Seminar2
35)Pushrod And Overhead CAM Engine – Seminar - Seminar2
36)Robotic Welding – Explaining Robotic GMAW – Seminar - Seminar2 -
Rathod~1
37)High Energy – Rate Forming Process – Seminar - Seminar2 - Seminar~1
38)Cybernetics in Industry- Seminar - Seminar2 - Seminar2
39)Sheet Metal Forming - Seminar2
40)Automated Of Quality Control - Shinde
41)Automated Assembly System & Line Balancing - Tayade
42)Industrial Corrosion & It’s Prevention - Umbarkar
43)Networking Technologies – Wadekar
44)Helical Gear Manufacturing by Extrusion – Wadodkar
45)Air Caster-A New Approach In Material Handling
46)Remote Control System
47)Rapid Prototyping
48)Waterjet Cutting (WJC)
49)Solar Car
50)Packaging Technology
51)Air-Oil Cooling Method For Hard Turning Process
52)Automation Of Injection Moulding Machine used Hydrualic System
53)Automotive Emission Controls
54) Cooling Fans Of Air-Cooled DEUTZ Diesel Engines and their Noise
Generation
55)Environmental Awareness And The Aluminium Industry
APT Unit-6 88
56)Electropolishing – A Case Study Of Electromatic
57)Hydrostatic Transmission For Shunting Locomotive
58) Investigation of Factors Affecting Wear Characteristics in Rubber – Metal
Sliding Contact
59)Industrial Psychology
60)Management of Change & Taskforce Approach
61)Management Information System
62)Machine Vision System
63)Managerial Effectiveness – Key to Productivity
64)New Turns In Thread Cutting
65)Occupant Safety Restraints Devices In Automobile
66)Precision Hole Making By Deep Hole Drilling Method
67)Pricing Strategy – An Introduction
68)Robotization Of Forging Industries
69)Rotory Ultrasonic Machining
70)Re-Engineering A Potent Tool In Managing Change
71)Screw Compressor Bearing Failures on Process Plant
72)Total Productivity Maintenance (TPM) – A Japanese Approach and Its
Implementations
73)The Engine of A Sports Car
74)Use of Robots In Automobile Manufacture
75)Use Of Plastic As A Tooling Material
76)Vehicullar Pollution Poisoning The Air In Cities
77)Ways Towards The Clean Heavy-Duty Diesel

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