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ExperimentAIM: To observe waveforms at the output of clipper circuits Apparatus required:- Tina pro. Software installed in a computer.

About TINA V9:TINA Design Suite is a powerful yet affordable circuit simulation and PCB design software package for analyzing, designing, and real time testing of analog, digital, VHDL, MCU, and mixed electronic circuits and their PCB layouts. You can also analyze SMPS, RF, communication, and optoelectronic circuits; generate and debug MCU code using the integrated flowchart tool; and test microcontroller applications in a mixed circuit environment. Electrical engineers and Electronics and communication engineers will find TINA an easy to use, high performance tool, while educators will welcome its unique features for the training environment Analyze your circuit through more than 20 different analysis modes or with 10 high tech virtual instruments. Present your results in TINA's sophisticated diagram windows, on virtual instruments, or in the live interactive mode where you can even edit your circuit during operation, develop, run,.

Introduction: Clipping circuit is used to select for transmission that part of an arbitrary waveform which lie above or below some reference level. Clipping circuit clips some portion of the waveform. Clipping circuit are also referred to as voltage limiters. Clamping circuit preserves shape of the waveform while clipping circuit does not preserve shape of waveform. Clipping circuit uses some reference level. Waveform above or below this reference level is clipped. Clipping circuits are also known as voltage limiter or amplitude limiter or slicers. Some clipper circuits are explained here. Positive cycle clipper circuits : Positive cycle clipper circuits are shown in the figure with series and shunt diode. Transfer characteristics and output waveform for sinusoidal input is shown.

EXPERIMENT -

For series diode : When vi(t)<0, Diode D is in ON condition, input waveform is available at the output. When vi(t)>0, Diode D is in OFF condition, input waveform is not available at the output and output remains zero.

Series diode positive clipping with positive reference : In the circuit shown in the following figure, DC reference voltage is used. This is useful of we do not want to clip entire positive cycle but some portion of positive half cycle.

When vi(t)<VR, Diode D is in ON condition , input waveform is available at the output. When vi(t)> VR, Diode D is in OFF condition , input waveform is not available at the output and output remains zero. Thus portion of output cycle clips as shown in the waveform.

Series diode positive clipping with negative reference : If want to clip entire positive half cycle along with some portion of the negative cycle then negative DC reference ca n be used as shown in the following figure. In this case only some portion of negative cycle passes to the output.

When vi(t)<-VR, Diode D is in ON condition, input waveform is available at the output. When vi(t )> -VR, Diode D is in OFF condition , input waveform is not available at the output and output remains constant equal to VR. Thus entire positive cycle and some portion of negative cycle below VR clips.

Series diode negative clipping with reference : Negative clipping can be achieved by changing polarity of the diode. Negative clipper with negative reference voltage is shown in the following figure. This will clip some portion of negative cycle.

When vi(t)>-VR, Diode D is in ON condition , input waveform is available at the output. When vi(t )< -VR, Diode D is in OFF condition, input waveform is not available at the output and output voltage remains constant which is equal to VR.

PROCEDURE: Steps for circuit simulation Step 1: Circuit Creation

Place circuit parts Connect the parts Specify values and names

Step 2: Specify type of simulation

Select type of analysis: Bias, DC sweep, Transient, AC sweep Run

Step 3: View the results

Use cursors to analyze waveforms Check the output Save or print the results

EXPERIMENT NOAIM : To observe waveforms at the output of clamper circuits Apparatus required:- Tina pro. Software installed in a computer.

About TINA V9:TINA Design Suite is a powerful yet affordable circuit simulation and PCB design software package for analyzing, designing, and real time testing of analog, digital, VHDL, MCU, and mixed electronic circuits and their PCB layouts. You can also analyze SMPS, RF, communication, and optoelectronic circuits; generate and debug MCU code using the integrated flowchart tool; and test microcontroller applications in a mixed circuit environment. Electrical engineers and Electronics and communication engineers will find TINA an easy to use, high performance tool, while educators will welcome its unique features for the training environment Analyze your circuit through more than 20 different analysis modes or with 10 high tech virtual instruments. Present your results in TINA's sophisticated diagram windows, on virtual instruments, or in the live interactive mode where you can even edit your circuit during operation, develop, run,.

Introduction: Diodes are widely used in clipping and clamping circuits. Clamping circuits are used to change DC level (average level) of the signal which adds or subtracts DC value with the signal. In clamping, shape of waveform remains same only offset value (DC level) will change. Positive clamping adds positive DC level in the signal while negative clamping adds negative DC level in the signal. Capacitor is widely used in the clamping circuit. Typical clamping waveforms for the sinusoidal signal is shown below for positive clamping and negative clamping.

Clamping circuit is used in video amplifier of television receiver to restore DC level of video signal to preserve overall brightness of the scene. Clamping circuit is also used in offset control of function generator . Zero offset means no DC value is added in the AC signal.

Circuit operation: Typical circuit operation of the positive clamping and negative clamping is given below.

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Clamping:

Consider that 4V peak to peak signal with zero offset is applied at the input of the clamping circuit. On the first negative half cycle of the input signal, diode D turn s ON because anode voltage is greater than cathode voltage. Capacitor charges to the negative peak voltage let us say -2V in our example. The value of R should be high so that it will not discharge the capacitance. After completion of negative cycle, positive cycle starts and diode turns OFF. Capacitance voltage is in series with the input voltage. As per the Kirchoffs law output voltage will be addition of input voltage and capacitance voltage. Input signal is positive swing of +2V and capacitor voltage is +2V. Thus during the positive peak of the input voltage total output voltage will be +4V. We can consider that during the positive cycle capacitor acts like a battery and adds +2V in the input . Waveforms a redrawn here considering ideal diode, no leakage in the capacitance under ideal situations which will be different in practical situations.

Z Steps for circuit simulation Step 1: Circuit Creation

Place circuit parts Connect the parts Specify values and names

Step 2: Specify type of simulation

Select type of analysis: Bias, DC sweep, Transient, AC sweep Run Step 3: View the results Use cursors to analyze waveforms Check the output Save or print the results

EXPERIMENT NOAIM : To plot the response of the half wave and full wave rectifier

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Tina pro. Software installed in a computer. THEORY : In the field of electronics almost all the devices required the DC source so to convert the main AC supply into DC we need some type of electronic device too. Rectifiers are the devices which are used to convert the AC signal to DC signal A device which is used to convert a sinusoidal input waveform (whose average value is zero into a unidirectional wave form which has a constant peak value is called rectifier. The basic principle of the rectifier is behind the working of the diode which conducts in only one direction.on the basis of the number and configuration of the diodes rectifiers are divided into following types: Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier Half wave rectifier: As the name suggest half wave rectifier do the half wave rectification only . It uses single diode which has zero resistance in forward direction and infinite resistance in reverse direction.in this way it works as a short circuit in the positive half cycle of sinusoidal wave and as a open circuit in negative half cycle.

Parameters of half wave rectifier: Average value of output voltage(Vdc)=Vm/=0.318Vm(Vm is the peak value of ac input voltage) Average value of output current(Idc )=Im/=0.318Im(Im is the value of load current) Peak inverse voltage(PIV)=Vm

Steps for circuit simulation Step 1: Circuit Creation

Place circuit parts Connect the parts Specify values and names

Step 2: Specify type of simulation

Select type of analysis: Bias, DC sweep, Transient, AC sweep Run Step 3: View the results Use cursors to analyze waveforms Check the output Save or print the results

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EXPERIMENT NOAIM: To observe waveforms RLC ciruit. Apparatus required:- Tina pro. Software installed in a computer.

An RLC circuit (or LCR circuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor, connected in series or in parallel. The RLC part of the name is due to those letters being the usual electrical symbols for resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively. There are many applications for this circuit. They are used in many different types of oscillator circuit. Another important application is for tuning, such as in radio receivers or television sets, where they are used to select a narrow range of frequencies from the ambient radio waves. In this role the circuit is often referred to as a tuned circuit. An RLC circuit can be used as a band-pass filter or a band-stop filter.
Introduction:-

V - the voltage of the power source I - the current in the circuit R - the resistance of the resistor L - the inductance of the inductor C - the capacitance of the capacitor

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PROCEDURE: Steps for circuit simulation Step 1: Circuit Creation

Place circuit parts Connect the parts Specify values and names

Step 2: Specify type of simulation

Select type of analysis: Bias, DC sweep, Transient, AC sweep Run Step 3: View the results Use cursors to analyze waveforms Check the output Save or print the results

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EXPERIMENT NO AIM: To observe waveforms RC ciruit.

Apparatus required:- Tina pro. Software installed in a computer

About TINA V9:TINA Design Suite is a powerful yet affordable circuit simulation and PCB design software package for analyzing, designing, and real time testing of analog, digital, VHDL, MCU, and mixed electronic circuits and their PCB layouts. You can also analyze SMPS, RF, communication, and optoelectronic circuits; generate and debug MCU code using the integrated flowchart tool; and test microcontroller applications in a mixed circuit environment. Electrical engineers and Electronics and communication engineers will find TINA an easy to use, high performance tool, while educators will welcome its unique features for the training environment Analyze your circuit through more than 20 different analysis modes or with 10 high tech virtual instruments. Present your results in TINA's sophisticated diagram windows, on virtual instruments, or in the live interactive mode where you can even edit your circuit during operation, develop, run,.

Introduction :- There are three basic, linear passive lumped analog circuit components: the resistor (R), the capacitor (C), and the inductor (L). These may be combined in the RC circuit, the RL circuit, the LC circuit, and the RLC circuit, with the abbreviations indicating which components are used. These circuits, among them, exhibit a large number of important types of behaviour that are fundamental to much of analog electronics. RC is an electric circuit composed of resistors and capacitors driven by a voltage or current source. A first order RC circuit is composed of one resistor and one capacitor and is the simplest type of RC circuit. RC circuits can be used to filter a signal by blocking certain frequencies and passing others. The four most common RC filters are the high-pass filter, low-pass filter, band-pass filter, and band-stop filter.

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Figure :-

RC CIRCUIT NETWORK

PROCEDURE: Steps for circuit simulation Step 1: Circuit Creation

Place circuit parts Connect the parts Specify values and names

Step 2: Specify type of simulation

Select type of analysis: Bias, DC sweep, Transient, AC sweep Run Step 3: View the results Use cursors to analyze waveforms Check the output Save or print the results

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EXPERIMENT NO
AIM: To study forward & reverse characteristics of Si & Ge junction diode.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Simulation software (TINA-PRO/ PSPICE/ CIRCUIT MAKER/ GPSIM/

SAPWIN etc)

APPRATUS REQUIRED: Bread board, Diode, resistors, multimeter, connecting wires THEORY: Semiconductor P-N junction diode is practically unidirectional device, Having more conduction in one direction and negligible conduction in opposite direction.

When P-N junction is formed, potential barrier is developed across the Junction due to the diffusion of majority carriers & that opposes further transition of Electrons and holes across the junction. N ow if external potential difference is applied across the junction so That P end is connected to +ve terminal of the external dc supply, it will oppose the Junction potential barrier and when external potential difference, just balance the Junction potential difference, now it becomes easy for electron and hole to move Toward the junction and cross the junction. Thus with further increase in external potential difference, more & more electrons and holes will cross the junction and contribute towards external current in circuit. Hence diode conducts and it is referred as forward bias. If polarity of external supply is reversed so that P end is connected to ve terminal of the external supply, it will assist the junction potential difference And width of depletion layer will further increase making it still difficult for electrons And holes to cross the junction. Hence diode will conduct & it is referred as reverse Bias. However due to majority carriers very small current of the order of few A for Ge And nA for Si when diode is reversed bias. But as compare to forward current which is of the order of few mA practically we can neglect the reverse current & p-n Junction diode may be treated as unidirectional device. Semiconductor used for the manufacturing of p-n junction diode may be Si or Ge. The basic difference between Si & Ge is that energy band gap is 1.1ev for Si and 0.72ev for Ge at room temperature. Both Si & Ge diode are commercially available. A number of differences between these two types are relevant in design. A note worthy feature of V-I characteristic is that there exist cut in or Threshold voltage Vt below which the current is very small. Beyond Vt the current rises very rapidly. It is found that Vt is

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Z approximately 0.3v for Ge or 0.6v for Si. In the reverse bias condition value of reverse saturation current for Si is in nA & For Ge is in A.

PROCEDURE: Steps for circuit simulation

Step 1: Circuit Creation

Place circuit parts Connect the parts Specify values and names

Step 2: Specify type of simulation

Select type of analysis: Bias, DC sweep, Transient, AC sweep Run Step 3: View the results Use cursors to analyze waveforms Check the output Save or print the results

Steps for circuit implementation on Bread-Board

1. erify the components require to implement the circuit. 2. onnect the circuit as per circuit diagram. 3. btain the values of different parameters. 4. ompare the obtained result with the simulation result. v C O C

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Z Circuit diagram (Forward bias)

Circuit diagram (Reverse bias)

OBSERVATION TABLE:FORWARD BIAS:S .NO i

VF (Volt) S e

G i

IF (A) S e

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REVERSE BIAS:S .NO i VF (Volt) S e IF (A) S i e

V-I CHARACTERISTICS:-

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RESULT & CONCLUSION :- From V-I characteristic of diode it is observed that ,diode conducts, when it is forward bias. Current increase rapidly with forward voltage. However there is cutin voltage below which there is no conduction. In reverse bias, reverse saturation current of diode is very small, of the order of few uA. This diode can be used as a unidirectional devise which find important application as rectifier. It is observed from the comparison of V-I characteristic of Si & Ge diode that cutin voltage for Ge diode is smaller than cutin voltage for Si diode & forward current for Ge diode is larger for same forward voltage. Reverse saturation current in Ge diode is also higher than the reverse saturation current in Si diode of comparable ratings.

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Z OBSERVATION OF STUDENTS AFTER CIRCUIT IMPLEMENTATION & SIMULATION:

Viva Questions?
1. hy silicon is preferred over germanium in the construction of diode ? 2. hat is the effect of temperature on the diode ? W

3. xplain the following terms: (a) static resistance (b) bulk resistance (c) junction resistance (d) a.c. or dynamic resistance (e) reverse resistance of diode 4. What are the applications of a diode? 5 What is the diode current equation? 6. What is the difference between Drift current and Diffusion current? 7. What is reverse saturation current ? 8. What is reverse recovery time? 9. Draw the symbols of all types of diodes? 10. What is the difference between zener breakdown & avalanche breakdown?

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EXPERIMENT NO.
AIM : To plot the response of the half wave and full wave rectifier APPARATUS REQUIRED: Rectifiers trainer kit, connecting wires, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, BNC-crocodile and connecting leads. THEORY : In the field of electronics almost all the devices required the DC source so to convert the main AC supply into DC we need some type of electronic device too. Rectifiers are the devices which are used to convert the AC signal to DC signal A device which is used to convert a sinusoidal input waveform (whose average value is zero into a unidirectional wave form which has a constant peak value is called rectifier. The basic principle of the rectifier is behind the working of the diode which conducts in only one direction.on the basis of the number and configuration of the diodes rectifiers are divided into following types: Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier Centre tapped full wave rectifier Bridge type full wave rectifier Half wave rectifier: As the name suggest half wave rectifier do the half wave rectification only . It uses single diode which has zero resistance in forward direction and infinite resistance in reverse direction.in this way it works as a short circuit in the positive half cycle of sinusoidal wave and as a open circuit in negative half cycle.

Parameters of half wave rectifier: Average value of output voltage(Vdc)=Vm/=0.318Vm(Vm is the peak value of ac input voltage) Average value of output current(Idc )=Im/=0.318Im(Im is the value of load current) Peak inverse voltage(PIV)=Vm Full wave rectifier: As the name suggest full wave rectifier do the full wave rectification this configuration of rectifiers uses multiple diodes for the better output .on the basis of that there are two types of full wave rectifier : 22

Z Center tapped full wave rectifier : as the name suggest in this type of rectifier the transformer is center tapped,in this there are two diodes .in the positive direction diode D1 conducts and in the negative direction D2 conducts In this way we get the full wave rectification..

Parameters of center tapped full wave rectifier: Average value of output voltage(Vdc)=2Vm/=0.636Vm(Vm is the peak value of ac input voltage) Average value of output current(Idc )=2Im/=0.636Im(Im is the value of load current) Peak inverse voltage(PIV)=2Vm Bridge type full wave rectifier: As the name suggest in the bridge type rectifier the diodes are configured in the bridge pattern .in this type of rectifier we use four diodes int the bridge form.this configuration decrease the value of PIV

Parameters of bridge type full wave rectifier: Average value of output voltage(Vdc)=2Vm/=0.636Vm(Vm is the peak value of ac input voltage) Average value of output current(Idc )=2Im/=0.636Im(Im is the value of load current) Peak inverse voltage(PIV)=Vm

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Z PROCEDURE: Trainer Kit diagram:

Half wave rectifier: 1. Connect the A terminal with B terminal and E with F to complete the input circuit by using diode D1. 2. For taken the output connect any value from the given value of resistances between I and J terminal. 3. Connect the output terminal of trainer kit circuit with the CRO input terminal and view the output. 4. We can also use the given filter circuit(C1 and C2) to fine the output of the rectifier. Full wave rectifier: 1. Now connect the circuit for the full wave rectification by using two diodes. 2. For this connect A terminal with B terminal and C terminal with D terminal. Also connect G with H and E with F and complete the circuit. 3. Rest of the procedure is same as half wave rectifier. 4. Instead of the two diodes we can also use bridge configuration of the rectifier.

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Z RESULT: The output of circuit viewed practically is same as its theoretical output.

? Viva Questions ?
1. What are the advantages of a bridge rectifier as compared to a full wave center tapped rectifier? 2. Explain following (a)Rectified d.c. voltage. (b) Average d.c. load current

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EXPERIMENT NOAIM : To obtain common emitter characteristics of NPN transistor

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Transistor characteristics trainer kit, connecting wires THEORY: As the name suggest the transistor is a device which transfers the resistance. It is a three terminal semiconductor device with two junctions, consisting of three different doped semiconducting regions called emitter, base and collector. The doping is heavy in the emitter region and is light in the base region, while it is only moderate in the collector region. Area of cross section of emitter is lower than collector but higher than base. The base region of the transistor is invariably thin. There are two types of junction transistors: PNP NPN

Working principle of transistor: In the transistor collector base junction is always reverse biased. Naturally small current flows through the diode circuit. Current in this circuit can be increased by forward biasing the emitter base junction .When the emitter base junction is forward biased , heavily doped emitter ejects large number of majority carriers into the base region . These carriers diffuse through the base region and enter into the collector region, constituting an increasing current in the collector circuit of the transistor. But base being thin and lightly doped, few of the majority carriers ejected into it. This constitutes the base current. Thus most of the majority carriers ejected into the base region diffuse into the collector region. Thus the collector current is almost equal to the emitter current. Thus Emitter current (IE) = Collector current(IC) + Base current (IB) Configuration of transistor: Following are the main types of transistor configuration: Common emitter (CE): In this type of configuration the emitter terminal is common between input and output circuit. Common collector (CC): In this type of configuration the collector terminal is common between input and output circuit. Common base (CB): In this type of configuration the base terminal is common between input and output circuit. 26

Input output characteristics of the Common Emitter Configuration: The input output characteristics of any type of circuit shows its application area and also its operating conditions. The input characteristics of any transistor decides its working at the input, similarly the output characteristics decides its working at the output.

Input characteristics

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Output characteristics

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PROCEDURE: Trainer kit diagram

Input characteristics: 1. Firstly connect the C and D point with a single connecting wire and make it short circuit. 2. Then set Vce to a proper value say 1V by connecting the point F with white terminal adjacent to voltmeter and point G with black terminal using connecting wires and adjusting the knob K2. 3. After setting the Vce remove the connecting wire from voltmeter and let the knob K2 as it is. 4. Next connect point A with the white terminal of voltmeter and point H with the black terminal to set the value of Vbe by using knob K1. 5. To see the value of Ib corresponding to Vbe connect point A with the white terminal of ammeter and point B with the black terminal. 6. Plot the graph between different values of Ib and Vbe for the different values of Vce. Output characteristics: 1. Firstly set the proper value of Ib current by connecting point A to white terminal adjacent to ammeter and point B to the black terminal and adjusting the knob K1. 2. Then remove the connecting wires and leave K2 as it is. 3. Connect the point C with the black terminal and point D with the white to get the value of Ic. 29

Z 4. Connect the point F with the black terminal and point G with the white terminal to get the value of Vce. 5. Plot the graph between Ic and Vce different values to get the output characteristics. OBSERVATION TABLE: Input characteristics Vce (volts) S .No. Vbe (volts) Ib (A)

Vce= 1V

Vce= 5V

Vce= 10V

Output characteristics Ib( A) S .No. Vce(V olts) Ic( mA) 30

Ib =5 A

Ib =10 A Ib =15 A

RESULT: The plotted practical input output characteristics is similar to the theoretical characteristics

? Viva Questions ?

1. raw the input/output characteristics of CB configuration of transistor?

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Z 2. Define the current gain for CE configuration & CB configuration? 3. Drive the relationship between and ? 4. Compare the performance of CB , CE & CC configuration on the basis of : (a) input resistance (b) output resistance (c) current gain (d) voltage gain 5. Explain the term base-width modulation or early effect? 6. Why CE is preferred over CB & CC configuration? 7. What is phototransistor? 8. Differentiate emitter ,base & collector on the basis of their construction? 9. What is heat sink? 10.Draw the current analogy of the PNP transistor?

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Z LIST OF EXPERIMENT
AIM: To observe waveforms at the output of clipper circuits

AIM : To observe waveforms at the output of clamper circuits

AIM :

To plot the response of the half wave and full wave rectifier

AIM: To observe waveforms RLC ciruit.

AIM: To observe waveforms RC ciruit.

AIM: To study forward & reverse characteristics of Si & Ge junction diode.

AIM : To plot the response of the half wave and full wave rectifier \
AIM : To obtain common emitter characteristics of NPN transistor

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