THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF GOOD ENGLISH VOCABULARY 1.

Structural analysis LANGUAGE OF ORIGIN Greek Latin Latin Latin Greek Latin Latin Latin Latin Greek Latin Latin Latin Greek Old English Greek Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Greek Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Old English MEANING not, without off, away, from both, around before against, opposed to twice, double around, on all sides against, opposite away, off, less ten a tenth a half not, down, less, away on, over front, before over, too much in, into, inside not among, between, with each other inside, within, inwards one many, much through, by, by means of much, many after, behind before under across, beyond beyond, too much beneath, too little EXAMPLES amoral, asexual absolve, abdicate, absolve ambivalent antedate anticlimax bilateral, bilingual circumnavigate contravene, counterattack debar, dehumidify decagon, decade decimal demigod disarm, dissuade epicenter, epidermis foreground, foresight hypersensitive incarnate, embrace, enclose inactive, illiterate, impossible, irresistible interbreed, intercept intravenous, introverted monochrome multifarious perambulate polygamy, polytechnic post-war preface, precaution submerge transform, transgress ultraconservative underwater, underpaid

PREFIX aab-, absambianteantibicircumcontra-, counterdedec-, decadecidemidis-, dif-, diepiforehyperin-, en-, emin-, il-, im-, irinterintra-, intromonomult-, multiperpolypostpresubtransultraunder-

SUFFIX -able, -ible -acity -cle, -cule, -ule -ee -ess -et, -ette, -let -fy, -ify -most -oid -some -tude -wise

LANGUAGE MEANING OF ORIGIN Latin capable of, inclined to, causing Latin quality or state of being Latin small size Latin recipient of an action, or someone in particular state Greek indicates a female Old French smallness or lower status Latin indicates making or becoming Old English indicates superlative Greek indicates resemblance Old English indicates a tendency Latin condition or state of being Old English manner, direction, or reference to

EXAMPLES uncountable, terrible, audible capacity, opacity particle, molecule licensee, escapee, addressee empress, lioness islet, booklet electrify, falsify uppermost, hindmost humanoid awesome, worrisome longitude, exactitude clockwise, health-wise

2. Word formation a. Compounding b. Blending c. Clipping d. Acronym e. Abbreviation f. Affixation g. Reduplication h. Inflection 3. Context Clues

fairy + tale rain+drop motorbike cinematography examination - exam PAGASA Dr. Atty. Ms. un + comfort + able nitty-gritty hodge-podge pure (purity, purify, purification)

a. Definition context clue * The arbitrator, the neutral person chosen to settle the dispute, arrived at her decision. b. Synonym/ Restatement context clue * The slender woman was so thin her clothes were too big on her. c. Antonym/ Contrast context clue * Unlike Janricks room, which was immaculate, Adrians room was very messy. d. Description context clue * The cacophonous jangling made the child cover his ears. e. Summary context clue * Mozart gave his first public recital at the age of six. By the age of thirteen, he had written symphonies. He is justly called a child prodigy.

f. Inference context clue Walts pugnacious behavior made his opponent back down. g. Visual context clue 4. Idioms Sell someone short underestimate someone. Sitting pretty be in a fortunate position Hit the ceiling become very angry Pull someone's leg fool someone Wet blanket a dull or boring person who spoils the happiness of others Keep under ones hat keep something a secret Get off someones back stop bothering someone Shape up or ship out behave properly or leave Make ends meet pay ones bills Out of the woods out of danger In stitches laugh very hard Spill the beans reveal a secret Tongue in cheek not serious For the birds uninteresting and meaningless Shake a leg hurry 5. FIGURES OF SPEECH/ RHETORICAL DEVICES Alliteration Antithesis Apostrophe Assonance Asyndeton Ellipsis (also known as aposiopesis) use of words with same initial consonant sound The furrow followed free expression in which contrasting ideas are carefully balanced More haste, less speed an old-fashioned direct address to an absent or dead person or thing Oh freedom! Hear our cry! repetition of vowel sounds, producing a half-rhyme effect Slow progress over the cold plateau Omission of conjunctions I came, I saw, I conquered Omission of words, or sudden breaking off in mid-sentence, for dramatic effect The door opened and

Euphemism Hyperbole Innuendo Irony

an inoffensive expression used in a place of a sharper or more explicit one, such as to pass away for to die exaggeration or overstatement for emphasis I could eat a horse. an indirect or subtle suggestion, often intended as a veiled accusation Not everyone would be able to believe that use of word/s to convey something markedly different from the literal meaning; a common component of sarcasm, though not necessarily so cutting Its a secret so only half of London knows about it. understatement in which an idea is tellingly conveyed, typically by contradicting its opposite Hes not exactly sober. a comparison of two dissimilar things She is an angel in disguise. use of concrete term to refer to some wider idea that it characterizes The crown for monarchy use of words whose sound suggests their meaning Sizzle, splash, crack, buzz, zap a phrase linking incongruous or contradictory terms A wise fool an apparently absurd or self-contradictory statement that may nevertheless be true or wise Her gentleness was too hurtful to bear.

Litotes (also known as meiosis) Metaphor Metonymy Onomatopoeia Oxymoron Paradox

Pathetic fallacy

the assigning of human feelings or characteristics to natural or inanimate objects The trees groaned the representation of an object or idea as human The jovial moon smiling benignly down at us repletion of conjunctions for rhetorical effect went to Florence and Venice and Rome and Naples

Personification (also known as Prosopopoeia) Polysyndeton

Rhetorical question (also known as Erotema) Simile Syllepsis Synecdoche Transferred epithet (also known as hypallage) zeugma

A question asked for effect or to convey information rather than to elicit an answer Isnt it a lovely day? How could anyone support such a useless project? comparison of two unlike ideas or objects, using the word like or as Lips like rosebuds and kisses like wine use of single word to apply to two others, in different ways He held his tongue and my hand use of the name of a part to refer to the whole, or vice versa, such as forty sail to refer to forty ships deliberate misapplication of an adjective to a noun his sleepless pillow; the condemned cell use of a single word to apply to two others, especially when it is appropriate to only one; a faulty syllepsis He held his tongue and his promise GRAMMAR

THE PARTS OF SPEECH NOUNS What do they name?

Persons Kinds of people Places Types of Places Objects Animals Qualities

John, Mao Tse Tung, Emerson, Robert Browning student, author, Filipino, wife, millionaire, burglar Manila, London, Thailand, Cavite, Philippine Normal University island, state, country, village, hospital, school, jail, zoo chair, table, book, pencil, coconut, car, bottle, watch deer, fox, giraffe, bull, bison, ox, pigeon, penguin, whale courage, honesty, intelligence, cowardice, importance, beauty, responsibility, tact, diplomacy Physical conditions/ heat, brilliance, softness, roughness, dampness, darkness, Properties malleability, durability, endurance Social Conditions Emotions Time Activities/ Events poverty, illiteracy, equality, delinquency, illegality Love, hate, sorrow, anger, joy, misery, boredom, excitement Monday, noon, night, week, December soccer, archery, Olympics, holiday, birthday, wedding, baptism

Directions Ideologies and Philosophies Measures Aspect of nature State of mind Studies Process Substances

north, east, south, west, northeast, southwest, southeast, northwest communism, democracy, socialism, existentialism, Confucianism, Taoism, authoritarianism, nihilism Yard, gallon, liter, meter, kilogram, pounds, slice, loaf, bunch, inch Typhoon, thunderstorm, summer, winter, autumn, landslides depression, fear, psychosis, intuition engineering, education, nursing, political science, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, neurology Condensation, sublimation, evaporation, condensation, photosynthesis, effusion, diffusion, ovulation Iron, potassium, calcium, silver, gold, magnesium

IDENTIFYING NOUNS -ment -ance -ing -ure -ity -or (agreement) (resemblance) (misspelling) (failure) (nativity) (actor) - ship -cy -age -ee -ism -ist (kinship) (currency) (drainage) (honoree) (communism) (scientist) -dom -ics -er -hood -ice -ion (kingdom) (stylistics) (laborer) (childhood) (notice) (imagination)

RULES IN FORMING PLURAL OF NOUNS: 1. The plural of nouns is usually formed by adding - s to a singular noun. Examples: days, times, hours, dogs, cats, pigs, books, pencils, films, cameras, tricks 2. Nouns ending in ss, z, x, sh, and ch form the plural by adding - es. Examples: glass/glasses, buzz/buzzes, box/boxes, bush/bushes, switch/switches, bench/benches, churches, moss/mosses 3. Nouns ending in - y preceded by a consonant formed plural by changing - y to - ies. Examples: lady, ladies; city, cities; army, armies 4. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form their plurals by adding - s. Example: boy - boys; day - days 5. Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant is formed into a plural by adding es. Examples: heroes potatoes cargoes volcanoes tomato 6. Most nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel is formed into a plural by adding - s. Examples: folio, folios; cameo; cameos; studio, studios; portfolio, portfolios The following are among those that add s only

canto solo piano lasso radio halo memento albino sirocco alto Take note of theses nouns ending in -o which take either -s or -es: buffalo - buffalos/buffaloes cargo - cargos/cargoes halo - halos/haloes motto - mottos/mottoes tornado- tornados/tornadoes zero - zeros/zeroes 7. Other nouns retain foreign plurals. Note that some of these have adapted a regular English plural form as well. Foreign noun larva vertebra alumnus bacillus cactus focus fungus nucleus octopus radius stimulus syllabus terminus addendum bacterium datum erratum Plural Form larvae vertebrae alumni bacilli cacti /cactuses foci fungi/funguses nuclei octopi/octopuses radii stimuli syllabi/syllabuses termini addenda bacteria data errata Foreign noun criterion phenomenon automaton libretto tempo virtuoso cherub seraph schema apex appendix cervix index matrix vortex Axis basis Plural Form criteria phenomena automata libretti tempi virtuosi cherubim seraphim schemata apices/apexes appendices/appendixe s cervices/cervixes indices/ matrices /matrixes vortices axes bases

medium memorandum ovum stratum symposium

media memoranda/memorandum s ova strata symposia/symposiums

crisis diagnosis hypothesis parenthesis emphasis

crises diagnoses hypotheses parentheses emphases

10. The following nouns have no singular: Scissors Xs tongs 5s trousers Ss cattle measles mumps

11. Plurals of figures, signs, and letters used as words add s. 12. Nouns ending in ics are singular when they denote scientific subjects such as Physics,

Mathematics, Linguistics
13. Nouns ending in ics are plural when they denote activities or qualities such as acoustics,

acrobatics, athletics
14. Hyphenated nouns or compound nouns usually attach -s to the element that is actually

being pluralized: mothers-in-law, officers-in-charge, editors-in-chief, mayors-elect. FORMING NOUN POSSESSIVES:

1. An apostrophe is added to form the possessive case of singular and plural nouns ending

in -s or -z; s to those not ending in -s or z 2. Of phrase is used after nouns not related to people. e.g. the tires of the car the surface of the road the roof of the house the leaves of the tree 3. Most words that end in an unpronounced "s" form their possessive by adding an apostrophe + s e.g. Illinois's next governor the Marine Corps's policy There are certain expressions that end in s or the s sound that traditionally require an apostrophe only: e.g. for appearance' sake for conscience' sake

4.

When a word ends in a double s, we're better off writing its possessive with only an apostrophe: e.g. the boss' memo the witness' statement

5.

When we want the possessive of a pluralized family name, we pluralize first and then simply make the name possessive with the use of an apostrophe. e.g. Smiths' car Joneses' home

6. When you are showing possession with compounded nouns, the apostrophe's placement depends on whether the nouns are acting separately or together. e.g. Miguel's and Cecilia's new cars are in the parking lot. Miguel and Cecilia's new cars are in the parking lot.

II. PRONOUNS words that stand for a noun or noun phrase

-

The noun it refers to is called the antecedent (e.g I read a book. It was good. The pronoun it refers to the antecedent noun book)
SINGULAR 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person (neuter) 3rd Person (masculine) 3rd Person (feminine) PLURAL 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person Subjective I you it he she Subjective we you they Objective me you it him her Objective us you them Possessive my, mine your, yours its his her, hers Possessive our, ours your, yours their, theirs Reflexive myself yourself
itself himself

herself Reflexive ourselves yourselves themselves

Remember these: * For clarity, a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in person, number and gender. e.g. President Obama appointed his wife to redesign health care. * Possessive pronouns are not followed immediately by a noun; they stand alone. e.g. That book is hers. * Possessive pronouns do NOT take apostrophes.

e.g. a gem that has lost its brilliance III. ADJECTIVES The Order Of Adjectives In A Series Determiners they, Ordinal and only Cardinal/Enumerator **Intensifier (adv) Observation/ Opinion Size Shape Age Color Origin Material Qualifier (Noun) this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, yours, him, his, her, hers, their; or a, an, the first, last, only two, three, other rather, very, most, least beautiful, interesting, polite, difficult, hardworking tall, wide, large, high, narrow, thin round, rectangular, circular e.g. young, old, new, ancient e.g. red, black, pale e.g. French, American, Canadian e.g. woolen, metallic, wooden e.g. rocking, hunting, passenger, book e.g. chair, cabin, car, cover

Degrees of Adjectives: Positive wealthy cheap remarkable Comparative wealthier cheaper more remarkable Superlative wealthiest cheapest most remarkable

Adjectives which have irregular comparative and superlative forms: Positive bad badly far (distance) far (extent) good ill late less little (amount) many much well Comparative worse worse farther further better worse later lesser less more more better Superlative worst worst farthest furthest best worst latest or last least least most most best

Adjectives without comparative degree according to Bryan Garner:

absolute adequate chief complete devoid entire fatal final ideal

impossible inevitable irrevocable main manifest minor paramount perpetual preferable

principal stationary sufficient unanimous unavoidable unbroken unique universal whole

Collective Adjectives When the definite article, the, is combined with an adjective describing a class or group of people, the resulting phrase can act as a noun: the poor, the rich, the oppressed, the homeless, the lonely, the unlettered, the unwashed, the gathered, the dear departed. IV. ASPECT AND TENSES OF VERB SIMPLE PRESENT verb + -s/-es singular subject verb, base form plural subject

* Habitual action, general timeless truth, states e.g. He walks to school every day. Water boils at 1000C. I know him personally. * Subordinate clause of time or condition when the main clause contains a future-time verb e.g. If my brother gets the job, hell be able to pay the bills. SIMPLE PAST Verb + -d/-ed

* A definite single completed event/ action in the past e.g. He joined the campaign last Sunday. * Repeated event/ action in the past e.g. It rained almost every weekend last month. * Imaginative conditional in the subordinate clause e.g. If he took better care of himself, he wouldnt be absent so often. PERFECT ASPECT PRESENT PERFECT has/have + V-en (past participle) * An action began at a prior point in time and continues into the present e.g. She has been a teacher since 1998. * An action occurring or not at an unspecified prior time that has relevance to the present e.g I have eaten.

* A very recently completed action (often with just) e.g They have just passed the examination. PAST PERFECT had + V-en (past participle) * An action completed in the past before another past action e.g. He had already left before I arrived. FUTURE PERFECT will/shall + have + V-en (past participle) * An action that will be completed in the future prior to some other future event e.g. At the end of this review, you will have been listening for four hours. PROGRESSIVE/ CONTINUOUS ASPECT PRESENT PROGRESSIVE am/is/are + V-ing

* Activity in progress e.g. She is attending a conference now. * A temporary situation e.g. My friend is enjoying her vacation. * Future action, when the event is planned. e.g. The visitors are coming on Friday. * A change in progress e.g. The hole is getting bigger and bigger. PAST PROGRESSIVE was/were + V-ing * Past action simultaneous with some other event that is usually stated in the simple past e.g. He was walking to school when I saw him this morning. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE will/shall + be + V-ing

* An action that will be in progress at a specific time in the future. e.g. He will be picking me up at the airport on Monday at 6:00 PM. PERFECT PROGRESSIVE Present Perfect Progressive has/have + been + V-ing * An action began in the past and continues up to present, and possibly in the future. e.g. She has been working out with her best friend. Past Perfect Progressive had + been + V-ing * A past action in progress interrupted by a more recent past action e.g. We had been planning on our vacation, but we decided to cancel it after one of our friends lost his job. Future Perfect Progressive will have + been + V-ing

* Habitual action taking place in the present and will continue into the future up until or through a specific future time e.g. On summer next year, we will have been living together for ten years. RULES ON SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT A subject and its verb should agree in number and person. Rule 1: e.g. Rule 2: e.g. Rule 3: e.g. A compound subject joined by or, or nor requires a singular verb if each part is singular; if the parts differ in number or person the verb agrees with the subject nearer to it. My brother or my sisters plan to watch the summer Olympics. The small shops or the supermall is open 24/7. Two singular subjects connected by either-or or neither-nor require a singular verb, but when a singular and plural subject are connected, use a plural verb. Either Adrian or Jerico is joining the trip. Neither Edbert nor his cousins are participating in the event. When one of your two subjects is I, put it second and follow it with the singular verb am. Neither my parents nor I am buying the old car.

Rule 4: Compound subjects joined by and requires a plural verb, but when the parts refer to the same person or have some other close relation, they take a singular verb. Also, if the parts of the compound subject are modified by each, or no, singular verb is required. e.g. His friend and coach is always available. The teacher and the club adviser are arriving late. Rule 5: Phrases beginning with along with, as well as, together with, in addition to, besides, or not do not change the number of the subject. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb. e.g The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly. Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking. Rule 6: Each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody require singular verbs. Both, few, many and several take plural verbs, while the other indefinite pronouns like all, any, more, most and some take a singular or a plural verb depending on the meaning of the word they refer to. e.g. Each of the players listen carefully to the instructions.

Both are correct. All the money is reserved for emergencies. All of the funds are reserved for emergencies. Rule 7: With words that indicate portionspercent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder look at the noun in the object of the preposition to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb. e.g. Ten percent of the donation is for the street children. Ten percent of the donations are for the church construction. Some of the pie is missing. Some of the pies are missing. Rule 8: Nouns ending in s such as athletics, economics, linguistics, mathematics, measles, mumps, news, physics, politics and statistics, as well as place names such as Athens, Wales, and United States take singular verbs. A few of these words may also take plural verbs only when they describe individual items rather than whole bodies of activity or knowledge. e.g. Statistics is required of psychology majors. The statistics prove him wrong.

Rule 9: The verb agrees with the subject even when the normal word order is inverted (mainly in questions and in constructions beginning with here or there). e.g. Is voting a right or a privilege? Are a right and a privilege the same thing? Here lies the greatest warrior of all times. There convene the members of the jury. Rule 10: Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time. e.g. Two years is a long time to wait. Two thousand dollars was all he received from the company. Rule 11: Who, which and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents. e.g The city mayor ought to listen to the people who work for him. He is one of the aides who work unpaid.

Rule 12: Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence. e.g. The group agrees that the action is necessary. The group have gone their separate ways. Rule 13: A number of takes a plural verb while the number of takes a singular verb. e.g. A number of people are in debt. The number of people in debt is very large. Rule 14: Use singular verbs with proper nouns used as subjects or as words being described or defined. e.g. Hakada Associates is a new firm. Folks is a down-home word for people. Angels and Demons remains a top-selling Dan Brown book. V. ADVERBS ADVERBS IN A SERIES: Manner frequency place time cause/reason VI. PREPOSITIONS - show relationships in time and space and relationships between ideas (logical relationships) USES months, years, seasons IN enclosure in a landmark special expressions days of the week and dates ON AT FROM OFF OUT OF contact with a surface time place as a point of orientation separation from a point of orientation separation from contact with a line or surface separation from inside of a landmark EXAMPLES in December in 2009 in autumn in the box in the meantime in addition in contrast on Wednesday on the fifth of July on the table on the floor at six oclock at the corner away from me fell off the stem fish out of water

BY

denotes the idea of connection or nearness association and/or accompaniment

Stand by me. dinner with friends rank with the best spoke with ease through the woods through the years through thick and thin walked about the room about10 miles about the book under the mango tree under 18 over the fence above average before us before the year ends between you and me

WITH

equal standing or ability Manner structures space as a tunnel or channel Duration Endurance spatial movement in any direction Approximation concerning something at a lower point than a landmark Below at a higher point than the landmark higher than in front of earlier than at an intermediate point in relation to two entities

THROUGH

ABOUT

UNDER OVER ABOVE BEFORE BETWEEN

VII. CONJUNCTIONS/ COORDINATION - process of connecting words or phrases that have the same grammatical function in a sentence. AND BUT YET SO FOR OR NOR addition shows contrast but at the same time therefore because one or the other of two alternatives is true conjoins two negative sentences, both of which are true

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS pairs of conjunctions that are used together bothand neithernor whetheror eitheror not onlybut also Correlative conjunctions must be followed by the same grammatical structures. Incorrect: Either the meat (noun) was tough to begin with or overcooked.(adjective)

Correct:

Either the meat (noun) was tough to begin with or it (pronoun) was overcooked.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS connect two complete ideas by making one of the ideas subordinate to or less important than the other. e.g. He ran steadily as though wolves were after him. (main idea) (subordinate idea). VIII. MODALS Modals convey various meanings, with these being most common: Ability can, *could, be able to Possibility *could,* may, might, could/may/might + have + PP Necessity or obligation must, have to, be supposed to Permission *may, can, *could Intention will, shall, should Request *could, can, *would Advisability should, had better, ought to, should + have + PP Past habit would, used to (*formal/ polite) IX. TAG QUESTIONS A tag question is a question added at the end of a sentence. Positive Sentence + Negative Tag Positive Answer Expected Kyla is here, isnt she? Yes, she is. Negative Sentence + Positive Tag Negative Answer Expected Kyla isnt here, is she? No, she isnt. for this/that : for these/those : for there + be: one, nobody. e.g.

This/That is your bag, isnt it? These/Those are yours, arent they? There is a party tonight, isnt there?

They is usually used in a tag to refer to everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, no Everyone took the test, didnt they?

Sentences with negative words take affirmative tag. e.g. Youve never met him, have you?

XI. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

states a factual relation between cause and effect, makes a prediction, or speculates about what might happen usually consists of a subordinate clause beginning with if, when or unless and a main clause stating the result

Factual relation * If something always or usually happens, use present tense in both clauses e.g. When a voter casts a ballot, he or she has complete privacy. * If the link events occurred in the past, use the past tense in both clauses. e.g When voters registered in some US states, they had to pay a poll tax. Prediction * Generally use the present tense in the subordinate clause, and the future tense in the main clause e.g Unless citizens regain faith in politics, they will not vote. Speculation * For events that are possible in the present, but unlikely, use the past tense in the subordinate clause and would, could, or might + verbs plain form in the main clause: e.g. If voters had more confidence, they would vote more often. * Use were, instead of was when the subject is a singular noun or pronoun. e.g. If he were alive, he would like to run for a public office. * For events that were impossible in the past, use the past perfect tense in the subordinate clause and would, could, or might + the present perfect tense in the main clause e.g. If he had reigned for 50 years, he might have changed the ideology of all nations. XII. PARALLELISM a similarity of grammatical form for similar elements of meaning within a sentence or among sentences.

e.g. The industrial base was shifting and shrinking (parallel words) Politicians rarely acknowledged the problem or proposed alternatives (parallel phrases) Industrial workers were understandably disturbed that they were losing their jobs and that no one seemed to care. (parallel clauses) XIII. MISPLACED AND DANGLING MODIFIERS The rule of thumb for positioning is this: a word or phrase should stand as close as possible to any other word or phrase related to it in meaning or grammar. Consider these careless sentences:

I leaned back in my chair contentedly, watching the baby playing and puffing away at my cigar Now that youve watched me at target practice, try shooting yourself. To advance her career, she needs to do a solo recital badly. He went out to face the lion after taking farewell of his wife armed with only a light rifle. ENGLISH PHONOLOGY

Rules you should know: 1. Every syllable in every word must contain a vowel. The vowels are: a, e, i, o, u, and y (although y is a consonant when at the beginning of a word). 2. When "c" is followed by "e, i, or y," it usually has the soft sound of "s" as in city. 3. A consonant digraph is two or more consonants that are grouped together and represent a single sound. E.g. wh (what), sh (shout), wr (write), kn (know), th (that), ch (child), ph (graph), tch (watch), gh (laugh), ng (ring). 5. When a syllable ends in a consonant and has only one vowel, that vowel is short. e.g. tap, bed, wish, lock, bug 6. When a syllable ends in a silent "e," the vowel that comes before the silent "e" is long. e.g. take, gene, bite, hope, fuse. 7. When a syllable has two vowels together, the first vowel is usually long and the second vowel is silent as in stain. 8. When a syllable ends in a vowel and is the only vowel, that vowel is usually long. e.g. ba/ker, be/come, bi/sect, go/ing, fu/ture, my/self. 9. When a vowel is followed by "r" in the same syllable, the vowel is neither long nor short. e.g. charm, term, shirt, corn, surf STRESS Two-syllable words used as object or idea representation are usually stressed on the first syllable. e.g. MOther, SYStem, BAby, LOVEly, CRAzy Two-syllable words which suggest action are usually stressed on the second syllable. e.g. diGEST, conTENT, comBINE, reCALL, reverb Numbers ending in -teen should be stressed on the second syllable.

Compound nouns usually receive the stress on the first noun. Compound verbs are stressed on the second component. self or selves in reflexive pronouns are stressed. When the suffix ic, -ical, -ity, -tion or sion is added, there is a shift of accent to the syllable immediately preceding the added suffix. E.g. eCOnomy ecoNOmical aBOlish aboLItion CEremony cereMOnial Final s is pronounced /s/ after voiceless sounds (t, p and k), as in the following examples seat - seat/s/ rope - rope/s/ back - back/s/ Final s is pronounced /z/ after voiced sounds (d, b and g) and ee, as in the following examples: seed - seed/z/ robe - robe/z/ bag - bag/z/ see - see/z/ Final s and es are pronounced /z/ after -sh, -ch, -s, -z and -ge/-dge sounds, as in the following examples: edge = edg/z/ catch= catch/z/ kiss = kiss/z/ mix = mix/z/

INTONATION CONTOUR 1. 231 e.g. - Statement or declarative sentence 2We watched a 3movie1

- Command e.g. 2Read the an3nouncement1

- Wh- or information question (a question that begins with words like who, what, where, when, why, which, and how) e.g. 2. 233 e.g. 2Whats your 3name1 - Yes-no question in statement form 2Hes an 3actor3

- Yes-no question in question form e.g. 2Are you 3coming3

- Initial grammatical unit (phrase, clause, or sentence segment) e.g. 2If youll 3notice3

3. 232 - Initial grammatical unit (an alternate for 233) e.g. 2If youll 3notice2

- Statement to indicate the speaker has more to say; often the word following this contour is but. e.g. 2Shes a bright 3girl2 but . . .

LITERATURE
Types of Literature: Prose a literary medium distinguished from poetry especially by greater irregularity and variety of rhythm and its closed resemblance to the patterns of everyday speech. Poetry writing that formulates a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience in language chosen and arranged to create a specific response through its meaning, sound and rhythm Epic a long narrative poem recounting the deeds of a hero with supernatural powers The Iliad written by Homer, consists of twenty-four books covering the last forty-nine days of the tenth year of the Trojan war, probably in the 10th century BC. Most of the books give detailed accounts of the fierce battles waged on the plains of Troy. The Odyssey also by Homer, consists also of twenty-four books, is closely connected with The Iliad inasmuch as it represents the ten year struggle of the Greek Ulysses (odysseus) to reach and save his own kingdom, Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. The Aeneid the great epic of Rome was written by Virgil in the first century AD. The story tells how Aeneas is able to find the city of Rome Beowulf Englands oldest epic; about the heroic deeds of Beowulf who helps save the kingdom of Heorot. The Shah Namah the great epic of Persia; written by Firdausi meaning Singer of Paradise. His real name is Abdul Kasim Mausur. The story tells of the struggle of Persia to overthrow her enemies. The Nibelungenlied a folk epic consisting of 39 parts called adventures. It tells the story of Siegfried and how he helped King Gunther win his bride. It is also about the lack of union between rival, kindred tribes.

The Song of Roland the great epic of France was probably written near the end of the 11th century. The story depicted the great struggle of Christian knights of France under Charlemagne against the Moors of the Mohammedans The Cid the rgat epic of Spain written about 1200 AD. The story tells of the deeds of the great Cid or lord, Rodrigo in his wars with the Moors. The Divine Comedy written by Dante, is the great epic of Italy and medieval Christianity. The epic has three parts: inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. The great purpose to be accomplished in the epic is the salvation of the soul. Metrical Romance a long, rambling love story in tverse. It is the type of literature most characteristic of the Middle Ages. Chivalry, romantic love, religion predominate. Wonderful and impossible adventures are set forth. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight a story of courage, loyalty and faith in God The Ballad a short narrative poem which could be sung. Its very short and told in great rapidity. It tells a simple, serious story which usually had a tragic ending; love, tragedy, and the super natural predominated. Metrical tale some say its like a short story in verse. It deals with any emotion or phase of life, and its story is told in as simple, straightforward and realistic manner as possible. The Canterbury Tales written by Geoffrey Chaucer; a large collection of otherwise isolated stories. It features the different people of Medieval England. The Decameron written by an Italian writer, Giovanni Boccaccio. It is a collection of tales told by a group of young people escaping the Black Death from the city Lyric poetry- derives its name from the musical instrument, the lyre, and was primarily intended to be sung. It expresses the authors own moods, emotions and reflections in musical language. Ode the most majestic type of lyric poetry. It expresses enthusiasm, lofty praise of some person or thing, deep reflection or restrained feeling.

Ode to the West Wind Percy Bysshe Shelley Ode to Duty William Wordsworth Ode to a Nightingale John Keats

Elegy a lyric poem that voices the authors personal grief for a loved one or a meditation on death. It is a poem of lamentation

Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard Thomas Gray shows a solemn reflection on the unmarked graves of common people in the lonely churchyard She Dwelt Among the Untrodden Ways William Wordsworth Break, Break, Break Alfred Lord Tennyson

Sonnet composed of 14 iambic pentameter lines. The Italian writer Petrarch was the first to write sonnets. (Shakespeare, Spenser, Sidney some of sonnet writers in England) Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets - Sonnet 18 and 29 are the most popular Wordsworth wrote 400 sonnets Composed Upon Westminster Bridge, 1802 How Do I Love Thee Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Simple Lyric touches every mood and emotion of human heart. Al the other poems that do not properly belong under any of the types of lyrics are called simple lyric poems.

The Tiger William Blake Snow Dust, The Road not Taken, Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening Robert Frost Gitanjali Rabindranath Tagore

Dramatic Poetry the poetic form is used to set forth life and character by means of speech and action Poetic plays dramas written in verse form The Drama of Greece and Rome Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, Medea by Euripides; The Dramas of Shakespeare Dramatic Monologue has but one speaker and is not adapted for regular stage presentation. It is, however, sometimes used for declamatory purposes. The great master of this form was Robert Browning. He chooses a particular crisis in the life of the speaker makes him lay bare the depts. Of his soul and unconsciously reveals all the hidden springs and motives for actions. His most famous is My Last Duchess Prose Drama a composition intended to portray life or character or tell a story usually involving conflicts and emotions through action and dialogue and typically designed for theatrical performance.

A Dolls House Henrik Ibsen the husband in the story treats Nora, the wife, a doll, a plaything, a pet, instead of a woman, as a person Death of a Salesman Arthur Miller The Physician in spite of Himself Moliere Cyrano de Bergerac Edmond Rostand

The Essay an analytic, interpretative, or critical literary composition usually much shorter and less systematic and formal than a dissertation or thesis and usually dealing with its subject from a limited and often personal point of view

Familiar essay an informal, light-hearted form of the essay Formal essay a serious form of the essay

Short story a brief, fictional prose narrative to be distinguished from longer, more expansive forms such as the novel or epic. It is usually concerned with a single effect conveyed in a significant episode or scene involving a limited number of characters, sometimes only one. The Cask of Amontillado, The Masque of the Red Death, Tell-Tale Heart, The Fall of the House of Usher - Edgar Allan Poe The Necklace; The Jewels; The Piece of String Guy de Maupassant A Father; The Slanderer; The Lottery Ticket Anton Chekhov The Last Leaf; The gift of the Magi O Henry

The Novel from the Italian word novella. A fictional prose narrative of considerable length and a certain complexity that deals imaginatively with human experience through a connected sequence of events involving a group of people in specific setting

Picaresque novel an early form of the novel, usually a first-person narrative, relating the adventures of a rogue or lowborn adventurer (Spanish: picaro) who drifts from place to place and from one social milieu to another in an effort to survive. Don Quixote Miguel de Cervantes The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Mark Twain

Epistolary Novel a novel told through the medium of letters by one or more of the characters. This was one of the earliest forms of the novel to be developed.

Gothic novel European Romantic, pseudo medieval fiction having a prevailing atmosphere of mystery and terror.
Frankenstein Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley

Dracula Bram Stoker Jane Eyre Charlotte Bronte

Roman-A-Clef French, literally it means novel with a key. A novel that has extra literary interest of portraying identifiable, sometimes real people more or less thinly disguised as fictional characters Historical novel a novel that has its setting a period of history and that attempts to convey the spirit, manners and social conditions of a past age with realistic detail and fidelity to historical fact. War and Peace Leo Tolstoy

Novel of manners work of fiction that re-creates a social world, conveying with finely detailed observation of the customs, values, and mores of a highly developed complex society. Pride and Prejudice; Sense and Sensibility Jane Austen The Age of Innocence Edith Wharton

OTHER LITERARY TERMS Comedy the genre of dramatic literature that deals with the light or amusing or with the serious and profound in a light, familiar or satirical manner Farce a light dramatic composition that uses highly improbable situations, stereotyped characters, extravagant exaggeration, and violent horseplay. Allegory a more or less symbolic fictional narrative that conveys a secondary meaning not explicitly set forth in the literal narrative The Pilgrims Progress John Bunyan
Everyman anonymous

Bildungsroman a class of novel in German literature that deals with the formative years of the main character. It ends on a positive note, though it may be tempered by resignation and nostalgia

 Parzival Wolfram von Eschenbach The Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man James Joyce Magic Realism Latin-American literary phenomenon characterized by the incorporation of fantastic or mythical elements matter-of-factly into otherwise realistic fiction
One Hundred Years of Solitude - Gabriel Garcia Marquez

The House of the Spirits Isabel Allende Like Water for Chocolate Laura Esquivel Stream of consciousness technique a narrative technique in non-dramatic fiction intended to render the flow of myriad impressions visual, auditory, physical, associative, and subliminal. The Sound and the Fury William Faulkner The Waves Virginia Woolf Satire a usually topical literary composition holding up human or individual vices, folly, abuses or shortcomings to censure by means of ridicule, irony, or other methods, sometimes with intent to bring about improvement Gullivers Travel Jonathan Swift Allusion an implied or direct reference to a person, event, thing, or a part of another text. Im not Lazarus, nor Prince Hamlet Between the devil and the deep blue sea Literature is my Achilles heel Foreshadowing the organization and presentation of events and scenes in a work or fiction or drama so that the reader or observer is prepared to some degree for what occurs later in the work. Flashback a literary or theatrical technique used also in motion pictures and television that involves interruption of the chronological sequence of events by interjection of events or scenes of earlier occurrence SOME PHILIPPINE NOVELS A Child of Sorrow (1921) is the first novel in English written by Zoilo Galang. It is an extremely sentimental romance in which the lover consumed by gnawing sadness, soon followed his beloved to the grave

The Filipino Rebel (1929) by Maximo Kalaw is about an ailing revolutionary Juanito who reneges on his promise to marry the barrio lass Josefa by marrying instead a rich mans daughter Leonor for his political ambition. Without Seeing the Dawn (1947) by Stevan Javellana is the first novel written by a Filipino after WWII. It is divided into two books, namely Day and Night, both subdivision terms are symbolical. The Woman Who Had Two Navels (1960) Nick Joaquins first novel expansion of a successful story with the same title. This novel portrays a woman named Connie Escobar as having two cultural antecedents The Hand of the Enemy (1961) receives the Stonehill Award and the Republic Cultural Heritage Award in 1963. It is the story of Emma Mercene who, through the vagaries of fortunes, becomes dispossessed of her inheritance and finds difficulty in setting down and in realizing happiness with her loving but ambitious husband Domingo Gorrez

POEMS

Sursum Corda by Justo Juliano is the first known Filipino poem and appeared in the Philippine Free Press in 1907 Reminiscences (1921) by Lorenzo Paredes was the first collection of poems in book form Never Mind (1922) was a collection of Procopio Solidums poem. Azucena (1925) was published in New York and was written by Marcelo de Gracia Concepcion, a leading poet of the early period Signatures (1955) the first Philippine poetry magazine in English

DRAMA

Daughters for Sale and other Plays (1924) is a collection of plays written by Carlos P. Romulo The Toymaker and Other Plays (1951) is an anthology of Jorge Bacobo Panday Pira, a historical play and The Olive Garden, a biblical play, are Jose M. Hernandezs works Sa Pula, sa Puti is a farce written by Francisco Rodrigo Sepang Loca is Amelia Lapena Bonifacios best remembered play.

A Portrait of an Artist as a Filipino is Nick Joaquins elegy in three scenes about two middle-aged sisters Paula and Candida whose domineering father is a painter.

ESSAYS

Life and Success (1921) by Zoilo M. Galang became the first volume of essays in English Literature and Society (1940) by Salvador P. Lopez led the school of writers who stressed social consciousness Horizon from my Nipa Hut (1941) by Mang Kiko or Francisco Icasiano included humorous essays which revealed a deep sympathy for the common tao.

WRITING IN THE DISCIPLINE

1. What is the pattern used in the paragraph below? A scientist and a poet both strive for perfection: the poet refines his sensibilities, while the scientist reduces everything to precise measurements. Both share the beauty of a rainbow; but while the poet imagines a pot of gold at the end of it, the scientist wants to spell it out in angstrom units measuring wavelength.

A. Cause-effect B. Process

C. Comparison-contrast D. description

2. The doctor recommended eating healthier meals and __________ A. To do exercise B. Doing exercise C. exercise D. to exercise

3. Which of the following may be used to fill in the blak? A. Cause-effect B. Process C. Comparison-contrast D. description

4. Which would be the appropriate subordinator to be used to complete the sentence? ________________ she finally grew accustomed to the dark, she noticed a small chest in the corner of the room. A. When B. Where C. While D. Because

5. Which of the following will best complete the sentence below?

The demonstrators were so enraged _______________ A. because they threw tomatoes to the effigy and burned it afterwards B. that they threw tomatoes to the effigy and burned it afterwards C. since they threw tomatoes to the effigy and burned it afterwards D. for they threw tomatoes to the effigy and burned it afterwards Paragraph Organization 1. Arrange the sentences in order to make a good and sound paragraph: (1) (2) (3) (4) Changes in food preparation methods, for example, have improved our lives greatly. The twentieth century has brought with it many advances. In some ways life is worse, but mostly it is better. With those advances, human lives have changed dramatically. C. 2,3,4,1 D. 2,4,3,1

A. 4,3,2,1 B. 3,1,2,4 2. A. B. C. D. 3. A. B. C. D.

Which one is the sentence that introduces the topic? Changes in food preparation methods, for example, have improved our lives greatly. The twentieth century has brought with it many advances. In some ways life is worse, but mostly it is better. With those advances, human lives have changed dramatically. Which one is the thesis? Changes in food preparation methods, for example, have improved our lives greatly. The twentieth century has brought with it many advances. In some ways life is worse, but mostly it is better. With those advances, human lives have changed dramatically.

4. Which one is the thesis in the following sentences? A. A special concern is whether movies and television make children and society more violent. B. I believe that movies and television do influence our behavior, both for the better and for the worse. C. Do movies affect our behavior? D. None of these 5. What should be the best order of the statements given?

(1) After too many minutes without oxygen, a person would lose consciousness and eventually die. (2)Also, in vacuum a persons blood will gradually begin to boil. (3)One of the challenges that is unique to space is the fact that space is a vacuum, which is a risk for various reasons (4)First, in a vacuum there is no atmosphere and therefore no air pressure. Without air pressure, the human body has no oxygen to sustain itself.

(5)Finally, without an atmosphere, the rays of the Sun can cause radiation poisoning. A. DCBAE B. DCABE C. CBDAE D. CDABE E. BEDAC

READING TEST VOCABULARY BUILDING

1. When the judge told the prosecutor to continue her inquiry, the prosecutor asked more

questions of the witness. A. Lecture B. Questioning

C. Speech

D. Argument

2. Some elderly people live in such abject poverty that they go without meals. A. little B. jaded C. miserable D. charming 3. The librarian directed the students to the periodicals section to find Time and Wall Street

Journal. A. Newspaper/ magazines A. Injured A. Angle

B. books

C. periods of history C. quiet D. personality

D. microfilm D. made

4. Although George was a great basketball player, he felt inept at parties

B. unskilled/ awkward B. control C. outside

5. Feeling trapped when in crowds, Joe stayed on the periphery of the group

THINKING AND STUDY SKILLS

1. Mr. Reyes brought his students to the library and asked them to search for references that

they may use in writing their investigatory project. He specifically asked them to note the titles of the books that they have found relevant to their project. What reading strategy should the students use in this activity? A. Skimming B. Scanning C. Inferencing D. Predicting
2. Mr. Noceda asked his students to study their electric bills by looking at the monthly bills

and comparing it to the other months. What chart would be most appropriate in this activity? A. Bar graph B. Line graph C. Pie Graph D. Pictograph
3. Regarding personality, Felix always kept everything under tight control; Joselito, on the

other hand, was expansive. The word in bold means _____ A. Free and open B. happy and proud C. foolish and annoying 4. What particular context clue is present in item #3? A. Synonym B. antonym C. comparison-contrast

D. boring D. example

5. Jeremy failed in his final oral examination because he plagiarized. Jeremy could have

done all of the following to prevent failing, except ________ A. He should have cited sources. B. He should have prepared the speech earlier. C. He should have identified the bases for his claims. D. He should have written a sentence outline for his speech. GIVING EVIDENCE
1. There is a reason why birds fly in V formation. As birds flap their wings, the air is

disturbed. Its like the waves behind a boat, except that the birds cause airwaves. When birds are in V formation, each bird gets air support from the bird ahead. By flying in a V formation, every bird except the leader saves energy. The V formation makes flying: A. More dangerous B. easier C. safer D. boring
2. The chain of food leads back to plants. All food, if you trace it back, comes from plants.

Much of our food comes from animals. But the hog that gives the meat and the hen that lays the egg are eaters of plant food. No matter what you eat, you must thank the plants. You can tell that without any plants: A. Our animals would be thin. B. People would eat animals. C. There would be no life. D. Life would be about the same.
3. Put one ear against a long iron rail. Ask a friend to stand a few hundred feet away and

hit the iron rail with a hammer or a metal pipe. You will hear the noise in the iron rail before the sound reaches through the air. What does this experiment prove about sound waves? You can tell that sound travels: A. Only through solids B. Faster than air than through metal C. Faster through metal than through air D. Always at the same speed
4. Someone once said that for every minute we spend in anger, we lose sixty seconds of

happiness. Everyone knows how it feels when he is very angry. It certainly isnt any fun at all to have this feeling. Those sixty seconds that could have been spent in happiness are gone forever. hose sixty seconds that could have been spent in happiness are gone forever. You can tell that people: A. Cant be angry B. Cant be angry and happy at the same time C. Are angry only for sixty seconds D. Like to get angry
5. While pain is mans oldest enemies, it is also a great friend of man. Pain is the bodys

way of reporting disease or injury of body parts. If a person could feel no pain, he would

live a life of danger. Such person might even die because of a disease he did not find about in time. All people should realize that: A. Pain is pleasure B. Knowing about pain is frightening C. Suffering pain can sometimes be helpful D. Pain has no meaning

ANALYZING TEST ITEMS 1. In the noun bags, the possessive is pronounced as _____. A. // B. /s/ C. /z/ D. /z/ 2. Which of the following shows the correct stress pattern for a compound verb? A. UNderstand B. unDERstand C. underSTAND D. UNDERstand 3. Which of the following illustrates the 231 intonation pattern? A. They love to pick flowers, dont they? B. Whos afraid of haunted houses? C. Bravo, that was a splendid performance! D. Hurry up, were already late. 4. The students never cheated on the examination, _________ A. B. C. D. is there? didnt they? do they? did they?

5. My mother bought _________ A. those attractive square first four wall frames B. those four first square attractive wall frames C. those first four attractive square wall frames D. those four attractive first square wall frames 6. The instructor expects students _______________________ A. to attend every class, to be doing all the assignments; and hand in homework on time. B. to be attending every class, to do all assignments, and hand in homework on time. C. to attend every class, to do all the assignments and to hand in homework on time. D. to attend every class, to do all the assignments; and to be handing in homework on time.

7. Mom told John, Come up fast. Changing this to reported speech, the correct sentence would be: A. Mom told John that he should come up fast. B. Mom said, John, Come up fast! C. Mom told John to come up fast. D. John was told by Mom to come up fast. 8. Which sentence does not have the same meaning as the others? A. I cant forget seeing snow for the first time. B. For the first time, I cant forget seeing snow. C. To see snow for the first time is unforgettable. D. Seeing snow for the first time is unforgettable. 9. Which one is grammatically incorrect? A. Last night, I had to do an errand for the family. B. It was quite early but there was a brownout and the streets were dark. C. I was asked to go to the corner store but I was afraid to go without anybody company me. D. I had to persuade my sister who was busy studying to go with me. 10. I ______ out but I didnt feel like it, so I stayed home. A. B. C. D. should have gone would have gone must have gone could have gone

11. They brought the child to the hospital because he was running at temperature. A. was too movable B. had an accident while running. C. had a fever D. was very cold 12. The proctor told the examinees to _______ the answers. A. look up B. look over C. look into D. look at 13. Just as we were about to give up, out of the clear blue sky came the happy announcement. A. expectedly B. unexpectedly C. unhappily D. happily

14. Generally, judges base their decisions on the evidence presented in court not on extraneous factors. Extraneous means A. nonsensical B. artificial C. coming from outside D. relevant 15. Which sentence is marked as 233231? A. Do you like to join torch parade? B. We want peace, good health, and a happy family life. C. Diane, as well as her friends, are planning a trip to the north. D. Do you prefer to go swimming or jog in the park? 16. Identify the grammatically incorrect sentence. A. I came today to inquire if the position for which I am interested in is still vacant. B. I want to know if it is still open for applicants who are qualified as executive secretaries. C. I wrote a letter of application and send it via e-mail. D. May I know if I have the chance of competing with the rest of the applicants? 17. Getting married is no joke. This sentence is an example of A. Metonymy B. Paradox C. Litotes D. Hyperbole 18. Can I have ______ milk in my coffee, please? A. B. C. D. a little any some a few

19. When Alma was told to buy groceries, her mother told her not to let the grass grow under her feet because she needs the things for support. A. to cut the grass B. to stop or pass over the lawn C. to stand still for a long time D. to tarry 20. I didnt get the job_____ that I had the necessary qualifications. A. B. C. D. despite of the fact in spite the fact despite that fact in spite of the fact

21. What kind of word is TELECAST? A. B. C. D. acronym clipped blend borrowed

22. Which word should receive a high level /3/ in this sentence? SOMEONE IS LOOKING FOR HER. A. someone B. is C. looking D. her 23. Which reading and writing skill is reading and making graphs? A. language B. study C. reference D. decoding 24. What method of paragraph development is used in this main idea? The exodus of Filipino workers to the Middle East is a complex psycho-economic phenomenon. A. B. C. D. classification process analysis cause-effect

25. Which word is accented on the second syllable? A. garment B. rescue C. himself D. nation 26. What kind of word is AWOL? A. borrowed B. clipped C. acronym D. blend 27. The Maranao stories about Pilandok are examples of____ A. fantastic stories B. creation myths C. folk tales

D. folk epics 28. Which behavior is not manifested by the one who has interpersonal intelligence? A. pursues personal interest B. has lots of friends C. volunteers help when others need it D. enjoys cooperative games 29. Which phrase should e used to accept diversity? A. Please use ideas that fit in with what I say in class. B. Thats not the kind of answer we can accept around here. C. Thats not how I see it, but I can understand how others might see it differently. D. Ive never heard that expression before so lets not start something new. 30. Which should be used to provide explanations? A. Today, you will have to learn this, or else B. This is a long assignment, but youll just have to do it. C. Complete this exercise, otherwise, therell be trouble. D. This will be difficulty, but it fits in with

Good luck!