VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS 2

By Prof. C. Radhakrishna

CONTENTS
VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS 2 Analysis of Voltage Instability and Collapse Small Signal (linear) Analysis Control of Voltage Instability Voltage Stability Analysis Modelling Requirements Static var system (SVSs) Protection and controls Static Analysis V-Q Sensitivity Analysis Prevention of Voltage Collapse Application of reactive power-compensating devices) Control of network voltage and generator reactive output. Coordination of protections/controls
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CONTENTS cont..
Control of transformer tap changers Under voltage load shedding System-Operating Measures Stability margin Spinning reserve Operators action

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VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS 2

Analysis of Voltage Instability and Collapse Midterm stability programs that can simulate the system up to a few minutes can be utilized for this purpose provided that they can model the load characteristics accurately and also include the dynamics of OLTC and over excitation limiters. The representation of OLTCs can significantly increase the simulation time frame as they have an intrinsic time delay of the order of 30 s and an additional 1-5 s is taken for each subsequent tap movement. It is also necessary to model correctly step size, initial tap position and tap range.
Load representation should include not only static loads which are voltage dependent but also dynamic loads such as induction motors and thermostatic loads. All the reactive compensation devices : switched shunt reactors, capacitors, SVC (with limiting action) need to be represented adequately. In addition, special protection schemes such as under voltage load shedding, OLTC blocking, reactor tripping and generator runback should be modeled.
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Small Signal (linear) Analysis

Two approaches - static analysis (considering only algebraic equations) and dynamic analysis (considering system dynamics). By defining voltage collapse proximity indicators (VCPI) it is possible to implement security assessment. The system equations are = f (x, y) 0 = g (x, y) Linearizing the above equations, we get = [JSYS] x [JSYS] is termed as the system Jacobian matrix and is distinct from the load flow Jacobian matrix [JFL]. All the eigenvalues of the system Jacobian matrix should lie in the LHP (Re (i) <0) for the equilibrium (operating) point to be stable. The system Jacobian matrix can have either A real eigenvalue which is zero or A complex pair on imaginary axis
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In the first case, instability is due to the crossing of a real eigenvalue into the RHP and the bifurcation is said to be of saddle-node type. In the second type, the instability is due to the crossing of a complex pair into the RHP and it is termed as Hopf bifurcation.

Control of Voltage Instability System must be operated with adequate margin for voltage stability. In the event of voltage instability due to unforeseen contingencies, the system control must prevent widespread voltage collapse and restore the loads as quickly as possible. The incidence of voltage instability increases as the system is operated close to its maximum loadability limit. Present trend is to operate the existing transmission facilities optimally to utilize the inherent margins available. The concept of FACTS is an important step in this direction.
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 The availability of FACTS controllers such as SVC , Controlled Series Compensation (CSC), Static Condenser (STATCON) permit operation close to the thermal limit of the lines without jeopardizing security. The reactive power compensation close to the load centers as well as at the critical buses in the network is essential for overcoming voltage instability. The location, size and speed of control have to be selected properly to have maximum benefits. The design of suitable protective measures in the event of voltage instability is also necessary. The application of under-voltage load shedding, controlled system separation and adaptive or intelligent control are steps in this direction.
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Voltage Stability Analysis The analysis of voltage stability for a given system state involves the examination of two aspects : (a) Proximity to voltage instability: How close is the system to voltage instability? Distance to instability may be measured in terms of physical quantities, such as load level, active power flow through a critical interface, and reactive power reserve. (b) Mechanism of voltage instability: How and why does instability occur? What are the key factors contributing to instability? What are the voltage-weak areas? What measures are most effective in improving voltage stability?

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System dynamics influencing voltage stability are usually slow. Many aspects of the problem can be effectively analyzed by using static methods, which examine the viability of the equilibrium point represented by a specified operating condition of the power system. The static analysis techniques can provide much insight into the nature of the problem and identify the key contributing factors.

Modelling Requirements
Power system elements that have a significant impact on voltage stability : Loads: load characteristics could be critical in voltage stability analysis. Expanded sub-transmission system representation in a voltage-weak area may be necessary. This should include transformer ULTC action, reactive power compensation, and voltage regulators in the sub-transmission system. It is important to account for voltage and frequency dependence of loads. It may also be necessary to model induction motors specifically.
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Generators and their excitation controls. For voltage stability analysis, it may be necessary to account for the droop characteristic of the AVR rather than to assume zero droop. If load (line drop) compensation is provided, its effect should be represented. Field current and armature current limits should be represented specifically rather than as a fixed value of the maximum reactive power limit.

Static var system (SVSs )

When an SVS is operating within the normal voltage control range, it maintains bus voltage with a slight droop characteristic. When operating at the reactive power limits, the SVS becomes a simple capacitor or reactor. These characteristics of SVS should be represented appropriately in voltage stability studies. Automatic generation control (AGC). These functions have to be represented appropriately.
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Protection and Controls

Examples are generator excitation protection, armature over current protection, transmission line over current protection, capacitor bank controls, phase- shifting regulators, and under voltage load shedding.

Static Analysis
The static approach captures snapshots of system conditions at various time frames along time-domain trajectory. Stability is determined by computing the V-P and Q-V curves at selected load buses. Such curves are generated by executing a large number of power flows using conventional models. Such procedures do not readily provide information useful in gaining insight into causes of stability problems. These procedures focus on individual buses . This may unrealistically distort the stability condition of the system. Also, the buses selected for Q-V and V-P analysis must be chosen carefully, and a large number of such curves may be required to obtain complete information.
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V-Q Sensitivity Analysis

The network constraints may be expressed in the following linearized form:

where P = incremental change in bus real power Q = incremental change in bus reactive power injection = incremental change in bus voltage angle V = incremental change in bus voltage magnitude The elements of the Jacobian matrix give the sensitivity between power flow and bus voltage changes. The V-Q sensitivity at a bus represents the slope of the Q-V curve at the given operating point. A positive V-Q sensitivity is indicative of stable operation; the smaller the sensitivity, the more stable the system. As stability decreases, the magnitude of the sensitivity increases, becoming infinite at the stability limit. Conversely, a negative V-Q sensitivity is indicative of unstable operation.
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 A small negative sensitivity represents a very unstable operation. Because of the nonlinear nature of the V-Q relationships, the magnitudes of the sensitivities for different system conditions do not provide a direct measure of the relative degree of stability.

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Basic Engineering Applications

Guide

to

PV

and

QV

Curves

Objective The objective of a PV and QV curves is to determine the ability of a power system to maintain voltage stability at all the buses in the system under normal and abnormal steady state operating conditions. They are useful, for example: To show the voltage collapse point of the buses in the power system network. To study the maximum transfer of power between buses before voltage collapse point. To size the reactive power compensation devices required at relevant buses to prevent voltage collapse. To study the influence of generator, loads and reactive power compensation devices on the network.
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The PV and QV curves are obtained through a series of AC load flow solutions. The PV curve is a representation of voltage change as a result of increased power transfer between two systems, and the QV curve is a representation of reactive power demand by a bus or buses as voltage level changes. PV Analysis (PV Curves) Applications PV curves are parametric study involving a series of AC load flows that monitor the changes in one set of load flow variables with respect to another in a systematic fashion. This approach is a powerful method for determining transfer limits which account for voltage and reactive flow effects. As power transfer is increased, voltage decreases at some buses on or near the transfer path. The transfer capacity where voltage reaches the low voltage criterion is the low voltage transfer limit.
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Transfer can continue to increase until the solution identifies a condition of voltage collapse; this is the voltage collapse transfer limit. The plot of the relationship between voltage at the receiving end, VR, and the load power, PR, as the power transfer is increased due to increased loading, gives the PV curves similar in characteristic to the curve shown in Figure 2. PV curves are typically used for the "knee curve analysis". It is as named because of its distinctive shape at the point of voltage collapse as the power transfer increases, as shown in Figure 2. Depending on the transfer path, different buses have different knee point. The buses closer to the transfer path will normally exhibit a more discernible knee point.
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Figure : PV Curves Voltage and Incremental Power Transfer Characteristics

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Voltage instability occurs at the "knee point" of the PV curve where the voltage drops rapidly with an increase in the transfer power flow. Load flow solution will not converge beyond this limit, indicating voltage instability. Operation at or near the stability limit is impractical and a satisfactory operating condition must be ensured to prevent voltage collapse. PV curves are generated by selecting two subsystems where the power transfer between the subsystems is incremented in a defined step size for a series of AC load flow calculations while the bus voltages, generator outputs and the branch flows of the system are monitored. When the bus voltages are plotted as a function of the incremental power transfer the PV curves are obtained. One of the subsystems in the study must be defined as the study (source) system and another as the opposing (sink) system. The power flows from the study subsystem to the opposing subsystem.

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QV Analysis (QV Curves) Applications

In the PV curve analysis, the effect of active power flow on voltage instability is demonstrated. However, it is observed that the power factor of the load has a significant impact on the overall equations. This is to be expected since the voltage drop in the line is a function of both active and reactive power transfer. Hence, the QV curves may also be used to assess voltage stability of the system. QV curves are used to determine the reactive power injection required at a bus in order to vary the bus voltage to the required value. The curve is obtained through a series of AC load flow calculations. Starting with the existing reactive loading at a bus, the voltage at the bus can be computed for a series of power flows as the reactive load is increased in steps, until the power flow experiences convergence difficulties as the system approaches the voltage collapse point.
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Figure is a typical of the QV curves that will be generated for a system that is stable at moderate loading and unstable at higher loadings.

Figure : QV Curves for a Range of System Loading

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The bottom of the QV curve, where the change of reactive power, Q, with respect to voltage, V (or derivative dQ/dV) is equal to zero, represents the voltage stability limit. Since all reactive power compensator devices are designed to operate satisfactorily when an increase in Q is accompanied by an increase in V, the operation on the right side of the QV curve is stable, whereas the operation on the left side is unstable. Also, voltage on the left side may be so low that the protective devices may be activated. The bottom of the QV curves, in addition to identifying the stability limit, defines the minimum reactive power requirement for the stable operation. Hence, the QV curve can be used to examine the type and size of compensation needed to provide voltage stability. This can be performed by superimposing the QV characteristic curves of the compensator devices on that of the system. For instance the capacitor characteristic can be drawn over the system's QV curves as shown in Figure 4.

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Figure : QV Curves and Characteristics of a Capacitor Bank Required at Stable Operating Point

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The criterion for stable operating point when using a reactive power compensator is as follow: System (dQ/dV) > Compensator (dQcomp/dV) Where: (dQ/dV) is the change of the system's reactive power, Q, with respect to voltage, V. (dQcomp/dV) is the change of the compensator's reactive power output, Qcomp, with respect to voltage, V.

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Prevention of Voltage Collapse System Design Measures (a) Application of reactive power-compensating devices
Adequate stability margins should be ensured by proper selection of compensation schemes. The selection of the sizes, ratings, and locations of the compensation devices should be based on a detailed study covering the most onerous system conditions for which the system is required to operate satisfactorily.

(b) Control of network voltage and generator reactive output

Load (or line drop) compensation of a generator AVR regulates voltage on the high tension side of, or partway through, the step-up transformer. In many situations this has a beneficial effect on voltage stability by moving the point of constant voltage electrically closer to the loads.
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(c) Coordination of protections/controls

One of the causes of voltage collapse is the lack of coordination between equipment protection/controls and power system requirements. Adequate coordination should be ensured based on dynamic simulation studies. (d) Control of transformer tap changers Where tap changing is detrimental, a simple method is to block tap changing when the source side voltage sags, and unblock when the voltage recovers. There is potential for application of improved ULTC control strategies. The best strategy depends on the characteristics of the specific system. (e) Under voltage load shedding To cater to unplanned or extreme situations, it may be necessary to use under voltage load-shedding schemes. Load shedding provides a low-cost means of preventing widespread system collapse. The characteristics and locations of the loads to be shed are more important for voltage problems . Loadshedding schemes should be designed so as to distinguish between faults, transient voltage dips, and low voltage conditions leading to voltage collapse. 10/17/2010 10:31 AM 25

System-Operating Measures (a) Stability Margin The system should be operated with an adequate voltage stability margin by the appropriate scheduling of reactive power resources and voltage profile. There are at present no widely accepted guidelines for selection of the degree of margin and the system parameters to be used as indices. If the required margin cannot be met by using available reactive power resources and voltage control facilities, it may be necessary to limit power transfers and start up additional generating units to provide voltage support at critical areas. (b) Spinning Reserve Adequate spinning reactive-power reserve must be ensured. Required reserve must be identified and maintained within each voltage control area.
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Operators Action Operators must be able to recognize voltage stability-related symptoms and take appropriate remedial actions such as voltage and power transfer control and, possibly as a last resort, load curtailment. Operating strategies that prevent voltage collapse need to established.

REFERENCES : [ 1 ] K.R. Padiyar : Power System Dynamics : Stability and Control , 2nd edition, BS Publications, 2002. [ 2 ] Prabha Kundur : Power System Stability and control , The EPRI Power System Engineering Series, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994.
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CONCLUSIONS

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THANK YOU
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