Introduction

The broadcast of a programme from source to listener involves use of studios, microphones, announcer console, switching console, telephone lines / STL and Transmitter. Normally the programmes originate from a studio centre located inside the city/town for the convenience of artists. The programme could be either live or recorded. In some cases, the programme can be from OB spot, such as commentary of cricket match etc. Programmes that are to be relayed from other Radio Stations are received in a receiving centre and then sent to the studio centre or directly received at the studio centre through RN terminal/telephone line. All these programmes are then selected and routed from studio to transmitting centre through broadcast quality telephone lines or studio transmitter microwave/VHF links. There are various studios listed below:

Broadcast Studio
A broadcast studio is an acoustically treated room. It is necessary that the place where a programme for broadcast purposes is being produced should be free of extraneous noise. This is possible only if the area of room is insulated from outside sound. Further, the microphone which is the first equipment that picks up the sound, is not able to distinguish between wanted and unwanted signals and will pick up the sound not only from the artists and the instruments but also reflections from the walls marring the quality and clarity of the programme. So the studios are to be specially treated to give an optimum reverberation time and minimum noise level. The entry to the studios is generally through sound isolating lobby called sound lock. Outside of every studio entrance, there is a warning lamp, which glows Red when the studio is ON-AIR. The studios have separate announcers booths attached to them where first level fading, mixing and cueing facilities are provided. In addition to control room and studios, dubbing/recording rooms are also provided in a studio complex. Following equipments are generally provided in a recording/dubbing room: i) ii)
iii)

Console tape recorders Console tape decks Recording/dubbing panel having switches jacks and keys etc.

The above equipments can be used for the following purpose For recording of programmes originating from any studio. For recording of programmes available in the switching consoles in control room. For dubbing of programmes available on cassette tape. For editing of programmes

For mixing and recording of programmes

Studio Operational Requirements

Many technical requirements of studios like minimum noise level, optimum reverberation time etc. are normally met at the time of installation of studio. However for operational purposes, certain basic minimum technical facilities are required for smooth transmission of programmes and for proper control. These are as follows:

Programme in a studio may originate from a microphone or a tape deck, or a turntable or a compact disc or an R-DAT. So a facility for selection of output of any of these equipments at any moment is necessary. Announcer console does this function. Facility to fade in/fade out the programme smoothly and control the programme level within prescribed limits. Facility for aural monitoring to check the quality of sound production and sound meters to indicate the intensity (VU meters). For routing of programmes from various studios/OB spots to a central control room, we require a facility to further mix/select the programmes. The Control Console in the control room performs this function. It is also called switching console. Before feeding the programmes to the transmitter, the response of the programme should be made flat by compensating HF and LF losses using equalized line amplifiers.(This is applicable in case of telephone lines only) Visual signaling facility between studio announcer booth and control room should also be provided. If the programmes from various studios are to be fed to more than one transmitter, a master switching facility is also required.

Announcer Console
Most of the studios have an attached booth, which is called transmission booth or Announcer booth or play back studio. This is also acoustically treated and contains a mixing console called Announcer Console. The Announcer Console is used for mixing and controlling the programmes that are being produced in the studio using artist microphones, tape playback decks and turn tables/CD players. This is also used for transmission of programmes either live or recorded. The technical facilities provided in a typical announcer booth, besides an Announcer Console are one or two microphones for making announcements, two turn tables for playing the gramophone records and two playback decks or tape recorders for recorded programmes on tapes. Recently CD and Rotary Head Digital Audio Tape Recorder (RDAT) are also included in the Transmission Studio.

Control Room
For two or more studios set up, there would be a provision for further mixing which is provided by a control console manned by engineers. Such control console is known as switching console. Broad functions of switching console in control room are as follows:

Switching of different sources for transmission like News, O.Bs. Other satellite based relays, live broadcast from recording studio. Level equalization and level control. Quality monitoring. Signaling to the source location. Communication link between control room and different studios.

AMPLIFIERS USED IN AIR STUDIOS Introduction

Amplifier is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. The present day electronics would not exist without this. Amplification is necessary because the desired signal is usually too weak to be directly useful. Present day amplifiers used in studios are mostly employing ICs and transistors.

Terms Used With Reference To Amplifiers

If you look at the technical specifications of any amplifier used in a studio, you will come across number of terms such as Input Impedance Input Level Output Impedance Output Level Gain Noise and Equivalent Input Noise Frequency response Distortion.

Some of these terms have been explained briefly in the following paragraphs. Input Impedance It is defined as the impedance which we get while looking into the input terminals of an amplifier. The input impedance of a pre-amplifier determines the amount of a.c. voltage the pre-amplifier will get from a microphone. The input impedance also decides the

noise performance of the amplifier. For best noise performance, the input impedance of a pre amplifier should exceed ten times the source impedance. It is because of this reason that the input impedance of a pre amplifier is always 2000 ohm or more. In some amplifiers a bridging input is provided. This implies that the input impedance is 10,000 ohm or greater and this impedance is achieved by using a special input transformer. Bridging input permits several amplifiers to be connected across a line without upsetting the impedance match of other equipment. Output Impedance The actual impedance seen when looking into the output terminals of an amplifier is called its output impedance. This term should not be confused with load impedance. Load impedance is defined as specified impedance into which a device is designed to work. Many times the load impedance is higher than the output impedance. For example the output impedance of equalized line amplifier type lab 568 is less than 50 ohm while the specified load impedance is 600 ohm. Distortion in amplifiers The amplification of a sinusoidal signal to the input of an ideal class - An amplifier will result in a sinusoidal output wave. Generally the output waveform is not an exact replica of the input signal waveform because of various types of distortions that may arise either from the inherent non-linearity in the characteristics of the active device or from the influence of the associated circuit. The types of distortions that may exist either separately or simultaneously are called non-linear distortion, frequency distortion and delay or phase shift distortion. Non linear distortion: This type of distortion results from the production of new frequencies in the output which is not present in the input signal. These new frequencies or harmonics result from the existence of non-linear dynamic curve for the active devices. The distortion is sometimes referred to as amplitude distortion or harmonic distortion. This type of distortion is more prominent when the signal levels are quite large so the dynamic operation spreads over a wide range of the characteristics. Frequency Distortion: This type of distortion exists when the signal components of different frequencies are amplified differently. In a transistor amplifier, this type of distortion may be caused either by the internal device capacitances or it may arise because of the associated circuit such as, the coupling components. If the frequency response characteristic is not a straight line over the range of frequencies under consideration, the circuit is said to exploit frequency distortion over this range. Phase shift or delay distortion: Phase shift distortion results from unequal phase shifts of signals of different frequencies. This type of distortion is not important in audio frequency amplifiers since the human ear is incapable of distinguishing relative phases of different frequency components. But it is very objectionable in the system that depends on the wave shape of the signal for their operation e.g. in television.

Noise and Equivalent Input Noise The term noise used broadly to describe any spurious electrical disturbances that cause an output when the signal is zero. Noise may be produced by causes which may be external to the system or internal to the system regardless of where it originates in the amplifier, the noise is conveniently expressed as equivalent noise voltages at the input that would cause the actual noise output. This noise is amplified along with the signal and tends to mask up the signal at the output. If in an amplifier, the noise at output is 50dB below the output signal level, then the equivalent noise at the input of the amplifier, which has a gain of 70 dB, will be -120 dbm.

Medium Wave transmitter

RF circuits consist of a crystal oscillator, transistor power amplifier, RF. Amplifier of 100 kW HMB 140 MW transmitter is shown in Fig. 2. Driver and Power

Fig.2 Block Diagram of RF Chain (HMB-140) Ref. Drg.No.:-STI (T) 452, (DC204)

Crystal Oscillator
To oscillate at a consistent frequency, the crystal is kept in an oven. The temperature of the oven is maintained between 68 to 72o C and the corresponding indication is available in the meter panel. Crystal oven is heated by + 12 V. One crystal oscillator with a stand by has been provided. It gives an output of 5 V square waves which is required to drive the Transistor Power Amplifier. The crystal oscillator works between 3 MHz and 6 MHz for different carrier frequencies. Different capacitors are used to select different frequency ranges. In addition, variable capacitor is used for varying the frequency of the crystal within a few cycles. The oscillator frequency is divided by 2, 4, or 8 which is selected by jumpering the appropriate terminals. The oscillator Unit gives 3 outputs, one each for RF output, RF Monitoring and RF output indication.

Transistor Power Amplifier

Oscillator output is fed to the transistor Power amplifier (TRPA). It gives an output of 12 Watt across 75 ohms. It works on + 20 V DC, derived from a separate rectifier and regulator. For different operating frequencies, different output filters are selected. (Low Pass Filter).

RF Driver
A 4-1000 A tetrode is used as a driver which operates under class AB condition, without drawing any grid current. About 7 to 10 Watts, of power is fed to the grid of the driver through 75: 800 ohms RF Transformer, which provides proper impedance matching to the TRPA output and also provides the necessary grid voltage swing to the driver tube.

Because the cathode is at -600 V, the effective grid to cathode bias voltage (fixed) is -50V and the effective plate voltage is 2500 V. The driver develops a peak grid voltage of 800 to 900 V at the grid of PA and PA grid current of about 0.3 A to 0.4 Amps. The required wave form for operating the PA as class -D operation is also developed at the output of the driver by mixing about 20% third harmonic with the fundamental which is the operating frequency of the transmitter.

RF Power Amplifier
CQK - 50, condensed vapour cooled tetrode valve is used as a PA stage. High level anode modulation is used, using a class B Modulator stage. The screen of the PA tube is also modulated by a separate tap on modulation transformer. Plate load impedance of the PA stage is about 750 ohms and the output impedance is 120 ohms, and it is matched by L-C components. Using various combinations of the L-C circuits plate impedance of third harmonic is created, the Harmonics also are filtered imaginatively at the output side. 11 kV DC, the HT voltage is connected to the plate of the PA valves through the secondary of the modulation transformer and RF chokes : hence the AF signal is super imposed on the DC for the PA plate.

AF Stage

The AF stage supply the audio power required to amplitude modulates the final RF stage. The output of the AF stage is superimposed upon the DC voltage to the RF PA tube via modulation transformer. An Auxiliary winding in the modulation transformer, provides the AF voltage necessary to modulate the screen of the final stage. The modulator stage consists of two CQK-25 ceramic tetrode valves working in push pull class B configuration. The drive stages up to the grid of the modulator are fully transistorized.

High Pass Filter The audio input from the speech rack is fed to active High Pass Filter. It cuts off all frequencies below 60 Hz. Its main function is to suppress the switching transistors from the audio input. This also has the audio attenuator and audio muting relay which will not allow AF to further stage till RF is about 70 kW of power. AF Pre-amplifier The output of the High Pass Filter is fed to the AF Pre-amplifier, one for each balanced audio line. Signal from the negative feed back network from the secondary of the modulation transformer and the signals from the compensator also are fed to this unit. AF Pre-Corrector Pre- amplifier outputs are fed to the AF Pre-correctors. As the final modulator valve in the AF is operating as Class B, its gain will not be uniform for various levels of AF signal. That is the gain of the modulator will be low for low level, input, and high for high level AF input because of the operating characteristics of the Vacuum tubes. Hence to compensate for the non linear gain of the modulator. The Pre-corrector amplifies the low level signal highly and high level signal with low gain. Hum compensator is used to have a better signal to noise ratio. AF Driver 2 AF drivers are used to drive the two modulator valves. The driver provides the necessary DC Bias voltage and also AF signal sufficient to modulate 100%. The output of AF driver stage is formed by four transistors in series as it works with a high voltage of about -400 V. the transistors are protected with diodes and Zener diodes against high voltages that may result due to internal tube flashovers. There is a potentiometer by which any clipping can be avoided such that the maximum modulation factor will not exceed. AF Final Stage AF final stage is equipped with ceramic tetrodes CQK-25. Filament current of this tube is about 210 Amps. At 10V. The filament transformers are of special leakage reactance type and their short circuit current is limited to about 2 to 3 times the normal load current. Hence the filament surge current at the time of switching on will not exceed the maximum limit. A varistor at the screen or spark gaps across the grid are to prevent over voltages. As the modulator valve is condensed vapour cooled tetrodes, deionised water is used for cooling. The valve required about 11.5 litres/min. of water. Two water flow switches WF1 and WF2 in the water lines of each of the valves protect against low or no water flow. Thermostats WT1 and WT2 in each water line provide protection against excessive water temp. by tripping the transmitter up to stand-by if the temperature of the water exceeds 70o C.

Modulation condenser and modulation choke have been dispensed with due to the special design of the modulation transformer. Special high power varistor is provided across the secondary winding of the modulation transformer to prevent transformer over voltages.

Power Supply in 100 kW HMB 140 MW Transmitter

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. HT -11 kV PA & Modulator : thyristor controlled for smooth variation of HT 800 V Power Supply : Screen voltage to PA valve. 1070 V : Screen voltage to modulate valve. 1900 V : Plate voltage to RF Driver - 650 V : (i) Grid Bias to PA Modulator & RF Driver (ii) A tap on -650 V provides -600 V supply to the cathode of RF Driver Main supply to transmitter 415 V. 3 Phase 50 Hertz.

-100 V for the screen of RF Driver.

6.

Earthing switch operated by a handle from the front of the rack has been provided in the filter tank. The main HT terminal and also the live ends of the filter condensers C201 to C 210 have been brought to the earthing switch. In addition all the MT voltage (- 650, 800, 1070, 1900) are also brought to the earthing switch. The 11 kV point is discharged initially through a resistor R - 543 before it is grounded. The earthing switch is interlocked to the main transmitter by micro switches S 302, S 303 and S 304. In addition, a key interlock system is provided to prevent accidental contact with high voltages.

Control and Interlock Systems In Transmitter

1. Switching Sequence of Transmitter
a) b) c) d)
a.

Ventilation. Filament Grid Bias/Medium Tension High Tension.

Ventilation: All the transmitters handle large amount of power. Basically the transmitters convert power from AC main's to Radio Frequency and Audio Frequency energy. The conversion process always results in some loss. The loss in energy is dissipated in the form of heat. The dissipated energy has to be carried away by a suitable medium to keep the raise in temperature of the transmitting equipment within limits. Hence, in order to ensure that the heat generated by the equipment is carried away as soon as it is generated the ventilation equipment need to be switched on first. Normally the cooling provided in a transmitter could be classified on the following lines : Cooling for the tube filaments.

Cooling for the tube Anodes. General cooling of the cubics. Cooling for coils, condensers, Resistors etc.

The cooling equipments comprise of blowers, pumps and heat exchangers. Another important consideration is that during the switching off sequence the cooling equipments should run a little longer to carry away the heat generated in the equipments. This is ensured by providing a time delay for the switch off of the cooling equipment. Normal time delay is of the order of 3 to 6 Minutes. The water flow and the air flow provided by the cooling equipments to the various equipments are monitored by means of air flow and water flow switches. In case of failure of water or air flow, these switches provide necessary commands for tripping the transmitter. b. Filaments : All the transmitters invariably employ tubes in their drive and final stages of RF amplifiers and sub modulator and modular stages of AF amplifiers. After ventilation equipments are switched on and requisite air and water flow established, the filament of the tubes can be switched on. While switching on filament of the tube, the control and interlocking circuits have to take care of the following points. The cold resistance of the filament is very low and hence application of full filament voltage in one strike would result in enormous filament current and may damage the tube filament. Hence, it becomes necessary to apply the filament voltage in steps. Various methods adopted are:
i.

Use of step starter resistance: Here the filament voltage of the tubes is given through a series resistance (called step starter resistance). The series resistance which limits the initial filament current is shorted and after a time interval by the use of a timer switch. Use of special filament transformer which allows slow build up of the filament voltage. Application of filament voltage in 3 or 4 steps.

ii. iii.

The emission from the tubes depends upon the temperature of the filament. Generally it takes some time for the filament to reach a steady temperature after it is switched on. Hence, it is not desirable to draw any power from the tube till it attains a stable temperature. This means that the further switching on process has to be suspended till the filament temperature and hence the emission becomes stable. This aspect is taken care of by providing a time delay of 3 to 5 minutes between the filament switching on and the next sequence namely bias switching on.
c.

Bias and Medium Tension: For obvious reasons the control grid of the tube has to be given the necessary negative bias voltage before its anode voltage can be applied. Hence, after the application of full filament voltage and after the lapse of necessary delay for the filament temperature to become stable bias voltage can be switched on. Along with bias generally anode and screen

voltages of intermediate stages and driver stages are also switched on. Application of bias and medium tension makes available very high voltages for the various transmitter equipment. Hence, in order to ensure the safety of the personnel access to these equipment should be forbidden before the application of bias and medium tension. This is ensured by providing the interlocking so that the bias and medium tension can be put on only after all the transmitter and other HV equipment doors are closed to prevent access. Connection of Load (Antenna/Dummy load) After the application of ventilation, filament and bias the anode voltage can be switched on. But before the anode voltage can be increased the interlocking circuit is to ensure that the load of the transmitter namely antenna or dummy load is connected to the transmitter. The tuning process of the various RF stages is complete and none of the tuning motors are moving. Application of Screen Voltage: In the case of tetrode tubes, the screen voltage to the tube should not be applied before the application of anode voltage to keep the screen current and screen dissipation within limits. This is taken care of by an interlocking provision that the screen voltage is applied only after the anode voltage reaches a certain pre-determined value well above the normal screen voltage. Release of Audio frequency: The application of AF signal to the AF stage in the absence of carrier power would result in the operation of modulation transformer with no load connected. This is not desirable. Therefore, the AF signal should be applied to the Audio frequency stages only when the RF power amplifier is delivering the nominal power. Normally AF frequency signal to the AF stage is released only when the carrier power is approximately 80% of the normal power.

Medium Wave Antenna

Introduction
When the electromagnetic waves in the medium wave (MW) range are directed towards the Ionosphere, they are absorbed by the D-region during the day time and are reflected from the E layer during the night time, which may travel longer distances to cause interferences. The wave length of MW signals are very large, of the order of few hundred meters, and therefore the antenna cannot be mounted a few wavelengths above the earth to radiate as space waves. MW antenna, therefore, have to exist close to the surface of the earth and the Radio waves from them have to travel close to the earth as ground waves. If the electric vector of such MW radiation is horizontal, they will be attenuated very fast with distance due to the proximity of the earth. MW antenna has to be placed vertically, so that they radiate vertically polarized signals. It is for this reason; all the MW antennas are installed vertically close to the ground. However vertical wire antenna, inverted 'L' type antenna, top loaded antenna and umbrella antenna are at a few All India Radio stations. Directional antenna systems also exist in many All India Radio stations.

Self Radiating MW Mast Antennas

They are broadly of two types: Mast isolated from ground and fed at its base. Grounded mast fed at a suitable point along its height

The first consideration of such mast is its height in terms of the wave length. What is the optimum height? Obviously the main considerations are economy consistent with maximum coverage and minimum high angle radiation (sky wave).

MW Antenna isolated from ground

FM TRANSMITTER
Introduction
There is too much over-crowding in the AM broadcast bands and shrinkage in the nighttime service area due to fading, interference, etc. FM broadcasting offers several advantages over AM such as uniform day and night coverage, good quality listening and suppression of noise, interference, etc.
Salient Features of FM Transmitters

1. 2. 3. 4.
5.

6. 7. 8.

Completely solid state. Forced air cooled with the help of rack-integrated blowers. Parallel operation of two transmitters in passive exciter standby mode. Mono or stereo broadcasting Additional information such as SCA signals and radio traffic signals (RDS) can also be transmitted. Local/Remote operation Each transmitter has been provided with a separate power supply. Transmitter frequency is crystal controlled and can be set in steps of 10 kHz using a synthesizer.

Modern FM Transmitter
Simplified block diagram of a Modern FM Transmitter is given in Fig.1. The left and right channel of audio signal is fed to stereo coder for stereo encoding. This stereo encoded signal or mono signal (either left or right channel audio) is fed to VHF oscillator and modulator. The FM modulated output is amplified by a wide band power amplifier and then fed to Antenna for transmission. Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is used as VHF oscillator and modulator. To stabilize its frequency a portion of FM modulated signal is fed to a programmable divider, which divides the frequency by a factor N to get 10 kHz frequency at the input of a phase and frequency comparator (phase detector). The factor N is automatically selected when we set the station carrier frequency. The other input of phase detector is a reference signal of 10 kHz generated by a crystal oscillator of 10 MHz and divided by a divider (1/1000). The output of phase detector is an error voltage, which is fed to VCO for correction of its frequency through rectifier and low pass filter.

Block Diagram of Modern FM Transmitter

2 x 3 kW FM Transmitter

Simplified block diagram of a 2 x 3 kW FM transmitter is shown in Fig.2. 2 x 3 kW Transmitter setup, which is more common, consists of two 3 kW transmitters, designated as transmitters A and B, whose output powers are combined with the help of a combining unit. Maximum of two transmitters can be housed in a single rack along with two Exciter units. Transmitter A is provided with a switch-on-control unit (GS 033A1) which, with the help of the Adapter plug-in-unit (KA 033A1), also ensures the parallel operation of transmitter B. Combining unit is housed in a separate rack.

Low-level modulation of VHF oscillator is carried out at the carrier frequency in the Exciter type SU 115. The carrier frequency can be selected in 10 kHz steps with the help of BCD switches in the synthesizer. The exciter drives four 1.5 kW VHF amplifier, which is a basic module in the transmitter. Two such amplifiers are connected in parallel to get 3 kW power. The transmitter is forced air-cooled with the help of a blower. A standby blower has also been provided which is automatically selected when the preselected blower fails. Both the blowers can be run if the ambient temperature exceeds 40oC. Power stages are protected against mismatch (VSWR > 1.5) or excessive heat sink temperature by automatic reduction of power with the help of control circuit. Electronic voltage regulator has not been provided for the DC supplies of power amplifiers but a more efficient system of stabilization in the AC side has been provided. This is known as AC-switch over. Transmitter operates in the passive exciter standby mode with help of switch-on-control unit. When the pre-selected exciter fails, standby exciter is automatically selected. Reverse switch over, however, is not possible.
Exciter

The Exciter is, basically, a self-contained full-fledged low power FM Transmitter. It has the capability of transmitting mono or stereo signals as well as additional information such as traffic radio, SCA (Subsidiary Channel Authorization) and RDS (Radio Data System) signals. It can give three output powers of 30 mW, 1 W or 10 W by means of internal links and switches. The output power is stabilized and is not affected by mismatch (VSWR > 1.5), temperature and AC supply fluctuations. Power of the transmitter is automatically reduced in the event of mismatch. The 10 W output stage is a separate module that can be inserted between 1 W stage and the low pass harmonics filter. This stage is fed from a switching power supply which also handles part of the RF output power control and the AC supply stabilizations. In AIR set up this 10 W unit is included as an integral part of the Exciter. This unit processes the incoming audio signals both for mono and stereo transmissions. In case of stereo transmission, the incoming L and R channel signals are processed in the stereo coder circuit to yield a stereo base band signal with 19 kHz pilot tone for modulating the carrier signal. It also has a multiplexer wherein the coded RDS and SCA signals are multiplexed with the normal stereo signal on the modulating base band. The encoders for RDS and SCA applications are external to the transmitter and have to be provided separately as and when needed.
Frequency Generation, Control and Modulation

The transmitter frequency is generated and carrier is modulated in the Synthesizer module within the Exciter. The carrier frequency is stabilized with reference to the 10 MHz frequency from a crystal oscillator using PLL and programmable dividers. The operating frequency of the transmitter can be selected internally by means of BCD switches or externally by remote control. The output of these switches generates the desired number by which the programmable divider should divide the VCO frequency (which lies between 87.5 to 108 MHz) to get a 10 kHz signal to be compared with the reference frequency. The stabilized carrier frequency is modulated with the modulating

base band consisting of the audio (mono and stereo), RDS and SCA signals. The Varactor diodes are used in the synthesizer to generate as well as modulate the carrier frequency.
Switch-ON Control Unit

The switch-on-control unit can be termed as the brain and controls the working of the transmitter A. It performs the following main functions: 1. It controls the switching ON and OFF sequence of RF power amplifiers, rack blower and RF carrier enable in the exciter. 2. Indicates the switching and the operating status of the system through LEDs. 3. Provides automatic switch over operation of the exciter in the passive exciter standby mode in which either of the two exciters can be selected to operate as the main unit. 4. It provides a reference voltage source for the output regulators in the RF amplifiers. 5. It is used for adjusting the output power of the transmitter. 6. It evaluates the fault signals provided by individual units and generates an overall sum fault signal which is indicated by an LED on the front panel. The fault is also stored in the defective unit and displayed on its front panel.
KW VHF Amplifier

This amplifier is the basic power module in the transmitter. It has a broad band design so that no tuning is required for operation over the entire FM Broadcast band. RF power transistors of its output stages are of plug in type which is easy to replace and no adjustments are required after replacement. Each power amplifier gives an output of 1.5 kW. Depending on the required configuration of the transmitter, output of several such amplifiers is combined to get the desired output power of the transmitter. For instance, for a 3 kW set-up two power amplifiers are used whereas for a 2 x 3 kW set-up, 4 such amplifiers are needed. This amplifier requires an input power of 2.5 to 3 W and consists of a driver stage (output 30 W) followed by a pre-amplifier stage (120 W). The amplification from 120 W to 1500 W in the final stage is achieved with the help of eight 200 W stages. Each 200 W stage consists of two output transistors (TP 9383, SD1460 or FM 150) operating in parallel. These RF transistors operate in wide band Class C mode and are fitted to the PCB by means of large gold plated spring contacts to obviate the need for soldering. The output of all these stages is combined via coupling networks to give the final output of 1.5 kW. A monitor in each amplifier controls the power of the driver stage depending on the reference voltage produced by the switch-on-control unit. Since this reference voltage is the same for all the VHF amplifiers being used, all of them will have the same output power. Each amplifier has a meter for indicating the forward and reflected voltages and transistor currents. Also a fault is signaled if the heat sink temperature or the VSWR

exceed the prescribed limits. In both cases, the amplifier power is automatically reduced to protect the transistors.
Power Supply System

The FM transmitter requires 3-phase power connection though all the circuits, except the power amplifiers, need only single phase supply for their operation. An AVR of 50 kVA capacity has been provided for this purpose. For each transmitter, there is a separate power distribution panel (mounted on the lower portion on the front of the rack). Both the distribution panels A&B are identical except for the difference that the LEDs, fuses and relays pertaining to switching circuit of blowers and absorber are mounted on the A panel.
FM Antenna and Feeder Cable System

The Antenna system for FM Transmitters consists of 3 main sub-systems, namely: a) b) c)

Tower

Supporting tower Main antenna Feeder Cable

A tower of good height is required for mounting the FM antenna since the coverage of the transmitter is proportional to the height of the tower. For a 100 m height, the coverage is about 60 km. Wherever new towers were to be provided, generally they are of 100 m height since beyond this height; there is steep rise in their prices because of excessive wind load on the top of the tower. At some places existing towers of Doordarshan have also been utilized for mounting the FM antenna. Provision has also been made on the AIR towers for top mounting of TV antenna below FM antenna (Aperture for Band III).
Antenna

The main requirements of the antenna to be used for FM transmitters are: Wide-band usage from 88 to 108 MHz range. Omni-directional horizontal pattern of field strength. Circular polarization for better reception. High gain for both vertical and horizontal signals. Two degrees beam tilt below horizontal Sturdy design for maintenance-free service.

Further, depending on the type of tower available for mounting the requirement is for two types of antenna. The first type is to be mounted on a small cross-section AIR Tower. For which a pole type FM antenna has been selected. For mounting on the existing TV towers, a panel type antenna has been used. The cross section of the TV tower at the AIR aperture is 2.4 x 2.4 m. The pole type antenna is quite economical as compared to

panel type antenna, but it can not be used on large area towers. For our requirement, the antennae supplied by M/s. SIRA have been found suitable.

Pole Type Antenna

The pole type antenna is mounted on one of the four faces of the tower. This system will give a field pattern within a range of 3 dB. The antenna is mounted in such a direction in which it is required to enhance the signal. The other important features are:

Very low power radiation towards Transmitter building. Spacing between dipoles is 2.6 m and all the dipoles are mounted above the other on the same face. one

Lengths of feed cables of dipoles will be different and has been calculated to give a beam tilt of 2o below horizontal. The feed point of the antenna is looking towards ground so as to avoid deterioration of the insulating flange. This flange consists of high density PVC. The life of this is expected to be about 7 to 10 years. The distance of the feeding strip is 240 mm from edge and this should not be disturbed. All the six dipoles are mounted on a 100 mm dia Pole. This pole is supported by the main tower. The antenna is fed through a power divider which divides total power into 6 outlets for feeding the 6 dipoles. The power divider is mounted on a different face of the tower. The main feeder cables, power divider branch feeder cables, and dipoles are of hollow construction to enable pressurization of the system. The antenna can handle two channels with depleting. Suitable terminations are supplied for terminating the output of power divider in case of failure of any dipole.

Panel Type Antenna

Each panel consists of: Reflector panel Two numbers of bent horizontal dipoles and Two numbers of vertical dipoles

The capacity of each dipole is 2.5 kW. Therefore, each panel is able to transmit 10 kW power. The reflector panels are constructed of GI bars whereas the dipoles are made out of steel tubes. Since each panel consists of 4 dipoles, there are a total of 64 dipoles for all the 16 panels. Therefore the power divider has 64 outlets to feed each of the dipoles. The power divider will be mounted inside the tower. This antenna gives an omni-directional pattern when the panels are mounted on all the four faces.
Feeder Cable

For connecting the output power of the transmitter to the dipoles through the power divider, a 3 dia feeder cable has been used. This cable is of hollow type construction and has to be handled very carefully. From the building to the base of the tower, the cable is laid on horizontal cable tray. Along with the tower this is fixed on the cable rack provided for this purpose. The cable is clamped at every 1.5 m and the minimum radius of bending of this cable is about 1 m. The cable has been provided with two numbers of EIA flange connectors of 3 1/8 size on both ends. Both the connectors are of gas-stop type. The cable connector on the antenna end i.e. on top of the tower is made gas-through before hoisting. This is achieved by drilling a hole through the Teflon insulator inside the connector. A dummy hole (drilled only half way) is already provided by the manufacturer for this purpose.