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Teachers and Teaching

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Teachers' Understanding of Graphic Representations of Quantitative Information

Rod Gerber & Gillian BoultonLewis
a a b

University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia

b

Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia

Available online: 28 Jul 2006

To cite this article: Rod Gerber & Gillian BoultonLewis (1998): Teachers' Understanding of Graphic Representations of Quantitative Information, Teachers and Teaching, 4:1, 21-46 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1354060980040103

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Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1998

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Teachers' Understanding of Graphic Representations of Quantitative Information

ROD GERBER
Downloaded by [University Pendidikan Sultan Idris] at 20:03 11 October 2011 University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia

GILLIAN BOULTON-LEWIS
Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia

Graphic communication is becoming an increasingly important form by which teachers and their students communicate in teaching and learning experiences. Through different forms of graphics, i.e. graphic symbol systems, teachers can promote learning in their classrooms or in other learning environments. The challenge for teachers is to realise that they and their learners do vary considerably in their understanding of graphic representations of data in subjects across the school curriculum. The study reported here focuses on the variations in secondary teachers' understanding of graphic representations of quantitative information. Twenty-six Australian teachers, who were working in schools that were located in urban environments and who taught in a broad range of subject areas, participated in a study to reveal their conceptions of graphic representations of quantitative data. A qualitative analysis of the teachers experience with a set of seven graphics about an imaginary world revealed seven different conceptions of their experience of the graphics. These results of the teachers' experiences are discussed in relation to previous understandings of teaching and learning. They indicate the need for careful consideration that teachers approach graphics in qualitatively different ways which may influence the way that they teach graphics in their subject areas.
ABSTRACT

Introduction

The singer-songwriter Neil Diamond (1976), although not writing directly about graphics, encapsulated many of the challenges associated with them in the following lyrics: Signs that burn like shooting stars, That pass across the night-time skies. They reach out in their mystic language For us to read between the lines.
1354-0602/98/010021-26 1998 Carfax Publishing Ltd

22 R. Gerber & G. Boulton-Lewis

Signs like moments hung suspended Echo just beneath the heart; Speak in voices half remembered, And half-remembered play their part. Whether these graphics are generated manually or by computer is immaterial. What is important is to appreciate that graphics are complex representations whose meanings are established by the people who read them. Previous statements by one of the authors (Gerber, 1992a, p. 195) have clarified that this complexity exists because: graphics consist of a range of symbols that do not carry fixed meanings, some of the symbols, e.g. on maps, having location; graphics such as maps are not the territory that they represent, but they are similar structures to those of the territory that is represented; graphics such as maps consist of a set of encoded signs on a plane surface; and such graphics possess a quality of image in that they are space representing space. In his illuminatory critique of Bertin's graphic sign system, Burden (1987) claimed 'It's all said with the graphic!' to demonstrate that graphic communication is a vital component of human communications. The graphics that are being considered here may be defined as: ... a representation that constitutes one of the basic sign-systems conceived by the human mind for the purposes of storing, understanding, and communicating essential information ... (Bertin, 1983, p. 2) or as ... Information that can be transmitted by visual methods such as maps, diagrams, and networks, which are governed by graphic laws. These graphic constructions transcribe the relationships existing among data elements or sets to a flat surface ... (Rouleau, 1984, p. 82) Graphic communication is the process by which people are able to share messages transmitted by way of graphics. It is distinguishable from other modes of communication in that it employs the use of two dimensions of space to represent concepts. Information on a plane has been encoded by a graphic designer in order to communicate a message to all those who read it. It is those features of graphicacy that are used in the graphic communication process to portray concepts about the real world. The proposition has been presented by Salomon (1981, p. 77) that 'due to their different natures, symbol systems vary as to the mental skills they require in the service of information extraction and processing'. Since graphics consist of at least six broad groupspaintings and photographs; cartoons and comic strips; quantitative data representations; diagrams; retrieval charts and puzzles; and maps (Gerber, 1989, p. 180)the person reading the graphics will need to transform or recode a message from one code into another to construe meaning from it. Consequently, mastery of reading skills is not related to mastery of skills required for map reading (Salomon, 1968) and reading graphs is different from interpreting photographs.

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Understanding of Graphic Representations

23

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It is a challenge for all people who are engaged in graphic communication to appreciate the variation in the symbol systems that are used in different types of graphics and to also appreciate that there is likely to be considerable variation in the ways that people understand different graphic representations of information. In doing so, Kress & van Leeuwen (1990, pp. 73-86) present a case for differentiating between the conceptual and the presentational processes in graphic communication. The former represent the structure or meaning that people place on graphics whereas the latter show how people relate to each other during the experience of graphics. In the case of photographs, conceptual photographs serve to explain what things are whilst presentational photographs entertain through telling stories. The challenge is to understand both the conceptual and the presentational aspects of different types of graphics. The place of graphics in education is widely accepted. The International Charter on Geographical Education (International Geographical Union Commission on Geographical Education, 1992, p. 5), in its section on the development of skills, focuses on: 1. using verbal, quantitative and symbolic data forms such as text, pictures, graphs, tables, diagrams and maps; 2. practising such methods as field observation and mapping, interviewing people, interpreting secondary resources and applying statistics; and 3. using communication, thinking, practical and social skills to explore geographical topics at a range of scales from, local to international. In their statement on the national geography standards, American educators (Bednarz et al., 1994, pp. 42-45) highlight the role of different graphics skills in the acquiring, organising and analysis of geographical information. Australian geographical educators (AGTA, 1988, p. 9) stress the need to know the elements of a wide range of graphics including maps, diagrams, photographs and satellite images, as well as being able to construct and interpret them. They believe that the development of these graphic skills is emphasised in geography more than any other school subject. However, focal statements about the importance of graphics in education may be located in many other subjects such as mathematics, economics, history and science. Despite the overt claims about the importance of graphics in education, their effectiveness will depend on the way that teachers use them in their teaching across the school curriculum and how well that they understand the qualities of graphics. Statements such as the one by Gerber (1989) on how to teach graphics in geography lessons offer advice to teachers on ways to maximise graphics pedagogically. Numerous articles have been published on how to teach mapping at all levels of schooling. An international study of the use of graphics in 14 countries (Gerber, 1992b) revealed considerable variation in the ways and types of graphics that were used in developed and developing countries across most continents. This investigation considered how graphics were used in textbooks, atlases and in teacher education in these countries. The extent of these variations in such areas as the use of certain types of graphics with students of different

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levels of education, the types of skill development in graphics that were attempted, the degree of abstractness of the symbols used with students of different levels, knowledge of the purpose of graphics and the varying levels of competence in graphic skills by educators, all point to the need to understand how students and their teachers understand and use graphics in their education. Research studies report on the investigation of children and graphics. For example, in the area of mapping, Ottosson (1987) concentrated on the experience of wayfinding using maps for orienteering; Torell (1990) investigated the development of environmental cognition through cognitive or mental maps by young children; Blades & Spencer (1986) studied map use by young children; and Boardman (1990) considered mapping abilities and gender differences. In the area of graphics other than maps, Linn el al. (1987) investigated misconceptions of a graph as a picture; Barclay (1987) studied how to read off values and draw conclusions from graphs and focused on the spatial demands of graphs. These examples demonstrate how virtually all of the research into learning from graphics has been with children as the subjects of study. There have been very few studies conducted with adults as the subjects. One example of this latter group of investigations is the investigation of university students' perception of different types of thematic maps (Gerber, 1992c). However, no known studies are evident on teachers' experience of a range of graphics that collectively focus on a theme. The study that will be reported here consists of a study into the experience of a range of graphics by a group of Australian secondary school teachers. The study is a part of a cross-cultural investigation involving Australian and Swedish students and teachers that is being co-ordinated by Torgny Ottosson and Rod Gerber. The Swedish side of the investigation is yet to be completed.
Eliciting Teachers' Conceptions of Graphics Using the Phenomenographic Approach

This study uses a phenomenographic approach to research. This approach seeks the qualitatively different experiences that teachers have of the phenomenon of graphic representations of quantitative data (Marton, 1992). Phenomenography investigates the relationship between the subject, i.e. the teachers, and the object, i.e. their experience of graphics representations of quantitative research, of the human experience in a specific context, i.e. Australian secondary schools. It does so by searching for qualitative differences in the reflective experiences of the teachers as expressed in their relevant discourses. These qualitative differences are expressed in the form of conceptions of human experience (Svensson, 1989). Any generalisability of understanding is investigated using this empirical approach and not assumed (Marton, 1981, p. 180). A starting point for such an approach is the belief that there are a limited number of qualitatively different ways in which people experience any phenomenon. The focus here is on describing the teachers' thinking about quantitative information that is represented in different graphic forms, e.g. maps and graphs. No attempt is made to delve into the minds of the

Understanding of Graphic Representations 25

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teachers but, rather, the concern is to see what the teachers experience when they use these graphics. The different conceptions that are revealed in the study represent different ways in which the maps and graphics appear to the teachers. In phenomenography, these different conceptions are expressed as categories of description which detail the essences of the different ways in which the teachers have experienced the graphics through their own discourses (Dahlgren & Fallsberg, 1991). Because the data are analysed in a pooled form, i.e. the individual discourses from one mass of data, it is possible for an individual to hold more than one conception of a phenomenon at any one time (Marton, 1994). It is also possible for people's conceptions of a phenomenon to change from one context to another. The relationship among the conceptions of human experience are described graphically in an outcome space and explained by the researcher (Marton, 1993). The set of conception and the outcome space constitute the results of the study. The study being reported here investigates Australian secondary teachers' conceptions of graphic representations of quantitative information. As mentioned above, it is part of a cross-cultural study being completed between Australia and Sweden on the topic. This report focuses on the experiences of the Australian teachers and makes initial comparisons with the outcomes of the experiences of Australian primary and secondary students. The Participating Teachers The 26 teachers who participated in this study came from six secondary schools in an urban Australian environment. The schools in which the teachers worked consisted of: three single-sex schools and three co-educational schools. Generally, these teachers each had more than 5 years of professional experience. Their teaching areas were quite diverse: three taught graphics/manual arts subjects, seven taught mainly geography, three taught English, one taught Latin and one teacher taught religion. All of the teachers made some use of graphics in their teaching, although some teachers, e.g. geography and mathematics' teachers, had greater opportunity to use a larger range of graphic representations of quantitative data in their lessons. All teachers participated in this study on a voluntary basis. The Interviews The data of the teachers' experience with graphics that represented quantitative information were obtained through comprehensive phenomenological interviews using the principles expressed by Kvale (1983). The interviews were conducted in the school situation by a researcher experienced in gathering phenomenographic data. Each interview sought to obtain the fullness of each teacher's experience with a set of graphics that represented an imaginary regionthe GRAK world which was modelled on a range of industrialised and developing countries in the world. Countries in the GRAK world were located geographically to reflect some

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R. Gerber & G. Boulton-Lewis

of the spatial relationships that exist in the real world situation. For example, Bovenesia is a country separated physically from other countries in the GRAK world, but Daseland and Agnien are industrialised neighbours. Seven maps and graphs were constructed to represent socio-economic conditions in the GRAK world. They were: 1. 2. 3. 4.
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Population density (coloured thematic map). Age distribution (black-and-white graphspopulation pyramids). Birth and death rates (coloured thematic map). Gross National Product per capita from 1950 to 1988 (black-and-white composite line graph). 5. Distribution of production: 1965 and 1988 (black-and-white bar graphs). 6. Major exports: 1965 and 1988 (black-and-white pie graphs). 7. Imports and exports (coloured thematic map). A sample of these graphics is provided in Fig. 1. The teachers were introduced to the graphics by the researcher and they talked freely with the researcher before the interview about the GRAK world as an imaginary place that consisted of a number of countries. This action was to familiarise themselves with the GRAK world and with the range of graphics that were provided. Once they were comfortable with the range of data about the countries in the GRAK world, each teacher was asked the question: What can you tell me about the GRAK world? The question was selected as the appropriate non-technical one to elicit the teachers' responses of their experience with the graphics, on the basis that it had already been used successfully with the students in their part of the larger study. Its merit was that the question allowed the teachers to structure their response in whatever way they choose. Each teacher was invited to deal with the maps and graphs in his/her own way, either leaving them in a collection or spreading them over the table. Specific phenomenological principles that were employed by the researcher during each interview consisted of: bracketing (i.e. suspending one's judgement or withholding one's belief about the phenomenon during the data-gathering activity), external horizon (i.e. reaching the boundaries of the teacher's experience), intentionality (i.e. the conscious decisions made during a teacher's experience of using the graphics), reduction (i.e. the systematic process of exploring for deeper explanation of each teacher's experiences of the graphics) and horizontalisation (i.e. treating all aspects of the teacher's responses as being of equal importance). These principles were applied by the researcher to maximise the quality of the teachers' responses (Spinelli, 1989). The application of these principles in the data-gathering and analysis stages of this study enhances its soundness and overall quality (Gerber, 1993; Sandberg, 1994). The interviews with each teacher were recorded by audiotape and the researcher made copious notes to indicate pertinent actions by each teacher, e.g. focused on one graphic or a collection of graphics. Each interview was transcribed verbatim and returned to the teacher for checking that the statements made were those intended. Any amendments were made as a result of this checking process.

Understanding of Graphic Representations

AGE DISTRIBUTION IN THE GRAK WORLD The Population divided into different age categories

27

Males Agnien

Females

16 12 8 4 Males

8 12 16 (%) Females

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Bovenesia

16 12 8 4 Males Catonien

8 12 16 (%) Females

i i I

16 12 8 4 Males Daseland

8 12 16 (%) Females

I 1 h i I , | 16 12 8 4 0 Males

, 1 , 1 ,

I ,

8 12 16 Females

Esoria

70+ 60-69

I 1

16 12 8

FIG. la. A sample of the graphics used.

Through such a mechanism the data were verified ready for analysis. The phenomenographic analysis was completed using the method detailed by Dahlgren & Fallsberg (1991) which involved the following sequence of actions: familiarisation with the data by reading it; condensation of the pooled data through the selection of significant statements; comparison of these statements to

28 R. Gerber & G. Boulton-Lewis

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN THE GRAK WORLD BIRTH AND DEATH RATES IN THE GRAK WORLD

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1mm (wctih) 10 000 tSUSf MAIN TRADING PARTNERS 0 100 UgnxMi DEATH RATE OS SJ-10

"f-,~f^?g,?rp:^l

10.1 IS

BIRTHRATE Owftoocn

0-10

o
11-20

O
21-30

o G
31-40 41-30

c
51-

FIG. lb. A sample of the graphics used.

find the sources of variation through the consideration of structural and referential aspects of the teachers' reflected experience; grouping of similar statements; describing the essence of similarity in each group of statements; labelling each group of different statements; and comparing these categories to establish their hierarchical relationships. Conceptions of Graphics: outcomes of a phenomenographic analysis The outcomes of this study consist of seven categories of description representing teachers' conceptions of graphic representations of quantitative information. These categories describe the variations in the experience of the teachers to interpret the seven graphic representations. The description of these variations focus on how the teachers search for information on the graphics and how they construct meanings for the symbols used on the seven graphics. The logical relations amongst the seven categories are represented graphically in the form of an outcome space. This outcome space describes the linkages between the teachers' conceptions of the information portrayed on the maps and graphs. This outcome space is predominantly hierarchical with each category, or pairs of categories, being more complex than those preceding it. These categories comprise two broad groups that are delineated on the outcome space by the

Understanding of Graphic Representations

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dotted line. The group below the line, categories 1 and 2, represent unsophisticated, incomplete ways of experiencing the graphics, whilst the second group, above the dotted line, represent ways of experiencing the graphics which are more powerful and accurate. In categories 1 and 2, the teachers focus on data that have been represented on the graphics, but in an incomplete way. The differences between them are the focus of attention in the graphics and how the data is explored. In category 1, limited understanding of the purpose of the graphics has led the teachers to make unrealistic claims about the contents of different graphics. They focus on isolated parts of selected graphics, thus not making overall interpretations of the contents of a single graphic. In category 2, the teachers were able to comprehend the purpose of the whole graphic, but they were unable to interpret the meaning of the information on the graphic in an accurate way. Teachers in this category did not relate the data across the graphics. Categories 3, 4 and 5 indicate static views of maps and graphs, but there is evidence of increasing accuracy in the interpretation of the quantitative information. However, variations occur in the way that the teachers process the information across these three conceptions. Category 3 is characterised by a focus on the patterns across one or two maps and/or graphs in a single country. Once the patterns of the one country are determined then those for another country are considered. No attempt was made to compare the patterns across the countries. In category 4, the teachers consider the spatial relations between countries quite seriously. They generate comparisons that are based on the multiple use of the graphics. In category 5, the teachers use the data from the graphics more flexibly and in multiple forms to generate an understanding of the socio-economic characteristics across countries in the GRAK world through consideration of the data trends in the mix of graphics. Reference is made in these categories to experiences in the teachers' lives or to other real world situations. Category 6 is based on the teachers' holistic view of the GRAK world. It is the revelation of 'the big picture' to the teachers by a thorough synthesis of the graphic information in a complex, interrelated manner. As such, the sum of the geographical parts and the graphical information produce an overview which indicates high-order thinking about the GRAK world. Category 7 involves a deliberate extension beyond the data by the teachers. This occurs through either extrapolation, interpolation or prediction. The cognitive processes used here by the teachers are based on their accurate interpretation of patterns and processes that involve complex spatial concepts and the flexible usage of the set of graphics. Each category is described in detail below.
Category 1: graphics are seen as localised, serially interpreted representations

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In this conception, the maps and graphs are recognised as providing data about the GRAK countries at a localised level without appreciating the overall message intended to be conveyed by the map or graph. Specific parts of the map or graph

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become the focus of the teachers' attention. Generally, these foci were related to the overall theme of the relevant map or graph. Teachers considered each graphic as a discrete entity and so approached the range of graphics in a serial fashion. Unlike the students in the related study, the teachers did not display incorrect meanings to the relevant spatial information in each graphic. Rather, their weaknesses were mainly conceptual ones associated with the socio-economic information that was represented in the graphics. The initial consideration of the graphics in this conception is to obtain an overview of the content of each graphic without seeking to engage in a detailed interpretation of the information on the graphics. The following extract illustrates this view: Teacher 5: ... Well, at the moment I'm just taking each one at a time and seeing what information I can extract from each one. Researcher: Yes. What sort of information? T5: Well, population density. How much space a person would have. [Population density map] Res.: Right. Thank you. T5: Seeing what sort of things are produced in the place by looking at the exports that are on the graphic there [Pie graphs of major exports]. Get a general idea of the wealth or otherwise of the country. Res.: That's from the GNP graph? T5: You learn something about the health of the country in relation to the living conditions in various parts of the country. Res.: That's from the births and deaths? [Birth and death rates' map] T5: From Births and Deaths, yes and of course that links up with the age pyramid that tells you something about the place also. About the make-up of the structure [Age distribution graph] of the population from there. The rather superficial interpretation that teachers make of the data is demonstrated in their vague generalisations about the data in each graphic. Each generalisation is not well developed and usually it refers to the overall graphic. Only occasionally is there a focus on a particular region in these statements. The quality of each generalisation ensures that each of them is of limited use in the interpretation of the graphic data: Res.: You're looking at Age Distribution? T18: Yes. The age distribution. Catonien. They've got one heck of a birth rate going there. That's reflected in another one which has ... Res.: That's the Birth and Death rates? T18: ... a proportional size. Yes. The Birth and Death rates as shown to

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be quite high on those. When you check that across to actually, what they're producing, the exports of the place. Res.: You're looking at the pie graph? T18: Yes. The pie graphs. Both of these places are very heavily into agricultural production and that, that's the real world in some developing countries.
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In this category, the teachers focus on data as it is perceived to vary across one graphic at a time. While the data are examined at a country level, the intended meaning of the map or graph is overgeneralised as the teacher seeks to explain the aerial variations across the GRAK world on a country basis. The focus, here, is on treating differences between areas as more important than focusing on spatial patterns which vary across the map or graph. In addition, the representation of the data through the used of different symbols and colours cause the teachers some difficulty in coming to an understanding of the fullest meaning of the graphic information. On any graphic in this category, the teachers engage in a serial treatment of the GRAK countriesa treatment which is both superficial in understanding and overgeneralised conceptually. Instead of making generalised statements about the overall graphic, the teachers are now making generalised statements about each of the countries in the graphics: T11: Let's have a look. Countries Daseland and Bovenesia seem to have the greatest areas of population density. Daseland seems to have a higher population density than any of the other countries along with its high death rate so perhaps I would deduce from that that it has industrialised very rapidly and has urban slums that are having an effect on the health and well-being of its population and its death rate. Bovenesia, which I think I was saying was also moving in the same direction, seems to have a high population density in some areas as well. Esoria which is agricultural has a fairly even and fairly low population density over most of it. I would say that's what you'd expect with an agricultural country.

T7: Well, I suppose in Bovenesia, if well look at that. There's being a drop in exports, I suppose. Well, what is it, agricultural products and oil and an increase, percentage wise, in industrial products. So some change in the trade balance. In Catonien, I suppose, we've got some more industrial products. So it sounds like this GRAK world is increasing its industrial processes. There marketing or ... Well, let's have a look. Well, Daseland seems reasonably static. Esoria's increasing, Catonien's increased and Daseland's decreased.

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Two aspects about the graphics which interfered with the teachers' interpretation of the data were the challenge of interpreting abstract symbols and problems associated with the colours used on the maps. The abstraction of information in the form of lines and arrows restricted teachers in being able to make insightful interpretations of the data. Similarly, the range of colours that were used on the maps became confusing to some teachers as they glanced from map to map to construct meaning from the represented information: TV. The lesser red lines joining the various countries through there weren't as obvious until you sat back and studies it as indeed were the smaller arrows. Larger arrows indicating imports and exports are reasonably significant, but they didn't say anything about where stuff is coming from to go to ... T26: I find it confusing going from Graph 5 [Distribution of Production bar graphs] to Graph 6 [Mayor exports pie graphs] because the dark colour is no longer agriculture. The dark colour now is industrial products which I find, I do find confusing so I've got to re-orient myself. T21: It's so confusing going from one colour to another. Now, I've lost my train of thought. We were checking out exports and imports.
Category 3: graphics are seen as portraying localised patterns

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In this category, the teachers focus on spatial patterns that exist for particular countries across the range of the seven graphics. By engaging in comparisons of the different types of data, the teachers practice higher level cognitive skills as they construct their own meanings of the graphic representations. While some comparisons are made between countries on single graphics, the tendency is to analyse a country's socio-economic performance across several graphics. Both of these approaches involve the sound understanding of relevant geographical concepts. However, these comparisons involve the attempt on the part of the teachers to engage in correlatory tasks to demonstrate relationships between pairs of graphics and their inherent data. Sometimes, this involves the teachers in drawing links with their own personal experiences. The comparison of socio-economic data for the GRAK countries was expressed in several ways depending on the purpose of the comparison. These have included the following: dual comparisons of pairs of GRAK countries or pairs of graphics; a single country across a range of graphics; and comparison of selected regions on a single graphic. The variations in purpose indicate the types of localised patterns that were the object of the teachers' investigations. The following extracts highlight these comparisons: Res: So by reading the Age Distribution graphic and looking at GNP you're getting a lot of information?

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T14: Well I can speculate about what the situation might be like. Distribution of Production: you look to see whether Catonien and Esoria are rural based areas as one was expecting. Right. Esoria is. Esoria has a high agricultural base and has had for the last 30 years. Catonien, on the other hand, doesn't fit the pattern. Catonien is very much services and industry and mining, whereas Bovenesia has had the agricultural base, but that has declined with services and industry increase. (Comparison across two graphics) T9: Well life in Daseland is probably similar to life in Bovenesia, highly industrialised, quite probably a busy lifestyle. I'm looking at the Imports and Exports chart which has got large arrows for both imports and exports there ... (Comparing countries on a single graphic) Res: Production Distribution and then Exports... T13: That makes reading the graphs presented and one's in a bar graph and one's a pie graph, so making comparisons in that area is difficult. Res.: So you have to make a mental jump as ... T13: Well, you've got to compare sector areas rather than rectangular areas. What would make the graphs easier to see, particularly the line graphs, different colours rather than shadings. (Comparisons of representations on two graphics) T11: Esoria [looking at Export pie graph] is largely agricultural though less than it used to be and it doesn't appear that their GNP [GNP graph] is very large either. Yes. Country Esoria. And more industry and perhaps slightly more oil and minerals [Export pie graph]. In fact, it was one of the few countries with a high proportion of children in the population [Population distribution graphs]. (Comparisons of an area over several graphics). The comparisons have been extended by some teachers to seek relationships between different data. Here, the focus is on establishing relationships rather than attempting to explain them. Such correlations tend to be visual rather than mathematical. Often they take the form of untested hunches: T12: Well, the reason that I am trying to use these graphics is to look for the relationship. I imagine that their relationship is between what countries tend to produce and their ability to export, but I am a little perplexed with Esoria where the distribution of production has increased fairly dramatically and I would expect them to be exporting to other countries, but the major exports graphic doesn't really bear out my understanding as their agricultural exports have actually decreased.

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One way to move towards an explanation is to inject personal experiences. These may not be actual experiences, but they are likely to reflect the feelings that the teacher could hold towards a certain region based on his/her situation. Quite often these personal references relate to one's lifestyle and people close to them. Sometimes, such feelings can be quite emotive and may distort the actual information on the graphics: T8: But my wife wouldn't let me live in Esoria. That's how it would work. She would be interested in Agnien because she would see the advantages of being near a major centre and the cultural life associated with it. I'm into all of those sorts of things, but I could live in Esoria. T24: ... if you're a person who feels that you really want to help people and that you want to be in that kind of world and maybe Catonien is the place to be or Esoria where you have to help in the health services area or something like that.
Category 4: graphics are seen as representing comparative small scale relationships

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In this category, the maps and graphs indicate relationships between the countries in terms of similarities and differences in the socio-economic information that is represented on them. These relationships are expressed across areas on the graphics and a concerted effort is made to seek case-and-effect explanations for them. These explanations are achieved through multiple comparisons amongst the graphics. Important bases for sustaining these explanations include an emphasis on the power of colour in the symbols on the maps and the frequent use of real-world examples. The relationships are normally extending beyond the consideration of discrete countries to regional areas of comparison. The concept of cause-and-effect relationships is not as sophisticated as the reader might first expect. In fact, the relationships that are proposed smack more of social and economic determinism than any form of mathematical calculation or logical explanation. The statements that are made resemble generalisations which are supported by limited explanation. Therefore, while there is a small-scale focus in the areas under observation, i.e. the relationships are expressed in units larger than a single country, they lacked fine detail and accuracy: T19: So, it's an agricultural country and therefore you would expect them to have a high birth rate and obviously you'd expect that kind of a graph, almost like a pyramid. T7: With a bigger population you've got cities and in the cities you've got the same money going round and round and a more stable economy. T12: So that would have initially have brought out my initial assertion that we've got a decrease in population and this would result in

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these GNP per capital figures showing that big increase without any corresponding industrial production. The practice of multiple comparison of both data and countries in the GRAK world provided an increasingly sophisticated way of looking at the relationship amongst the countries. Teachers in this category begun to consider the graphics in a multiple manner which involved their simultaneous use of at least three graphics to aid the interpretation of the data. Although this approach represented an increased sophistication in dealing with the data, it did not involve a sophistication of the cognitive skills that were employed in the interpretation of the data:
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T14: Catonien has links with Daseland but they aren't major trading partners [Import-export map]. Whereas Agnien and Daseland obviously have a major agreement there's a lot of trade going both ways. Once again, Esoria hasn't got much to trade because it's all agricultural. Basically, the population density says it all [Population density map]. Obviously, Catonien and Esoria for some reason are very poor countries. All we know is that there's up to 300 people per square kilometre. We've used, the same scale has been used constantly on the Age Distribution map. So therefore, because of the percentages we're not much the wiser about the relative size of the country population wise [Birth and Death Rate map]... The importance of colour in helping to develop the explanations of the relationships amongst the data is as notable for the teachers as it was for the students. For the teachers, the brightness of the various colours and their richness become important aspects for consideration. It is these bright colours that are believed to highlight the important information on the graphics. The power of the graphic designer is recognised by the teachers: T15: What grabbed my attention was the three main coloursthe sea, the greenery for the land and the red. The bright colours to me tend to highlight the most important information. T19: Whether you interpret that it's jungle because it's green and the yellow, perhaps, is cultivated land, arable land, I don't know... The use of real-world examples became an effective means for developing the teachers' explanation of the relationships amongst the data. These examples act as concrete anchor points that were used to construct meanings for particular spatial concepts. This process was a reassuring one for the teachers because it allowed them to confirm their beliefs about the data in the graphics: T23: I said that came up before we refer to what's happening around the world. A lot of things are made in Korea or China where the population does a lot of the labour and therefore they turn out a large amount of industrial products. Whereas, raw materials might be produced in other lands and then taken away to be manufac-

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tured somewhere where it's cheaper. That could mostly happen in a country such as Catonien because it has got a lot of oil, minerals and metals. T13: Being young and being more dense than the other countries and becoming more industrial is that good or not? I'm making comparisons now like Japan which is fairly densely populated and very industrial now, coming out of a more agricultural past, ... I'm thinking of countries like China, which is not very industrial, but is just the same densely populated. A very poor standard of living compared with Japan, but I wouldn't say China is industrial yet, but I am thinking of the sort of comparison like China/India compared with say Japan or German.

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Category 5: graphics are seen as representing sophisticated spatial representations

The teachers in this category are distinctive in their focus on the interpretation of the data across the graphics and a careful consideration of the elements that constitute the graphical representations. The interpretation of the information contained in the graphics is based on either drawing conclusions from the data or making inferences about this data. The interpretation of the elements of the graphics was an important component of this interpretative experience for the subtleties in the representation of basic elements of graphics, e.g. scale or symbols, served as a means developing meanings for key spatial concepts. Teachers were able to demonstrate a good understanding of these concepts and were able to use selected concepts accurately in regard to the GRAK countries. As a result, the graphics were very effective media for communicating this socio-economic information. Drawing conclusions is one way in which these teachers interpret the data represented on these graphics. Here, the approach is to think aloud about the data in order to develop a generalisation which is the conclusion of the interpretative process. Generally, it took the form of passing a judgement about a country or a particular concept: T8: See Daseland hasn't changed at all over the 23 years [referring to Birth and Death rates]. It hasn't changed in its exports. I'm looking at the exports and, see, Bovenesia could be emerging as a major industrial centre to challenge. So, this could be a dying city and this could be an emerging one. So, maybe that's the only conclusion that I can draw from it. T5: It doesn't say anything about the number of people involved in each of those. Something you could look at is the percentage of people involved in agriculture and you might look at the figures for those

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over the same period of time and whether there has been a decrease. I don't know how far else you can go from what you have here. A more sophisticated form of interpretation of the data that has been represented in these graphics is the drawing of inferences about specific aspects of these representations. The type of inference depends on the data and the graphic being used. A favourite topic about what inferences were drawn was that of population where teachers were interpreting population patterns and trying to account for these patterns. The quality of these inferences was variable depending on the depth of the interpretation:
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T1: Death rates in GRAK rules. So, I suppose if one wants to stretch the imagination, it's got something to do with lifestyles in different areas or famine. T25: What I see as a normal population distribution. It doesn't appear to pinpoint except for the poor elderly women who aren't dying, or dying more rapidly than they are in Esoria but, you know, it might be a fairly hard life. Maybe, that could be the reason that the women aren't lasting, but there doesn't appear to be war because you'd have an uneven distribution between the population age categories. This process of interpretation was enhanced by the teachers showing an increased interest in the elements of the graphics and some aspects of them. One obvious use of the elements of the graphics by the teachers focused on their deliberate use of the legend on maps and graphs. Careful use of the legend allowed these teachers to establish meaning for the data that has been represented on particular graphics. An important aspect in the use of the legend was the thinking aloud that teachers did regarding different intervals for coding the data: T19: I'm looking at the legend. There's no legend for the different colours and population ... well it's only birth and death rates. T20: So I'm looking at the legend of the Population distribution map to get an idea of what the situation is. So, when we look at Agnien and once again I look back to Distribution of Production. Agnien and Daseland are my developed economies. Esoria is 11 to 100 and this one is 300 to 500. The colours. There's orange and red. So, there's between 100 and 1500. Further attention was given by these teachers to either the overall shape of particular graphics or to dominating symbols. The shape of the population pyramids was readily interpreted by the teachers as being indicative of certain types of economy. For example, triangular and pear-shaped pyramids conveyed specific meanings to these teachers: T24: You can certainly see that on the age distribution one Catonien and

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Esoria defining have those triangular shapes. Some of the others are more pear-shaped which seems to suggest that they are developed countries. Aging populations. Equally, they were attracted to particular dominating symbols on certain graphics. One example of these symbols is the set of symbols for measuring the amount of trade between the GRAK countries, i.e. the graded flow lines for imports and exports. Teachers' use of the width of each of these lines enabled them to interpret the extent of trade between different countries:
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T15: ... when I first looked at this and read main trading partners and saw a big red line, I wondered what these were and then after a while I soon realised that these were just small amounts of trading because the line width is only a millimetre.
Category 6: graphics are seen as obtaining the big picture in the spatial understanding

There were a group of teachers whose experience of these graphics about the GRAK world moved beyond a consideration of the constituent parts of some or all of the graphics to a desire to focus on the overall impression of the GRAK world. This search for 'the big picture' indicates the desire to interpret a global view of this imaginary world. The intention behind the teachers seeking a total picture of this region is to see how the pieces fit together and to establish the nature of this global view. There is a definite feeling that the development of a gestalt of the GRAK world will aid its interpretation. Teachers accept that the acquisition of the 'big picture' is a higher level mental activity that creates in their minds a mosaic based on the information that has been represented in the range of graphics. It is an experience that requires considerable extraction of information from the graphics and concentration: T23: What I'd like to do rather than talking about it, I'd rather draw a big map and put relationships of what's happening there. Res.: Interesting. T23: So that you can develop an actual overall picture. It's a picture within my mind. Res: Well tell us about it. T23: Whilst you can create a picture in your mind of what these words could be like, while you are looking at multiple graphic pieces of information, what I might have said now, I might be able to look back ... Res: You're shutting your eyes. T23: Yes, I'm developing a picture within my mind. The development of such an overall picture is seen by the teachers as the basis for making 'wonderful destructions'. Such deductions involve the detailed use of important data from the range of graphics and may be, at first, thought to be

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specific statements about the graphic data. However, on closer inspection, these statements collectively amount to a holistic impression of the GRAK world: T20: This is really great for economic students because this is giving them a total picture and they're really able to make some wonderful deductions from all of this. So, it's basically just a logical thinking process to get the total picture. So I'd be assuming based on the level of economic development that the age distribution of the countries that are developing would have a higher proportion in younger age groups and probably a few more males, because more males are born than females. And the developed countries, I would be expecting that they'd be a higher proportion of population in the middle age groups and maybe a few more females ... It seems to paint that picture completely.
Category 7: graphics are seen as the basis for extrapolation, reflection and prediction

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The final category seeks to move beyond the graphics as they are presented. The intention here is for the teachers to extend their interpretations of the data to project trends into the future in a form of prediction. The cognitive process of extrapolation is an essential element in this category. Since some of the data in the graphics contained a time dimension, a group of teachers seized on this aspect to think about situations in the GRAK world that were realistic or fantastic. Even closer use of graphic representations was evident as the teachers searched for meaning in the data on the graphics. The teachers engaged in different forms of extrapolation with the goal of offering explanations for situations that were evident in the graphics. Often these explanations were presented as possible reasons for the resulting patterns or possible future outcomes from the existing patterns. The teachers could not resist the opportunity to suggest what might be in particular GRAK countries. Their thoughts were usually grounded in their own beliefs about developed and developing countries: T1. I like the way that it [population density] stops at the borders. It makes me wonder what happens outside of these countries. I would like to know who they are trading with and where the imports were coming from. T8: They might even speak different languages. They might not, because these guys if they are mainly a satellite of Daseland, exploring this area over here, they're not going to want to mix with these ... T12: Given that the agriculture remained the same and industry and mining although has decreased, perhaps they need more to transport the materials around. They may have required more services, drivers, etc.

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T10: There are other countries that we cannot see on the map that must be providing those industrial countries with their oil and minerals. These people who are mostly miners may have a possibility of doing something about their trade relations of improving their situation. Esoria, they would have to improve their agricultural methods if they wanted to improve their economy. The closer use of graphic representations was evident in the teachers' interest in a wider range of ways in which to represent graphic information. These include the interesting use of labels, the use of specific abstract symbols such as arrows and graded circles and the concept of graded pie graphs. The labels for the GRAK world provided an interesting stimulus for the teachers. Even though they knew that this was an imaginary area, the teachers were keen to associate these names with actual regions, e.g. the Mediterranean area, and with non-Australian situations: T26: My first impression is the GRAK world is supposed to be an imaginary world. As an English teacher that would seem fairly obvious. On the other hand, they're close enough in names to make me think Mediterranean, to make me think of Italy and so on. T22: The Moria Sea reminded me a little bit of the Mediterranean, so therefore I'm associating with those countries in the region ... so therefore, I'm not assuming that it's the culture of an area like Australia. I'm assuming a foreign culture. The use of specific abstract symbols was used by these teachers is a further means for interpreting the nature of the GRAK world. Of particular interest to the teachers were the use of arrows on the maps and graded circles to illustrate varying intervals of information. The size of the arrows provided a guide for amount of commodities in the trade map. It was the basic for these teachers to highlight the quantities of data by reflecting on the size of the arrows: T21: ... if you are looking at the thickness of the arrows as an indication of just how strongly they are an important or exporting country, it isn't that big an importer or exporter ... T19: So, by looking at the size of the arrow you are able to glean what the 10,000 means. That's an indication of the volume of trade. That bar there between Agnien and Daseland doesn't have anything. Whether you are meant to take it as it is in the legend and that means that they're main trading partner with each other ... The value of careful interpretation of the graded circle symbols was that it allowed the teachers to differentiate between birth and death rates for each GRAK country and to make comparisons between these aspects of population:

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T26: ... So I looked carefully at the legend to work out what the tiny black dot meant and then I looked at the red dot to find out what it meant and then I worked out the birth rate per thousand and the death rate per thousand people. So, I can establish that there is a fairly low birth rate in three of these placesDaseland, Agnien and Bovenesiabut a burgeoning birth rate in Esoria and even more in Catonien. A further refinement in the teachers' interpretation of the graphs was their understanding that pie graphs can be constructed as different sizes to represent different overall amounts of data. In this vein, one teacher makes a case for constructing the pie graphs of different sizes: T16: These pie graphs should be different sizes. They ought to correlate with the data on the map showing birth and death rates. Do you see what I mean. The Daseland should one be a percentage graph. It should be related to those arrows. Discussion These results offer considerable assistance in understanding the topic of teaching graphics in schools. Just how this is so may be explained by focusing on the different conceptions of teaching and learning which have emerged in recent research studies and interpreting how the variations in these teachers' experience of graphics may be correlated with these understandings. The concept of teaching may be viewed from different perspectives. One of these may be in the form of models of teaching and another is on the basis of teachers' experience. Cole & Chan (1987, pp. 3-7) have synthesised six distinct models of teaching which 'have been adopted by practising teachers at various times, though the teachers themselves may not have been aware of the theoretical origins of these models' (pp. 3-4). These are: 1. The personality characteristics model (Getzels & Jackson, 1963) which views the best teachers as those who develop ideal personality traits. 2. The behaviourist model (Engelmann & Carnine, 1982) in which teachers apply operant conditioning techniques to modify student behaviour. 3. The techniques model (Gagne, 1965) which supports the idea that specific topics in a subject require specific techniques and specific sequences of instruction. 4. The teaching skills model (Turney et ah, 1973) which focuses on specific teaching functions, described in terms of skills clusters for efficient teaching. 5. The roles model (Biddle & Thomas, 1966) which is based on the view that the roles used in teaching can be derived from those in other professions, e.g. 'supervisor' and 'group leader'. 6. The teaching principles model (Brophy & Good, 1986) which assumes that there are specific principles that can be used as guides for effective teaching.

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From an experiential perspective, the concept of teaching has been interpreted very differently. Samuelowicz (1994, p. 343), in her synthesis of teachers' conceptions of teaching and learning, concludes that recent research reveals a continuum of conceptions that 'are anchored at one end by "presentation of information" (regarded as lower-level or less desirable) and at the other by "facilitation of students learning" (involving changes in students' conceptions of the domain)'. Another synthesis, by Bruce & Gerber (1995, pp. 444-445), reveals the following conceptions of teaching: 1. Teaching as supporting student learning (Samuelowicz & Bain, 1992). 2. Teaching as encouraging active learningthe motivational, discussion and experiential foci (Martin & Balla, 1991). 3. The nurturing conception: facilitating personal agency (Pratt, 1992). 4. The social reform conception: seeking a better society (Pratt, 1992). 5. Teaching as presenting information (Dall'Alba, 1991). 6. Teaching as transmitting information (from teacher to student) (Dall'Alba, 1991). 7. Teaching as illustrating the application of theory to practice (Dall'Alba, 1991). 8. Teaching as developing the capacity to be an expert (Dall'Alba, 1991). 9. Teaching as exploring ways of understanding from particular perspectives (Dall'Alba, 1991). 10. Teaching as bringing about the change (Dall'Alba, 1991). These conceptions differ from those of students in their experience of learning or from university lecturers' conceptions of student learning. Saljo (1979) characterised student experience of learning as: the increase of knowledge; memorising; acquisition of facts, procedures, which can be retained or utilised in practice; abstraction of meaning and an interpretive process aimed at understanding reality. Marton et al. (1993) added the conception of learning to this list. Bruce & Gerber (1995) established that university lecturers conceived student learning as: 1. Acquiring knowledge through the use of study skills in the preparation of assessment tasks. 2. The absorption of new knowledge and being able to explain and apply it. 3. The development of thinking skills and the ability to reason. 4. Developing the competencies of beginning professionals. 5. Changing personal attitudes, beliefs or behaviours in responding to different phenomena. 6. A participative pedagogic experience. These experiential conceptions for both teaching and learning are based on what teaching/learning is, how it is achieved and how it is demonstrated. They differ markedly from the other hierarchies of understanding, such as Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives and Fenstermacher's (1992) analysis of the nature of

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knowledge in research on teaching, in that these hierarchies of conceptions are based on the relations between teachers, university lecturers or students and their experience of the phenomena of teaching or learning. While these other hierarchies highlight the nature of particular phenomena, these conceptions stress the above-mentioned relations in designated contexts, i.e. they are situated for the purpose of analysis and interpretation. What is important is the structural linkages amongst the different conceptions rather than the explicit description of each conception. The variations in the teachers' understandings of graphics are distinctive in that they reflect circumstances in which specific people held more than one conception of graphic representations. This is reflected in the identification of the quotations in the analysis that has been described above. It was not possible to classify a person as holding a single conception of his or her understanding of graphics. Therefore, it is not possible to assign a teacher to a place in the hierarchy of conceptions of understanding graphics. What is described is the variation across the pooled data from this group of teachers. The seven variations in teachers' understanding of graphic representations were not clustered or organised according to subject areas taught by the teachers. They represented qualitative differences across teachers of the science, mathematics, the social sciences, music and languages. These results suggest that the techniques model of teaching was not supported, i.e. specific techniques and sequences of instruction pertain to specific subject areas. Rather, what this experiential data revealed was that conceptual generalisations can be made about teachers' understanding of graphic representations. Such generalisations are based on the degree of understanding of the content of the graphics, the accuracy of interpreting graphic information, the complexity and type of the graphics used in analysis, the extent to which personal experience was used in graphic interpretation and the ability to move beyond the actual information in making judgements about it. Experiential conceptions of teaching are more helpful in linking with the findings of this study. The first three conceptions reflect the approach of teachers who are unsure of their graphic representations and who would feel most comfortable in presenting or transmitting information. They experience their own difficulty in interpreting specific graphics and so it is most likely that they would use graphics sparingly in their teaching and then on an individual basis. Those teachers who indicated conceptions 4-7 have demonstrated their understanding of detailed and varied ways in which to interrogate graphic representations. Because they have increased comfort with the graphics, it is probable they would be more adventurous in the use of the graphics in their teaching. This could be displayed in the use of a range of graphics in multiple ways that would involve the use of some or all of the collection of graphics in particular learning tasks. Here, the focus could be on structuring learning or it could take the form of problem-solving and active learning on the part of the students. Teachers who hold any of the conceptions other than the first two are capable of supporting students to explore different ways of understanding. As they move

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up the hierarchy to conceptions 5, 6 and 7, the teachers are more likely to focus on the complex reasoning that is associated with deeper understanding of what is being learned. The focus of the learning is likely to be on what Bloom calls higher-order cognitive skills, e.g. synthesis and evaluation. Consequently, the students will be required to engage in higher quality thinking according to the degree of abstractness, the number of organising dimensions, the amount of consistency and the openness of the conclusion (Biggs & Collis, 1980). Similar comments can be made about the teachers who believe that teaching is about the development of expertise in their area. Those who hold conceptions 5, 6 and 7 reflect the view that expertise is a complex concept that is related, in the case of graphics, with the abilities to: understand multiple representations of graphic data, think about it holistically and to think beyond the data itself. They reflect the view that the development of expertise as a goal of teaching may be a pinnacle of learning which is attained by a minority. If the teachers did not all exhibit these higher conceptions of graphics then it is probable that their students will not be encouraged to exceed the teachers' performance and understanding. From the prospective of learning, the results of this study do indicated that understanding of graphics can be linked to some of the conceptions of learning mentioned above. The teachers who exhibited conceptions 1-4 were focusing on the acquisition of facts, the increase of their knowledge, the absorption of new knowledge and some memorisation of information about the GRAK countries. Those who exhibited conceptions 5-7 exhibited the development of thinking and reasoning skills, the desire to develop abstraction of meaning and an interpretive process aimed at the understanding of reality. Reality in conception 5 was seen in real-world examples. However, for those teachers in conceptions 6 and 7 it was a more abstract form of understanding which may or may not lead to a change in the learners. The implications for teaching and learning involving the use of graphics relate to the variations in the teachers' experiences. Teachers need to comprehend the variations in their own experiences to appreciate that they will incorporate graphics in learning activities in very different ways. The results from this study suggest that this will occur not because of the differences in their pedagogic understanding and orientations but, rather, it relates to their different personal experiences and the variations in their understandings of the qualities of types of graphics. These variations will influence which graphics are chosen for use in lessons and how they will be used. The extent to which graphic tasks associated with comprehension, drawing inferences and extrapolating from the data are used will depend on these understandings. The possibilities that arise from this study for maximising graphics in learning are considerable and should be explored more thoroughly. However, these early results offer promise for further, more detailed, investigations in a range of educational contexts. They indicate that there is a need to appreciate the nature of these variations in using graphics for different participants in the educational process. It also suggests that further studies should be undertaken with learners in different cultures and with people in everyday activities.

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Acknowledgement Special thanks are accorded to Bobby Fleming for her expert data-gathering skills in this study.

Correspondence: Prof. Rod Gerber, Faculty of Education, Health and Professional Studies, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia 2351.

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