The Nature of Light

I. Introduction

Radiant energy is energy which is propagated in the form of electromagnetic waves. Most people think of natural sunlight or electrical light, when considering this form of energy. The type of light which we perceive thru our optical sensors (eyes) is classified as white light, and is composed of a range of colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet) over a range of wavelengths, or frequencies.

In addition, white light is only a small fraction of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. At the short end of that wavelength scale is ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun, which cannot be seen. At the longer end of that spectrum is infrared (IR) light, which is used for night vision and other heat-seeking devices. At even shorter wavelengths than UV are X-rays and Gamma-rays. At longer wavelengths than IR are microwaves (radar), and radio / television waves.

All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light.

3.00 x 10^8 m / s

9.85 x 10^8 ft / s

1.87 x 10^5 mi/s

~ 186,000 miles per second

Einstein proved that this was an ultimate limit theoretically, and that no mass could ever travel at this speed without becoming pure energy. And though this may seem like an exceedingly high speed, it can be shown that, based on the large distances involved, light reaching us from far away stars (suns) can be hundreds of years old.

Consider the properties of the most basic waveform: a sinewave.

The wavelength is the distance from peak-to-peak or trough-to-trough. The amplitude is the height of the wave, or the vertical distance from the baseline. The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is inversely proportional to the wavelength . Thus shorter wavelengths have higher frequencies, while longer wavelengths are associated with lower frequencies. The intensity (or power) is dependent on the amplitude (or peak height) of the wave.

The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is inversely proportional to the wavelength . The constant of proportionality is the value of c. Thus:

c = speed of light (m / s)

= wavelength (m)

= frequency [cycles per second = Hz =

* Note: In the field of radio and television communications, modulation schemes designed to selectively cover a range of wavelengths (or frequencies) and power intensities (or amplitudes) include both amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). The latter is typically more efficient with respect to signal transmission (higher signal-to-noise ratio).

II. Properties of Light

The simplest representation of a beam of light is thru the use of the light ray. The most important property of the light ray is that it contains no mass, and that it travels in a perfectly straight line. Thus, aside from any interactions with black holes, a light ray is unaffected by lesser forces of gravity (e.g. planets and suns).

Light rays interact with the surfaces of condensed matter (liquids and solids) in several different ways. You may wish to refer to Figures 7.6 and 7.7 in your text to see examples of how a light ray can either be reflected or refracted form the surface.

1) Reflection In this case, the interaction of a light ray with the surface of an object depends on the physical and chemical properties of the substance.

If a surface is perfectly smooth (e.g. a glass mirror), rays of light collectively undergo total (or specular) reflection, leaving the surface of the glass at a particular angle and all in a parallel line with each other. The angle of reflection can be measured with respect to the normal direction of travel for the light ray.

Rough and irregular surfaces cause light rays to be reflected in many random directions. We refer to this type of reflection as diffuse reflection, and is typically characterized by wide variety of reflection angles. Most of the objects that you see with the naked eye are visible due to diffuse reflection. Another term commonly used for this type of reflection is light scattering. Light scattering from the surfaces of objects is our primary mechanism of physical observation.

For example, sunlight entering the earths atmosphere is scattered, or redirected as a result of interactions with dust and air molecules. The shorter wavelengths (or highest frequencies) are scattered more efficiently than the others. Thus blue and violet are selectively scattered over the longer wavelengths (such as red, orange and yellow). When you look up at the sky on a clear day, you see the blue portion of the spectrum that was redirected by the atmosphere into your line of sight.

Thus light scattering depends on the wavelength of the light being scattered. Limits to spatial scales of visibility (using white light) therefore arise, depending on the frequency of the lightwave and the physical dimension of the scattering center. For example, since visible light has a wavelength scale on the order of a micron (one millionth of a meter) scattering centers (or particles) as small as one micron have been observed directly in the light microscope (e.g. Brownian motion). The indirect imaging of anything smaller (e.g. atoms and molecules) requires the use of scattered electrons in a high vacuum (SEM or TEM).

2) Absorption

We have learned that visible light waves consist of a continuous range of wavelengths or frequencies. When a light wave with a single frequency strikes an object, a number of things could happen. The light wave could be absorbed by the object; the light wave could be reflected by the object; or the light wave could be transmitted by the object.

Rarely however does just a single frequency (or wavelength) of light strike an object. While it does happen, it is more usual that light of many frequencies or even all frequencies are incident towards the surface of objects. When this occurs, objects have a tendency to selectively absorb, reflect or transmit light of certain frequencies. That is, one object might reflect green light while absorbing all other frequencies of visible light. Another object might selectively transmit blue light while absorbing all other frequencies of visible light. The manner in which visible light interacts with an object is dependent upon the frequency of the light, the nature of the atoms in the object, and often the nature of the electrons in the atoms of the object.

Some materials allow much of the light that falls on them to be transmitted through the material without being reflected. Materials that allow the transmission of lightwaves thru them all called optically transparent. Chemically pure (undoped) window glass and clean river or spring water are prime examples of this.

Materials which do not allow the transmission of any lightwave frequencies are called opaque. Such substances have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Most materials are composed of materials which are selective in their absorption of white light frequencies. Thus they absorb certain portions of the visible spectrum, while reflecting others. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed

are either reflected back or transmitted for our physical observation. This is what gives rise to color.

Color centers are largely responsible for the appearance of specific wavelengths of visible light all around us. Moving from longer (0.8 micron) to shorter (0.1 micron) wavelengths: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet (ROYGBIV) can all be identified by our senses in the appearance of color by the following phenomena.

When white light passes through or is reflected by a colored substance, a characteristic portion of the mixed wavelengths is absorbed. The remaining light will then assume the complementary color to the wavelength(s) absorbed. This relationship is demonstrated by the color wheel shown on the right. Here, complementary colors are diametrically opposite each other.

Spectral Wavelengths Violet: 400 420 nm

Indigo: 420 440 nm Blue: 440 490 nm

Green: Yellow:

490 570 nm 570 - 585 nm

Orange: 585 620 nm Red: 620 780 nm

Thus, absorption of 420-430 nm light renders a substance yellow, and absorption of 500-520 nm light makes it red. Green is unique in that it can be created by absorption close to 400 nm as well as absorption near 800 nm. This is wavelength of the chlorophyll color center in organic material. In the next section we will discuss how and why light of certain frequencies can be selectively absorbed, reflected or transmitted.

Mechanisms of selective lightwave absorption include: a) Chemical: UV-Vis transitions in electron energy levels within the atom (pigments). b) Physical: IR resonance in atomic/molecular vibrational modes

Chemical Absorption - Electronic Energy Levels

There is another entirely different mechanism of light absorption in matter. In chemical absorption, the frequency of the incoming light wave is at or near the energy levels of the electrons within the atoms which compose the chemical substance. In this case, the electrons will absorb the energy of the light wave (or ?photon of light?) and increase their energy state, often moving outward from the nucleus of the atom into an outer shell or orbital.

There are several options as to what can happen next. 1) The electron returns to the ground state -- emitting a 'photon of light' as color. 2) Energy is retained by the matter and the light is absorbed. If the photon is immediately re-emitted the photon is effectively reflected or scattered. If the photon energy is absorbed, the energy from the photon typically manifests itself as heating the matter up. The subject of atomic emission spectra is basically beyond the scope of this discussion. It often constitutes a chemical signature which is unique for each different chemical element, and is used widely for the identification of the substances of stars and distant planets. We are more interested here in atomic (electronic) absorption. The absorption of a photon of light makes an object dark or opaque to the wavelengths or colors of the incoming wave. Wood is opaque to visible light. Some materials are opaque to some wavelengths of light, but transparent to

others. Water and most chemically pure glasses are opaque to ultraviolet light, but transparent to visible light. By the identification of which wavelengths of light are absorbed by a material, the material composition and physical properties can be elucidated. Physical evidence for the absorption of light is present in the appearance of color. If a material or matter absorbs light of certain wavelengths or colors of the spectrum, an observer will not see these colors in the reflected light. On the other hand if certain wavelengths of light are reflected from the material, an observer will see those colors and the substance will be associated with those colors. For example, the leaves of green plants contain a pigment called chlorophyll, which absorbs the blue and red colors of the spectrum and reflects the green. Grass, leaves, spinach and other chlorophyll-containing organic matter therefore appear green. In this case, a portion of the energy of the light wave is absorbed by the chlorophyll and converted into chemical energy which is used by the plant for cell manufacture, growth, and reproduction. This is all part of the process of photosynthesis, known generically as a photochemical reaction. Photosynthesis is the process in which a plant uses light, carbon dioxide, and water to create carbohydrates (sugars) that it needs for growth. In this case, chlorophyll acts as a photoreceptor, meaning that it traps a portion of the spectrum of visible sunlight in order to implement a chemical reaction. The portion of the spectrum which is not needed for this reaction is reflected, and evidenced by the green color of the plants. Consider a sheet of paper being illuminated with white light (ROYGBIV). The paper is impregnated with a chemical capable of absorbing one or more of the colors of white light. Such chemicals which are capable of selectively absorbing one or more frequency of white light is known as a pigment. (This is also the technique used for creating colored glass. It is known as chemical doping). In each case, whatever color is not absorbed is reflected.

If the sheet of glass or paper is capable of absorbing red, orange, yellow, green, indigo and violet, then green is the only color which is not absorbed by the pigment. Therefore green is the only color that will be reflected, and green is color which will be identified by our sense of sight. If the pigment in the sheet of glass or paper is capable of absorbing orange, yellow, green,

blue, indigo and violet, then green is the only color which is not absorbed by the pigment. Therefore red is the only color that will be reflected, and red is the color which will be identified by our sense of sight.

Transparent materials allow one or more of the frequencies of visible light to be transmitted through them. Whichever color(s) is/are not transmitted by such objects, are typically absorbed by them. The appearance of a transparent object is dependent upon what color(s) of light is/are incident upon the object and what color(s) of light is/are transmitted through the object.

Thus, the colors perceived of objects are the results of interactions between the various frequencies of visible light waves and the atoms of the materials which objects are made of. Many objects contain atoms capable of either selectively absorbing, reflecting or transmitting one or more frequencies of light. The frequencies of light which become transmitted or reflected to our eyes will contribute to the color(s) which we perceive.

The colors of the objects we see are largely due to the way those objects interact with light and ultimately reflect or transmit it to our senses. The color of an object is not actually within the object itself. Rather, the color is in the light which shines upon it that ultimately becomes reflected or transmitted to our eyes. We know that the visible light spectrum consists of a range of frequencies, each of which corresponds to a specific color. When visible light strikes an object and a specific frequency becomes absorbed, that frequency of light will never make it to our eyes. Any visible light which strikes the object and becomes reflected or transmitted to our eyes will contribute to the color appearance of that object.

So the color is not in the object itself, but in the light which strikes the object. The only role that the object plays is that it might contain atoms capable of absorbing one or more frequencies of the visible light which shine upon it. So if an object absorbs all of the frequencies of visible light except for the frequency associated with green light, then the object will appear green in the presence of ROYGBIV. And if an object absorbs all of the

frequencies of visible light except for the frequency associated with blue light, then the object will appear blue in the presence of ROYGBIV.

Physical Absorption IR Bond Stretching

All matter is composed of atoms and molecules (see Unit 5: Principles of Chemistry for elaboration on this subject). It is often useful to think of these atoms or molecules as primary particles which are attached to each other by springs. The particles and their attached springs have a tendency to vibrate or oscillate back and forth from their mean or average positions. I.E. the spring might pull them closer together and a collision might push them further part. They are in a state of constant vibrational motion. This motion is the essence of what we call heat.

Thus, the main mechanism for storing mechanical energy of motion in these primary building blocks of matter is through heat, or thermal energy. Thermal energy manifests itself as energy of motion. Thus, heat is motion at the atomic and molecular levels. The primary mode of motion in atoms is vibration. Any given atom will vibrate around some mean or average position within a crystalline structure, surrounded by its nearest neighbors. This vibration in 2-dimensions is equivalent to the oscillation of a clocks pendulum. It swings back and forth symmetrically about some mean or average (vertical) position. Atomic vibrational frequencies may average on the order of cycles per second (Hertz).

Vibrational frequencies respond sympathetically not only to other oscillations of identical frequency but also to other oscillations of resonant frequencies. Such frequencies are integral multiples of the fundamental (or natural) frequency.

I.E. Any lightwave having a frequency with a wavelength that is , 1/3, , 1/5, 1/6 etc. of the atomic vibrational frequencys wavelength will be in resonance, and will therefore satisfy the resonant condition.

When a light wave with the same natural frequency (or a resonant one) impinges upon an object (liquid or solid), the natural vibrational frequency of the atoms in the object will be reinforced, and the amplitude (intensity) of the vibrations will be increased. The energy of the lightwave will be absorbed by the object. I.E. if a lightwave of a given frequency strikes a material with atoms having the same or (resonant) vibrational frequencies, then those atoms will absorb the energy of the lightwave and transform it into vibrational motion.

The selective absorption of light by a particular material occurs because the selected frequency of the light wave matches the frequency at which the atoms of that material vibrate. Since different atoms and molecules have different natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies (or portions of the spectrum) of visible light. Reflection and transmission of light waves occur because the frequencies of the light waves do not match the natural resonant frequencies of vibration of the objects. When light of these frequencies strike an object, the energy is reflected or transmitted as a light wave, resulting in the appearance of color.

If the object is transparent, then the lightwaves are passed on to neighboring atoms through the bulk of the material and reemitted on the opposite side of the object. Such frequencies of lightwaves are said to be transmitted.

If the object is opaque, then the lightwaves are not passed from atom to atom through the bulk of the material. Rather the electrons vibrate for short periods of time and then reemit the energy as a reflected light wave. Such frequencies of light are said to be reflected.

3) Refraction Again, in this case, the interaction of a light ray with the surface of an object depends on the physical and chemical properties of the substance.

Recall your first memorable experience in a bathtub or swimming pool. You may have noticed that a partially submerged object appears to be broken, or bent. The change in the appearance of the object occurs exactly at the physical surface or interface where the air and water meet. This is precisely the point at which there is a distinct change in the physical and chemical properties of the transmitting substance.

When a light ray moves from one transparent material to another, such as form water thru air, the ray undergoes a change in the direction of travel at the boundary or interface between the two materials. This change of direction is called refraction.

The angle of refraction can be measured with respect to the normal direction of travel for the light ray (as in reflection). The incoming ray is called the incident ray (as reflection, from the angle of incidence), and the re-directed ray is called the refracted ray.

Refraction results from a change in the speed of the lightwave in any given medium. Light waves travel slower (by approximately one-third) in condensed matter than they do in air or a vacuum. The speed of light has a magnitude that is specific for various transparent materials. The physical property which determines the speed is known as the index of refraction. This index is determined by the ratio between the speed of light in the medium and the speed of light in a vacuum. Values range from 1.0 (in air) to 1.3 (in water) to 1.5 (in window glass) to 2.4 (in diamond).

The amount of refraction also depends upon the angle of incidence of the light ray. For example, an incident ray that is perpendicular to the surface is not refracted at all. As the angle of incidence is increased, so also is the angle of refraction (see Fig. 7.15). When the incident ray reaches an angle of about 49 degrees, the angle of refraction that results is 90 degrees.

At any angle of incidence above this critical angle of 49 degrees, the light ray will be reflected internally within the optically transparent medium. This condition of total internal reflection is somewhat dependent upon the difference in the index of refraction between the two substances, and provides the basis for all fiber optic and other guided lightwave transmission and optical circuitry.

III. Heat, Light, and Atomic Vibrations

When an object radiates light, it is said to be luminous. Stars (suns) and fire are natures best examples, while man conquers his darkness with electric light at night. With a tiny filament that burns @ 2200 degrees C. Burning has been used a source of artificial light for thousands of years. A candle flame (1500 degrees C) is luminous because of its high temperature. A wood fire must exceed the kindling temperature of 451 degrees Fahrenheit to burn. The surface of the sun is about 6000 degrees C. When visible light is given of as a result of

high temperatures, the light is said to be incandescent. All of these high temperature light sources are incandescent.

Visible light is emitted form incandescent sources at high temperatures. But actually electromagnetic radiation is given off (radiated) from matter at all temperatures. Blackbody radiation refers to an ideal blackbody that perfectly absorbs and perfectly emits radiation. The radiation originates from the acceleration of charged particles (electrons) near the surface of the material. But the frequency of the lightwave -- as well as the source of the energy -- are both determined by something much different.

The wavelength of the light emitted from an object is determined by the atomic vibrations. The spectrum of radiation includes waves whose frequencies are equal to the atomic vibrational frequencies (or integer multiples of these in the case of resonant modes of vibration). Near absolute 0 (- 273 degrees C) all atomic motion ceases and there is no radiation emitted. As the temperature increases, more energy is available which manifests itself as a spectrum of emitted radiation.

IV. Quantization of Energy: The Wave-Particle Duality

In 1900, German physicist Max Planck proposed the theory that vibrating molecules could only vibrate at particular frequencies. These frequencies have come to be associate with are called the allowed energy levels. Thus, instead of a continuous spectrum of energy levels, there are discrete energy levels allowed. These specific amounts of energy which are manifest in the specific frequencies of emitted radiation are termed quanta (the plural of quantum).

The discovery of quantized energy states was a radical shift from classical thought, and though initially received with widespread skepticism (including Planck himself!) revolutionized modern nonNewtonian physics.

Five years later, Einstein described the energy in a lightwave as a quantum of energy called a photon (p. 176) which travels at the speed of light, c. Each individual photon contains an amount of energy E which is directly proportional to the frequency of the lightwave. The constant of proportionality is equal to Plancks constant. Thus,

The higher frequency light (e.g. blue light @ energy than the lower frequency light (e.g. red light @

) has more ).

There has been a considerable amount of attention in recent years over the debate between two schools of thought. Some prefer to think of the basic unit of light and radiation as a wave. Others prefer to think of it as a particle with distinct surfaces.

Limitations to the latter mode of thinking were presented years ago in the form of Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle. This states that there are two important parameters which can be measured on the most primary mass or particle:

a) Position

b) Speed or Velocity

In subatomic particles, the problem arises when you obtain a more accurate measurement of its position, and your data on velocity begins to crumble. The same is true as you attempt to obtain an accurate measurement of its speed or velocity, and your knowledge of position begins to fade. It is as if you can have one or the other, but not both.

This type of theoretical inadequacy has led to the concept of light as wave vs. light as particle -- a rapidly growing school of thought that has taken the scientific community by storm. At this juncture in our civilization, we are gradually becoming more and more comfortable with the view of everything as waves, with particles merely providing an experimental result which we achieve in the laboratory by insisting on some form of reliable experimental measurement and conclusion.

The interference pattern observed in Youngs slit experiments would appear to corroborate this theory. While it may be beyond the scope of this course, an excellent presentation of both the theory as well as the now-famous slit experiments which have been conducted on this subject can be found in Stephen Hawkings highly accessible A Brief History of Time (Bantam Books, 1988) which I would strongly recommend to the avid student in this field (see Chapter 4 - The Uncertainty Principle).

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