Chapter 2: Amplitude Modulation (AM) Transmission and Reception 2.

5 AM Receivers

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AM demodulation is the reverse process of AM modulation. A conventional doublesideband AM receiver simply converts a received amplitude-modulated wave back to the original source information by receiving, amplifying and demodulating the wave. The receiver must also be capable of bandlimiting the total RF spectrum to a specific desired band of frequencies. This selection process is called tuning the receiver The simplified block diagram of a typical AM receiver is shown below:

Figure 2.16: Simplified block diagram of an AM receiver RF section (receiver front end) is used to detect, bandlimited and amplifying the received RF signal The mixer/converter down-converts the received RF frequencies to intermediate frequencies (IF) o Intermediate frequencies are the frequencies that fall somewhere between the RF and information frequencies The IF section is used for amplification and selectivity The AM detector demodulates the AM wave and converts it to the original information signal Audio section is used to amplify the recovered signal

2.5.1 Receiver Parameters 2.5.1.1 Selectivity Selectivity is a parameter that is used to measure the ability of the receiver to accept a given band of frequencies and reject all others Example: For the commercial AM broadcast band, each stations transmitter is allocated a 10 kHz bandwidth. For a receiver to select only those frequencies assigned a single channel, the receiver must limit its bandwidth to 10 kHz.

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One way to describe the selectivity of the receiver is to give the receiver bandwidth at two levels of attenuation (e.g. -3 dB and -60 dB). The ratio of these two bandwidths is called shape factor

SF =

B( 60 dB ) B( 3dB )

(2.23)

Ideally, both bandwidths would be equal and the shape factor would be 1. However, it is impossible to achieve this value in a practical circuit. For example, AM broadcast-band radio receiver has a shape factor of 2. More expensive and sophisticated satellite, microwave and two-way radio receivers have shape factors closer to 1 A radio receiver must be capable of separating the desired channels signal without allowing interference from an adjacent channel to spill over into the desired channels passband

2.5.1.2 Bandwidth Improvement Thermal noise is one form of noise occurs in the communication system. It is proportional to bandwidth. As a signal propagates from the antenna through the RF section, mixer/converter section and IF section, the bandwidth of the signal is reduced, thus reducing the noise. The noise reduction ratio achieved by reducing the bandwidth is called bandwidth improvement (BI)

Mathematical representation
B RF (2.24) B IF where BI = bandwidth improvement B RF = RF bandwidth BIF = IF bandwidth The corresponding reduction in noise due to reduction in bandwidth is called noise figure improvement NFimprovement = 10 log BI (2.25) BI =

2.5.1.3 Sensitivity The sensitivity of a receiver is the minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the input to the receiver and still produce a usable demodulated information signal The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the power of the signal at the output of the audio section are used to determine the quality of the received signal and whether it is usable o For typical AM broadcast-band receivers, a 10 dB or more SNR with approximately 0.5W of signal power at audio section is considered usable

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The sensitivity of a receiver is stated in microvolts of the received signal. Typical sensitivity for commercial broadcast-band AM receiver is 50V The sensitivity of a receiver depends on: 1. Noise power present at the input to the receiver 2. Receiver noise figure 3. Sensitivity of the AM detector 4. Bandwidth improvement factor of the receiver The best way to improve the sensitivity is to reduce the noise level

2.5.1.4 Dynamic Range The dynamic range of a receiver is defined as the difference in decibels between the minimum input level necessary to recognize a signal and the input level that will overdrive the receiver and produce distortion The minimum receive level is a function of the desired signal quality, front-end noise and noise figure The level that will produce overload distortion is a function of the net gain of the receiver (total gain of all the stages in the receiver) A dynamic range of 100 dB is considered about the highest possible A low dynamic range can cause severe intermodulation distortion

2.5.1.5 Fidelity Fidelity is a measure of the ability of a communication system to produce an exact replica of the original source information at the output of the receiver Any variations in the demodulated signal that were not in the original information signal are considered distortion. There are 3 forms of distortion: phase, amplitude and frequency Phase distortion The predominant cause of phase distortion is filtering Frequencies at or near the break frequency of a filter undergo varying values of phase shift. I.e. they are shifted / delayed. If all the frequencies are not delayed by the same amount of time, the frequencyversus-phase relationship of the received signal is not consistent with the original signal and the recovered signal is distorted Amplitude distortion Occurs when the amplitude-versus-frequency characteristics of the output signal of a receiver differ from those of the original signal It is the result of nonuniform gain in amplifiers and filters Frequency distortion

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Occurs when frequencies are present in a received signal that were not present in the original source information It is a result of harmonic and intermodulation distortion and caused by nonlinear amplification

After looking at several receiver parameters, lets turn our attention to the types of receiver. There are two basic types of radio receivers: coherent and noncoherent. With coherent receiver, the frequencies generated in the receiver and used for demodulation are synchronized to oscillator frequencies generated in the transmitter With noncoherent receivers, either no frequencies are generated in the receiver or the frequencies used for demodulation are completely independent from the transmitters carrier frequency

For AM DSBFC scheme, noncoherent receivers are typically used 2.5.2 Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver (TRF) TRF receivers are probably the simplest designed radio receiver available today. Figure 2.17 shows the block diagram of the three-stage TRF receiver that includes an RF stage, a detector stage and an audio stage.

Figure 2.17: TRF receiver block diagram Two or three RF amplifiers are required to filter and amplify the received signal to a level sufficient to drive the detector stage The detector converts RF signals directly to information An audio stage amplifies the information signals to a usable level

TRF receivers are simple and have a relatively high sensitivity. However, they have 3 distinct disadvantages:

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1. The bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with center frequency when tuned over a wide range of input frequencies As frequency increases, the bandwidth (f/Q) increases. Thus, the selectivity of the input filter changes over any appreciable range of input frequencies 2. Instability due to large number of RF amplifiers all tuned to the same center frequency High frequency, multi stage amplifiers are susceptible to breaking into oscillation 3. The gains are not uniform over a very wide frequency range The nonuniform L/C ratios of the transformer-coupled tank circuits in the RF amplifiers 2.5.3 Superheterodyne Receiver The nonuniform selectivity of the TRF receiver led to the development of the superheterodyne receiver. It is still used today for a wide variety of radio communication services because its gain, selectivity and sensitivity characteristics are superior to those of other receiver configurations. Heterodyne means to mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear device or to transmit one frequency to another using nonlinear mixing. Block diagram of superheterodyne receiver:

Figure 2.18: Block diagram of superheterodyne receiver

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Chapter 2: Amplitude Modulation (AM) Transmission and Reception There are five sections to a superheterodyne receiver:

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1. RF section Consists of a preselector and an amplifier Preselector is a broad-tuned bandpass filter with an adjustable center frequency used to reject unwanted radio frequency (image frequency) and to reduce the noise bandwidth RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the receiver and a predominant factor in determining the noise figure for the receiver 2. Mixer/converter section Consists of a radio-frequency oscillator and a mixer Choice of oscillator depends on the stability and accuracy desired Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio frequencies to intermediate frequencies (I.e. heterodyning process) The shape of the envelope, the bandwidth and the original information contained in the envelope remains unchanged although the carrier and sideband frequencies are translated from RF to IF 3. IF section Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and bandpass filters to achieve most of the receiver gain and selectivity The IF is always lower than the RF because it is easier and less expensive to construct high-gain, stable amplifiers for low-frequency signals. IF amplifiers are also less likely to oscillate than their RF counterparts 4. Detector section To convert the IF signals back to the original source information (demodulation) Can be as simple as a single diode or as complex as a PLL or balanced demodulator 5. Audio amplifier section Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more speakers 2.5.4 Receiver Operation 2.5.4.1 Frequency conversion Frequency conversion in the mixer stage is identical to frequency conversion in the modulator except that in the receiver, the frequencies are down-converted rather than upconverted. In the mixer, the RF signals are combined with the local oscillator frequency. The local oscillator is designed such that its frequency of oscillation is always above or below the desired RF carrier by an amount equal to the IF center

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frequency. Therefore, the difference of RF and oscillator frequency is always equal to the IF frequency The adjustments for the center frequency of the preselector and the local oscillator frequency are gang tuned (the two adjustments are tied together so that single adjustment will change the center frequency of the preselector and at the same time, change local oscillator) When local oscillator frequency is tuned above the RF, it is called high-side injection. When local oscillator is tuned below the RF, it is called low-side injection Mathematical expression of the local oscillator frequency: High-side injection: f lo = f RF + f IF (2.26) f lo = f RF f IF (2.27) Low-side injection:

Illustration of the frequency conversion process for an AM broadcast-band superheterodyne receiver using high-side injection:

Figure 2.19: Superheterodyne receiver RF-to-IF conversion (Refer pp. 171 of the textbook for explanation)

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Chapter 2: Amplitude Modulation (AM) Transmission and Reception 2.5.4.2 Image frequency

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An image frequency is any frequency other than the selected radio frequency carrier that will produce a cross-product frequency that is equal to the intermediate frequency if allowed to enter a receiver and mix with the local oscillator It is equivalent to a second radio frequency that will produce an IF that will interfere with the IF from the desired radio frequency. If the selected RF carrier and its image frequency enter a receiver at a same time, they both mix with the local oscillator frequency and produce difference frequencies that are equal to the IF. Consequently, 2 different stations are received and demodulated simultaneously The following figure shows the relative frequency spectrum for the RF, IF, local oscillator and image frequencies for a superheterodyne receiver using high-side ejection:

Figure 2.20: Image frequency For a radio frequency to produce a cross product equal to IF, it must be displaced from local oscillator frequency by a value equal to the IF With high-side ejection, the selected RF is below the local oscillator by amount equal to the IF. Therefore, the image frequency is the radio frequency that is located in the IF frequency above the local oscillator as shown above. I.e. f im = f lo + f IF = f RF + 2 f IF (2.28)

The higher the IF, the farther away the image frequency is from the desired radio frequency. Therefore, for better image frequency rejection, a high IF is preferred. However, the higher the IF, the more difficult is to build stable amplifiers with high gain. I.e. there is a trade-off when selecting the IF for a radio receiver (image-frequency rejection vs. IF gain and stability)

2.5.4.3 Image-frequency rejection ratio The image-frequency rejection ratio (IFRR) is a numerical measure of the ability of a preselector to reject the image frequency

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Chapter 2: Amplitude Modulation (AM) Transmission and Reception Mathematical representation of IFRR:
IFRR = (1 + Q 2 2 where = ( f im / f RF ) ( f RF / f im ) Q = quality factor of a preselector

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(2.29)

Once an image frequency has down-converted to IF, it cannot be removed. Thus, to reject the image frequency, it has to be blocked prior to the mixer stage. I.e. the bandwidth of the preselector must be sufficiently narrow to prevent image frequency from entering the receiver

2.5.5 Double-conversion Receivers As stated before, for good image-frequency rejection, a relatively high IF is desired. However, for high-gain selective amplifiers that are stable, a low IF is necessary. The solution for this problem is to use two intermediate frequencies. I.e. by using doubleconversion AM receiver:

Figure 2.21: Double-conversion AM receiver The first IF is a relatively high frequency for good image rejection The second IF is a relatively low frequency for good selectivity and easy amplification 2.6 AM Detector Its function is to demodulate the AM signal and recover the source information. The AM detector is sometimes called the second detector.

BENT 3113: Communication Principles

Chapter 2: Amplitude Modulation (AM) Transmission and Reception Figure 2.22 shows a schematic diagram for a simple noncoherent AM demodulator:

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Figure 2.22: Peak detector The output contains the original input frequencies, their harmonics and their crossproducts. Let consider 300 kHz carrier being modulated by a 2 kHz sine wave. Modulated wave consists of lower side frequency, carrier and upper side frequency of 298 kHz, 300 kHz and 302 kHz respectively The output of the detector: Vout = input frequencies + harmonics + sum and differences Since the RC network is a low pass filter, only the difference frequencies are passed on to the audio section

Vout

= 300 298 = 2 kHz, = 302 300 = 2 kHz, = 302 298 = 4 kHz

I.e. the difference between carrier and either the upper or lower side frequency is the predominant output signal. Consequently, for practical purpose, the original modulating wave (2 kHz) is the only component that is contained in the output of the detector The operation of the detector is illustrated and described below:

Figure 2.23: AM input, diode current and output voltage waveforms

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At t0, diode is reversed biased (id = 0), the capacitor is completely discharged (Vc = 0) At t1, as Vin exceeds barrier potential of D1 (0.3 V), the diode turns on and diode current begin to flow, charging the capacitance. The capacitor voltage basically follows the Vin until Vin reaches its peak value. At t2, as Vin begins to decrease, the diode turns off. The capacitor voltage begins to discharge through resistor but the RC time constant is made sufficiently long so that the capacitor cannot discharge as rapidly as Vin is decreasing This continues until Vin rises up towards the next peak. At the point when Vin exceeds the capacitor voltage, the diode turns on and the capacitor begins to charge again Note that from the above figure, the output waveform resembles the shape of the input envelope

Practical issue is the choice of RC time constant used If it is too small, capacitor voltage will drop significantly between peaks which caused the final output to reduce to zero. This is called rectifier distortion If it is too large, the slope of the output waveform cannot follow the trailing slope of the envelope. This is known as diagonal clipping Expression giving the upper limit on the RC time constant:
RC = 1 m2 2mf m

(2.30)

Figure 2.24: (a) Input envelope; (b) rectifier distortion; (c) diagonal clipping

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Chapter 2: Amplitude Modulation (AM) Transmission and Reception 2.7 Net Receiver Gain

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Net receiver gain is simply the ratio of the demodulator signal level at the output of the receiver to the RF signal level at the input to the receiver In essence, net receiver gain is the dB sum of all gains to the receiver minus the dB sum of all losses. Figure 2.25 shows the gains and losses found in a typical radio receiver:

Figure 2.25: Receiver gains and losses

GdB = gains dB losses dB

where gains = RF amplifier gain + IF amplifier gain + audio amplifier gain losses = preselector loss + mixer loss + detector loss

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