Colonialism and the Countryside 2 marks What was the theme of the Santhal myths and songs of the

19th century? Santhal myths and songs of the nineteenth century refer very frequently to a long history of travel. They represent the Santhal past as one of continuous mobility, a tireless search for a place to settle. Who were jotedars? The jotedars were the rich peasants. They emerged as commanding figures in the countryside. In some places they were called haoladars, elsewhere they were known as gantidars or mandals. Their rise inevitably weakenedzamindari authority. Why did the Paharias regularly raid the plains inhabited by settled agriculturalists? The raids made by the Paharias were necessary for survival, particularly in years of scarcity. These raids were a way of asserting power over settled communities and also, these raids were a means of negotiating political relations with outsiders. Why did the Permanent Settlement fail? The permanent settlement failed due to the following reasons: a. The initial demand was very high. b. This high demand was imposed in 1790s, a time when the prices of agricultural produce were depressed, making it difficult for the ryots to pay their dues to the zamindar. What was the Sunset Law? The Sunset Law was a law that was related to the revenue collection payment by the Zamindars. When a Zamindar fails to pay the revenue by the Sunset of the specified last date, his estates were confiscated by the Company and auctioned. What measures were taken by the Company to control and regulate the zamindars? In order to control and regulate the zamindars, their troops were disbanded, customs duties abolished and their cutcheries (courts) brought under the supervision of a collector appointed by the Company. Zamindars lost their power to organise local justice and the local police. Where was the colonial rule established first? Colonial rule was first established in Bengal. The East India Company first tried to reorder the rural society and implement new revenue policy and regime of land rights. Why were the estates of the Raja of Burdwan auctioned? The East India Company had fixed the revenue that zamindars had to pay. The estates of the zamindars who failed to pay the fixed revenue amount were auctioned. The Raja of Burdwan failed to pay his due and his estates or mahals were auctioned in 1797. Why did the efforts of the East India Company failed in auctioning the estates of the zamindars who had arrears? The Britishs efforts to auction the estates of the zamindars failed, because the purchasers who bought the estates in the auctions were the servants and agents of the

raja. They bought the lands and estates and gave back to their raja. So the raja remained as a strong zamindar. Over 95 per cent of the sale at the auction was mostly fictitious. What was the cultivation method of the Paharias? The Paharias were the hill- folks and lived around the Rajmahal hills in the lateeighteenth century. They practiced shifting cultivation. They created cultivable lands by clearing patches of forest by cutting bushes and burning the undergrowth. These patches were enriched by the potash from the ash. The Paharias grew a variety of pulses and millets for their own consumption. What were the forests produce collected by the Paharias? The Paharias of the Rajmahal hills were hunters, shifting cultivators, food gatherers and charcoal producers. They collected the forest produce like mahua (a kind of flower) for food, silk cocoons and resin for sale, and wood for charcoal production. What do the accounts of Buchanan tell about the Rajmahal hills? Buchanan travelled the Rajmahal hills in the early nineteenth century. According to his description the hills were very thick and impenetrable. He says that it was an area with danger. He observed common phenomena that wherever he went, people were not willing to talk to him and were apprehensive of outsiders. What do you understand by the revenue estates of the zamindars? The Revenue estates were those villages which were under the control of the Zamindars. Each zamindar had nearly 400 villages under his control. The East India Company described those villages as Revenue Estate. How rajas and taluqdars came to be known as the Zamindars? When the Permanent Revenue Settlement was introduced in the Bengal region, the British faced a major problem regarding the handing over the responsibility of the revenue collection. After a long debate and argument among the Company officials, they handed the responsibility to the rajas and the taluqdars. Now the rajas and the taluqdars came to be known as the zamindars and assigned the responsibility of collecting the revenue from the farmers and paying to the East India Company. How did the zamindars resist the auctioning of their estates and demands of high revenue by the British? The zamindars used many tactics and strategies to escape from their estates being auctioned. Fictitious sale was one of the tactics. Another strategy was transferring the properties in the names of women, because the Company had decreed that they would not touch the property of women. Another tactic was the manipulation of the auctions by the agents of the zamindars. The zamindars also deliberately delayed the payment of the revenue collection to the Company. Write about the collection and payment of revenue by the zamindars. When the zamindars go for collecting the revenue an officer of the Company, amlah accompanied himand came around the village. The collection of the rent was a difficult task for the zamindars, because sometimes, bad harvests and low prices made it difficult for the ryots to pay the revenue. In some cases the ryots deliberately delayed the rent.

What was the Fifth report? The Fifth Report was a Report prepared to send to the Britain Parliament. The Fifth report was having the detailed report on the changes that were going on in the initial years of the East India Company in Bengal. It also had a documented report on the administration and activities of the East India Company. The Report was having 1002 pages. It was submitted in the Parliament in 1813. What were the content of the Fifth report? Fifth report was a report on the administration and activities of the East India Company. The Reports 800 pages were the appendices that reproduced the petitions of the zamindars and ryots, reports of collectors from various districts. It was also having the statistical tables on revenue returns, and notes on the revenue and judicial administration of Bengal, Madras. What do the scholars say regarding the use of the Fifth Report as a source for the history? Scholars have analyzed the Fifth Report carefully in various archives of Bengal in order to write the history of the colonial Bengal.They argue that the Fifth Report has exaggerated the collapse of the traditional zamindari power in Bengal. It also has over estimated the scale on which the zamindars were losing their power. What are the other names by which the jotedars are known? The jotedars were also known in many names such as haoladras, gantidars or mandals. How did the officials of the East India Company restrict the power of the zamindars? Even though the company had recognized the zamindars for the collection and the payment of the revenue from the peasants, the East India Company officials wanted to regulate and restrict their power. The Company officials abandoned the troops of the zamindars. The customs and duties of the zamindars were abolished. The cutcheries (self styled courts of the zamindars) of the zamindars were brought under the control of the collector of particular district. The Zamindars were unable to organize their power in the villages for administering the local justice and the local police. What were the powers of the jotedars? The powers of jotedars were as follows: Since they lived in villages and close to people unlike the zamindars, they were able to keep their in tact for a long period. They resisted the zamindars efforts to increase the jama of the village. They also made hurdles to the zamindars while they went for collecting the revenues by instigating the ryots against the later. They were more powerful in North Bengal. Why could not the outside purchasers of the auctioned estates took the possession of the estate? The outsides were attacked by the ryots and lathyals of the zamindars. They felt that they are part of the zamindari control due to a sense of loyalty and considered the zamindars as authority and themselves as subject (proja). That is why the outsiders were not able to take the possession of the estates purchased by them. What is the important historical source, to know about the history of the Paharias?

The important historical source to study the history of the Paharias is the travel accounts written by Francis Buchanan who visited the Rajmahal hill where the Paharias were living during the 11th century. What were the occupations of the Paharias? The main occupations of the Paharias were hunting, shifting cultivation, gathering food and producing charcoal by burning the forest trees. What were the forest products collected by the Paharias for their livelihood? The followings were the important forest products that the Paharias collected either for food or for selling them for their livelihood. Mahua (a flower) for food. Silk cocoons. Resin for sale. Wood for charcoal. Why did the Paharias raid the agriculturists settled in the plains? The Paharias raided the agriculturists who had settled in the plain areas especially during the time of food scarcity and looted the grains. Raid was also one way to assert their power over settled communities. It was also kind of means of negotiating their political relations with outsiders. What was the cultivation method of the Paharias? The cultivation method the Paharias was the shifting-cultivation. They cleared the forest by burning the undergrowth and cutting bushes. Due to this burning action, the soil to be cultivated got potash. They grew a variety of pulses and millets for their own consumptions. Their main agriculture tool was hoe with which they scratched the ground slightly and cultivated the cleared surface for years then left it fallow to get its fertility and moved to new areas. How did the British propose a policy of pacification with the Paharias? During the 1770s the British adopted a policy of execution of the Paharias. But in 1780s when Augustus Cleveland became collector of Bhagalpur, he proposed for pacification with the Paharias. According to this policy the chiefs of the Paharias were given an annual allowance and made responsible for the proper behavior of his people. They were also assigned the responsibility of maintaining the law and order in their areas. Who was Francis Buchanan? Francis Buchanan is also known as Francis Hamilton. He was a professional Physician from Scotland. He came to India and served in the Bengal Medical Service from 1794 to 1815. His travel account was published in the title A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar in 1807. What were the main intentions of Buchanans travel writings? Even though Buchanans travel accounts are very important source for the study history of this period. His intention of travelling these areas was different. To put it in nutshell, it was to find out economic feasibility of the areas travelled by Buchanan. He not only wrote about landscapes, but also reflected the expectations of the EEIC. He made suggestions to develop areas with more productive ones. He was also searching for minerals and stones that would bring more income to the English East India Company. What do you understand by the Santhal Pargana?

Santhal Pargana was an area that the Santhals created after their revolt against the British domination of their lands that they cultivated. The Pargana was carved out of 5,500 square miles form the districts of Bagalpur and Birbhum. What were the reasons for the Santhal rebellions? The Santhals had come to the Rajmahal hill in 1780s when the Paharias were facing problem with the British. The British gave lands to the Santhals for cultivation and encouraged them to settle. By 1832 a large area was demarcated as Damin-i-Koh and was declared as the land of Santhals who lived within the allotted lands. Butlater they realized that their cultivated lands were going out of their hands, because the British had levied heavy taxes and the money lenders charged more taxes to their debts. For these reasons the Santhals revolted against the British. What were reasons for the expansion of Santhal villages during the period 1850s? The allotment of the separate lands: Damin-i-Koh to the Santhals by the British resulted in the expansion of Santhal settlements. In 1838, the number of Santhal villages was 40, but in 1851, it increased to 1,473 villages. During the same period population increased from 3,000 to over 82,000. What do you understand by Damin-i-Koh? The Santhals had come to the Rajmahal hills in 1780s when the Paharias were facing problem with the British. The British gave lands to the Santhals for cultivation and encouraged them to settle. By 1832 a large area was demarcated as Damin-i-Koh and was declared as the land of Santhals who lived within the allotted lands. How did the zamindars and agriculture communities deal with the raids of the Paharias from the hill region? The zamindars and the agriculturist communities that settled in the plain had to buy peace with the Paharias. They paid the hill chiefs a regular tribute. Traders who had to pass by the hill areas paid toll. In this case the Paharias protected the traders and goods from being looted by others. Whom did the peasants target at the time the Revolts in the Bombay and Deccan area? The Peasants targeted the shopkeepers and demanded their bahi khatas (account books) and debt bonds. They also burnt the account book and looted grain shops. Sahukars were also attacked and their houses were set fire because they were demanding high rate of interest on debts. What were the efforts taken by the British to prevent the revolt of the peasants in the Bombay Deccan area? The Revolt of 1875 reminded the British of the Revolt of 1857. To prevent the revolt, the British established many police posts in villages. Police forces were rushed to the areas of the Revolt where it was more intensive. Nearly 951 people were taken into custody. It took several months to bring it under control. Why permanent revenue system was not extended beyond the Bengal region? The Permanent revenue system was not extended beyond Bengal, because in this system the revenue rent was fixed, and when the yield of the land increased more than

the fixed revenue, the rest of the amount was kept by the zamindars and this led to the loss of revenue to the Company as it was not able to get share in the increased revenue accruing to the zamindar from the estate. How did the economic theories of economist David Ricardo influence the revenue policies of the British in Colonial Bengal? David Ricardo was an eminent economist in England. His economic theories influenced the revenue policies of the British in India. When the British tried to implement new revenue settlements in Maharashtra, they included some of the economic ideas of David Ricardo during 1820s. What were the features of the Ryotwari settlement? The new revenue system introduced in the Bombay Deccan was the Ryotwari settlement. This system was different from the Permanent settlement in Bengal. In the Permanent system the revenue collection and the payment was assigned to the zamindars who collected form the ryots. But in the Ryotwari settlement the British settled directly with the ryots. Average rent was calculated according to the type of the soil in the land. According to this system the lands were also surveyed every 30 years. How did the American Civil War in 1861 affected the cotton supply to Britain? America was the soul supplier of raw cotton to the industries in Manchester. But this supply was disturbed and the supply fell from over 2,000,000 bales in 1861 to 55,000 bales in 1862. American Civil War of 1860s was the major reason for the cotton boom India as now Britain was depend on India for the supply of cotton for its industries. Why did the British business men selected India as an alternative source for the cotton supply? When the cotton famine occurred in England due to the interrupted cotton supply to the Manchester industries in Britain because of the American Civil War, the Cotton merchants were very much interested in making India as an alternative source for cotton supply for the following reasons. India had suitable soil for the cotton cultivation. Favourable climate for the cotton cultivation. Cheap labours such as cotton pickers.

How did the cotton boom affect Indian farmers? Till the cotton boom exited the cotton merchants in India dreamt of capturing the market in the international level replacing America. When the Civil War in America ended in 1865, the cotton supply from America to Britain revived, the cotton export merchants and sahukars in Maharashtra hesitated to give long-term credit to the farmers, because they realized the fall in the export of Indian cotton to Britain. This situation resulted in the less credit opportunity for farmers and high revenue demand and restricted finance advances to the peasants. What was the Deccan Riots Commission? The Deccan Riots Commission was established by the Government of Bombay to inquire into the causes and reasons of the riots in the Bombay Deccan Areas. The Commission submitted its report in the British Parliament in 1878. 5 marks What was the course of the Peasants Revolt in the Bombay Deccan area?

The revolt movement began at Supa in Poona district on 12 May 1875, ryots form surrounding rural areas gathered and attacked demanding the account books and bonds used for lending money by money lenders. The village was having a very big market. The spread of the Revolt - After a few days the Revolt spread from Poona to Ahmednagar. Within next two months it spread further and covered 6,500 square km. thirty villages were affected. The pattern of revolt was same everywhere. Sahukars were attacked ant their account books. Why did the business groups in Britain opposed the East India Companys Trade in India and Why? Since from the arrival of the East India Company to Bengal in 1760s, the business groups in England monitored the administration and activities of the Company very closely. Those business groups were opposed to the trade of the East India Company because of its sole domination in India. These business groups wanted the revocation of the charter given to the East India Company. Number of private traders and industrialists wanted share in the trade of the East India Company. Why did the zamindars of Bengal default on the payments of revenue to the East India Company? The initial revenue demands were very high. The Company increased the revenue demand because of the fear that revenue demand would not enable them to get share in the increased revenue. The revenue demand was increased at a time when the prices of agricultural prices were facing depression. The Zamindars were unable to collect the rent from the peasants due to the decrease in the production. The British were very strict in order to get the payment punctually and thus devised strict laws for ensuring punctuality. Why did the British introduce the fixed revenue system? Since the time the British brought Bengal under their control, they were facing the problem in collecting the revenue. The British thought to develop the agriculture, trade and the revenue resources of the state by making investment in agriculture. They decided to do this by acquiring rights of property and by fixing the revenue demand permanently. The fixing of the revenue demand had many advantages for the British. But the problem was in identifying the person or agent who would increase the agricultural production as well as pay the fixed amount of revenue to the state. After a lot of thinking the company decided to make the rajas and taluqdars of Bengal as their agents for the purpose. The rajas and taluqdars were called now as zamindars. The zamindars had to pay the revenue demand fixed by the state. Write a note on the zamindars and their functions. The British appointed the rajas and taluqdars of Bengal to collect the fixed revenue amount and they were known as zamindar. The zamindars had about 400 villages under their control. In the calculation of the British, one zamindari formed one revenue estate.

The zamindar collected the revenue and paid the fixed amount and kept the excess as his income. The zamindar collected rent from different villages. They paid the company on a regular base and their estates were auctioned when they failed to pay the amount. They were not the owners of the lands from which they collected the revenue, but according to the state they were the revenue collectors. Why did the zamindars fail to pay the fixed revenue amount to the state? The zamindars failed to pay the fixed revenue amount to the state because of the various reasons. The first factor was that the initial demands were very high. The second reason was that the demands were made at a time when the prices of agriculture produce were depressed and the ryots were unable to pay their dues to the zamindars. The third factor was that the revenue was invariable, regardless of the harvest. Even if the crops failed the revenue had to be paid punctually. The Sunset law: According to the Sunset law, if the revenue was not paid to the state by the sunset on a particular day, the zamindari was auctioned. What were the actions taken by the state to control the zamindars? The zamindars were recognized as important instrument for the flow of the revenue. At the same time the state tried to control them by taking various steps. The state subdued their authority and restricted their autonomy. The troops of zamindars were disbanded, customs duties abolished. Their courts cutcherries were brought under the supervision of a collector appointed by the Company. The zamindars were unable to organize local justice and local police. In course of time the collectorate replaced the power of the zamindars with its own power. In one case when a raja failed pay the revenue, a company official was sent to his zamindar to destroy power and influence of the zamindar. What were the problems faced by the zamindars while collecting the rent? An officer of the zamindar came around to the village at the time of revenue collection. The collection of the rent was a perennial problem for the zamindars. At the time of bad harvest and low prices, it was difficult for the ryots to pay the rent. In some cases the ryots delayed the rent payment deliberately. Rich ryots and village headmen were happy to trouble the zamindar. The zamindars were unable to easily establish their power over them. The zamindars had the authority to prosecute the defaulters, but the judicial process was long drawn. According to sources in Burdwan alone some 30,000 cases were pending related to the arrear payment in 1798. Who were the jotedars? According to the survey of Francis Buchanan, in the Dinajpur district in North Bengal, the rich peasants were known as jotedars. They consolidated their power and position at the end of the eighteenth century while many zamindars faced crisis. They had occupied a vast area of lands and in some cases as much as several thousand acres. They controlled the local trade activities and money lending and had more power over

the poor peasants.The lands of jotedars were cultivated by the sharecroppers (adhiyars or bargadars).The sharecroppers brought their own implements for the cultivation and gave their labour and half of the produce to the jotedars after the harvest. Write a note on the powers of the jotedars. The jotedars had more power than the zamindars. The jotedars were settled in the villages and they had direct control over poor villagers, while the zamindars lived in urban areas. The jotedars were against the zamindars. The jotedars made many hurdles against the efforts of the zamindars to increase the jama of the village. The zamindari officials were prevented from collecting the rent. The jotedars gathered ryots against the zamindars and delayed the payment of revenue to the zamindar. When the estates of the zamindars were auctioned by the state, the jotedars were often purchasers. The jotedars were very powerful in North Bengal. In some places the jotedarswere known as haoladars and gantidars or mandals. How did the zamindars face auction of their land and heavy revenues demands by the state? The zamindars followed many strategies to face the pressure from the state demanding high revenue and their estates being auctioned by the state. They followed a number of steps: When the state auctioned their estates, the zamindars transferred their zamindari to women since the British had promised that they would not take over the property of the women. For example the raja of Burdwan transferred his zamindari to his mother. The auctions were manipulated by the zamindars agents. At the time of auctions the zamindars men bought it and gave back to the zamindar outbidding the other purchasers. Write briefly about the frequent raids of the Paharias to their neighbouring areas. The Paharias had established themselves very strongly in the hilly region. They frequently raided the plains of the settled agriculturalists. According to sources these raids were important for them at the time of scarcity. Their raids were a way of asserting means of negotiating political relations with outsiders. The Zamindars on the plain areas had to pay regular tribute to the hill chiefs of the Paharias. Traders who had to pass by the hilly region also had to give a small tribute to the Paharias. For this small tribute the Paharia chiefs protected the traders and ensured that their goods were not looted by anyone. But in course of time, especially in the last decades of the eighteenth century, when the British, jotedars and zamindars started occupying the lands of the Paharias, there arose conflicts between the Paharias and the occupiers. What are the main features of the Paharias of the Rajmahal hills? Sources to know about the Paharias of the Rajmahal hills come from the Buchanans journal. His journal was written as diary of places he visited. The Paharias of the Rajmahal hills lived at the late-eighteenth century. Their main activities were to collect forest produce and practice shifting cultivation. They cleared the forest to create cultivable lands with their main instrument hoe. They grew variety of pulses and millets for their own consumption.

 Their main forest produces were mahua (a flower) for food, silk cocoons and resin which they sold and wood for charcoal. They were hunters, shifting cultivators, food gatherers and strongly connected with natural life, that is forest. 8 marks Write a note on Buchanan and his accounts. Francis Buchanan, Physician, came to India and served the people of India in the Bengal Medical Service nearly for 21 years. He also served as a renowned surgeon to the Governor General of India Lord Wellesley. Since he was a great lover of animals and birds, during his stay in Calcutta, he established a zoo and took efforts to develop it. The Zoo became the Calcutta Alipore Zoo. He was also in charge of then Botanical Gardens for a short period. He undertook a detailed survey of areas which were under the control of the government. He travelled widely and wrote a detailed account of the lands and the people especially about the Paharias and the Santhals of the Rajmahal hills. Buchanan travelled the Rajmahal hills in the early nineteenth century. According to his description the hills were very thick and impenetrable. He says that it was an area with danger. He observed common phenomena that wherever he went, people were not willing to talk to him and were apprehensive of officials. Sources to know about the Paharias of the Rajmahal hills come from the Buchanans journal. His journal was written as diary of places he visited. Buchanan wrote about a landscape and most often described not just what he saw, what the landscape was like, but also how it could be transformed and made more productive with a suggestion to cultivate more suitable crops. Write a note on the Deccan riots. In June, 1875, peasants of Maharashtra in some parts of Pune, Satara and Nagar districts revolted against increasing agrarian distress. The Deccan Riots of 1875 targeted conditions of debt peonage to moneylenders. The rioters' specific purpose was to obtain and destroy the bonds, decrees, and other documents in the possession of the moneylenders. As Indian agriculture was drawn into the world economy, credit, commerce, inequality and growth were interrelated. The cultivators' distress resulted from falling agricultural prices, heavy taxation, and a sense of political powerlessness. The commercialization of agriculture under British land revenue policies burdened small peasants by placing a premium on access to credit to finance productive investments in the land. Employing capital advanced by European merchants, local moneylenders obtained unlimited title to the property and labor of their debtors; it gave them the "power to utterly ruin and enslave the debtor. During the nineteenth century, they used this power to control peasant labour, and not their land, which was of little value without people to work on it. These changes in agriculture undermined the communal traditions which had been the basis of Indian village life. Access to common resources declined steadily because various forms of joint use were misunderstood by the British, access to the forests was restricted, and the British redefined the state's relationship to pastoral communities. Vasudeo Balwant Phadke launched a violent campaign against British rule in 1879, aiming to establish an Indian republic by driving them out. However, his insurrection met with limited success. What led the British to look for an alternative for raw cotton in India and briefly mention about major impact?

During 1860s America was the main and major supplier of cotton to Britain. But the supply was affected due to the Civil War in America and Britain did want to depend on America alone for cotton. In order to find an immediate alternative to American supply of cotton, in 1857 the Cotton Supply Association was founded in Britain and in 1859 the Manchester Cotton Company was established. The American Civil War broke out in 1861. The Raw cotton supply form America to Britain fell from 2,000,000 bales in 1861 to 55,000 bales in 1862. These organisations and associations found India as a suitable alternative for America to supply cotton to Manchester and Lancashire. In Bombay cotton agents visited the cotton districts to encourage the farmers to cultivate it. These developments affected the farmers in the Deccan areas. The ryots in the Deccan villages suddenly found access to limitless credit. They were given Rs. 100 as advance for every acre with the cultivation of cotton. But these changes did not bring benefits to all farmers and only big farmers got benefited out of it. The introduction of cotton led to the development of transport from the country side to the main cities and major ports. The transport especially Railways developed in order to move the raw cotton from the interior areas to the ports from where it was exported to Britain. Write a short note on the Santhals and their relationship with the British. The Santhals had migrated from Bengal to the Rajmahal hills and settled to carry out agricultural activities. The British officials invited them to settle in the Jangal Mahals. They were carrying out their agricultural activities more vigorously than the Paharias. But the British pursued the Santhals to settle in the foothills of the Rajmahal by providing them with lands. Their lands were demarcated as Damin-i- Koh in 1832. Due to this demarcation, the settlement areas of the Santhals expanded rapidly form 140 Santhal villages in 1838 to 1, 473 villages by 1851. And their population also increased from a mere 3,000 to over 82,000. But soon they realized that the lands that they had brought under cultivation were slipping out of their hands because the British government started levying taxes on those lands and the money lenders were charging them with high rates of interest and seized their lands in case of defaulters. By 1850s the Santhals realized that time had come to react to the domination of the British, Zamindars and other moneylenders and reacted to them in order to create an ideal world that would be ruled by the Santhals themselves. It was after the Santhal revolt (1855-56) that the Santhals were able to create the Santhal Pargana carving out of 5,500 square miles from the districts of Bhagalpur and Birbhum. When debts mounted the peasant was unable to pay back the loan to the moneylender. He had no option but to give over all his possessions land, carts, and animals to the moneylender. But without animals he could not continue to cultivate. So he took land on rent and animals on hire. He now had to pay for the animals which had originally belonged to him. He had to sign a deed of hire stating very clearly that these animals and carts did not belong to him. In cases of conflict, these deeds could be enforced through the court. The following is the text of a deed that a peasant signed in November 1873, from the records of the Deccan Riots Commission: I have sold to you, on account of the debt due to you, my two carriages having iron axles, with their appurtenances and four bullocks I have taken from you on hire under (this) deed the very same two carriages and four bullocks. I shall pay every month the hire thereof at Rupees four a month, and obtain a receipt in

your own handwriting. In the absence of a receipt I shall not contend that the hire had been paid. What were the possessions of the peasants given to the moneylenders? The Peasants had to give his main means of production such as land, carts and animals. Without animals the peasants could not continue their cultivation. How did the peasants manage to cultivate after their possessions were given to the money lenders? The main means of production of the peasants were animals. After giving their animals to the money lenders to meet their debts, they had to take lands on rent and hire animals. When did the Deccan Riots happen? The Deccan riots happened in the year 1875. What does the text of deeds tell us? It tells us the worst condition of the peasants and their condition to repay the borrowed amount from the money lenders. It further throws lights on the deadline to pay Rs.4 a month. The money lender gave the receipt. If the amount was paid without it, it was considered that the amount was not paid.

Referring to the condition of zamindars and the auction of lands, the Fifth Report stated: The revenue was not realised with punctuality, and lands to a considerable extent were periodically exposed to sale by auction. In the native year 1203, corresponding with 1796-97, the land advertised for sale comprehended a jumma or assessment of sicca rupees 28, 70, 061, the extent of land actually sold bore a jumma or assessment of 14,18,756, and the amount of purchase money sicca rupees 17, 90, 416. In 1204, corresponding with 1797-98, the land advertised was for sicca rupees 26, 66, 191, the quantity sold was for sicca rupees 22, 74, 076, and the purchase money sicca rupees 21, 47, 580. Among the defaulters were some of the oldest families of the country. Such were the rajahs of Nuddea, Rajeshaye, Bishenpore (all districts of Bengal), and others, the dismemberment of whose estates at the end of each succeeding year, threatened them with poverty and ruin, and in some instances presented difficulties to the revenue officers, in their efforts to preserve undiminished the amount of public assessment. What reason does the report give for auctioning the lands of the zamindars? The reason given by the passage for auctioning the lands of the zamindars was the less revenue and irregularity in paying the revenue to the British. What was the value of the lands auctioned during the period 1796-97? The land advertised for sale assessed the value Rs.28, 70, 061. The extent of land actually sold bore a jumma or assessment of 14,18,756, and the amount of purchase money sicca rupees 17,90,416. Who were the defaulters of the revenue to the company? The oldest families of the country such as the Rajahs of Nuddea, Rajeshaye and Bishenpore. All these were the districts in Bengal.

How the auction of the lands of the Rajahs did affect them in the following years? When the lands of the Rajahs were auctioned they had to face a sever poverty and the ruin of their zamindaris in the following years. Their condition also led to some difficulties to the revenue officers also.

Buchanan described the ways in which the jotedars of Dinajpur in North Bengal resisted being disciplined by the zamindar and undermined his power: Landlords do not like this class of men, but it is evident that they are absolutely necessary, unless the landlords themselves would advance money to their necessitous tenantry The jotedars who cultivate large portions of lands are very refractory, and know that the zamindars have no power over them. They pay only a few rupees on account of their revenue and then fall in balance almost every kist (instalment), they hold more lands than they are entitled to by their pottahs (deeds of contract). Should the zamindars officers, in consequence, summon them to the cutcherry, and detain them for one or two hours with a view to reprimand them, they immediately go and complain at the Fouzdarry Thanna (police station) for imprisonment and at the munsiffs (a judicial officer at the lower court) cutcherry for being dishonoured and whilst the causes continue unsettled, they instigate the petty ryots not to pay their revenue consequently Who were the jotedars? The Jotedars were the rich ryots in North Bengal. Some of them were traders and moneylenders. What are the two legal institutions mentioned in the passage? The two legal institutions mentioned here are Fouzdarry Thanna (police station) Munsiffs cutcherry (a judicial of the lower court). What does the passage say regarding the land holdings of the jotedars? The passage taken from the account of Buchanan says that jotedars cultivated large portions of land. The passage further says that they controlled more lands than the limit to which they are entitled to by their pottahs (deeds of contract). According to the passage who instigated the petty ryots not to pay revenue regularly? The passage says that the jotedars instigated the petty ryots not to pay the revenue to the zamindars. They adopted this as one of their ways to control over the power of the zamindars. They also did not pay the revenue regularly. 10 marks How does Bernier describe the land ownership in India? What are the consequences of the practice mentioned by the Bernier? Bernier wrote in his account that the Empire owned all lands and the nature of land ownership was the crown ownership. He was influenced by the western style of land system where the lands belonged to the king. The western system was developed by

feudalism in the European states. In Europe, the king held all the land and then divided that among the nobles in exchange of army support and the revenues. But in India, Mughal emperors did not hold the land ownership as was the case in Europe. Mughal emperor gave the right of collecting the revenue from the villages or the farmers. The collecting person could be the mansabdar or the emperors own employee. But still Bernier misunderstood the documents as that the emperor was the sole owner of the land as he have noticed that none of the Mughal official documents show that the state was the sole ownership of the land. But according to the official chronicler of Akbars reign Abul Fazl, the Mughal Emperor collected only the remunerations from the people for the protection given by the state and no rent was collected. Bernier misunderstood the remuneration as land revenue since it was very high sometimes. He even failed to understand the nature of the revenue as the revenue collected was also used for the purpose of the welfare of the people instead of the emperors own use. Also farmers did not pay the revenue to other institutions like church in Europe. Consequences of Berniers description of land ownership The oriental despotism: Berniers descriptions of land ownership in The Mughal Empire influenced some of the western theorists from the eighteenth century onwards. For example, the French philosopher, Montesquieu used Berniers account and developed idea of oriental despotism. According to this idea in Asia (the orient or the East), there was no private property and owned all lands and his nobles struggled for survival. The various land settlements were the result of the opinion given by the western intellectuals who tried to prove that the land belonged to the emperor instead to the farmers and villagers. The economy deterred due to these theories as Indian farmers and villagers were not accustomed to these settlements. The emergence of new class of zamindars were grown which further dipped the economic crisis in India as the zamindars tried to squeeze revenue from farmers. The British company got the revenue even when the crop would fail and the farmer had to pay the price for the research done by the western scholars. Asiatic mode of production - Karl Marx further developed the idea of Oriental despotism. According to this concept, in India, before the arrival of colonialism, surplus was appropriated by the state. This resulted in the emergence of a society that was composed of a large number of autonomous and egalitarian village communities. The imperial court respected these villages as long as the surplus flow continued. Karl Marx regarded this system as a stagnant one. Map