Industrial Networking I

Industrial Networking I
The Technical Fundamentals
CB1e_1_General.831
The Certification courses Industrial Networking I and Industrial Networking II represent one Notes: unit. Industrial Networking I mainly deals with Ethernet in all its speeds and on all its media, hubs and switches, CSMA/CD, Spanning Tree and VLAN. In addition it contains network management. Industrial Networking II extends the knowledge of course CB1e with layers 3 and above, i.e. routing, TCP/IP.
Hirschmann Automation and Control GmbH This presentation, and the material here in, have been prepared for the purposes of education and training. These slides are the sole property of Hirschmann and its subsidiaries, and are not to be altered, duplicated or distributed in any way without express written permission by Hirschmann.
Agenda
9:00 h Welcome and Introduction Check your knowledge Network structure and wiring Lunch Data Link Layer Layer 2 Discussion Redundancies on Layer 2 Traffic Control Part 1: QoS Lunch Traffic Control Part 2: VLANs Network management with SNMP Discussion
2
1st day 2nd day
9:15 h 9:30 h 12:00 h 13:00 h 16:30 h 9:00 h 11:00 h 12:00 h 13:00 h 14:15 h 16:30 h
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Notes:
HiComCenter
The Hirschmann Competence Center
Innovative Value Added Services around the Network Technology firsthand!
Consulting Planning Projects

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Basics Product Introduction Workshops
Commissioning Hotline Maintenance Concepts
Technology Know-how Product Know-how
Your Contact to Training Department: E-Mail: Web: Telefax: Telephone: HAC-Hi-Train@hirschmann.de www.hicomcenter.com +49 71 27 14 - 15 51 +49 71 27 14 - 15 27
Notes:
List of Literature
ETHERNET
R. Breyer, S. Riley: Switched, Fast, and Gigabit Ethernet. Macmillan Technical Publishing 1999. ISBN 1-57870-073-6 Saunders, S.: Gigabit Ethernet Handbook. McGraw-Hill 1998. ISBN 0-07-057971-7
NETWORK MANAGEMENT
Harnedy, Sean: Total SNMP. Prentice-Hall 1998. ISBN 0-13-646994-9 Rose, M.T.: The Simple Book. Prentice-Hall 1991. ISBN 0-13-812611-9 Stallings, William: SNMP, SNMPv2, SNMPv3, and RMON1 and 2. AddisonWesley 1999. 3. edit. ISBN 0-201-48534-6 Zeltserman, David: A Practical Guide to SNMPv3 and Network Management. Prentice Hall 1999. ISBN 0-13-021453-1.
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Further literature Magazine: The Industrial Ethernet Book. GGH Marketing Communications. www.ggh.co.uk
Notes:
List of Literature
INTERNETWORKING
Seifert, Rich: The Switch Book. Wiley 2000. ISBN 0-471-34586-5
TCP/IP
Stevens, W.R.: TCP/IP Illustrated, Vol.1: The Protocols. Addison-Wesley 1994. 85,71 EUR, ISBN 0-201-63346-9
www.ietf.org www.ieee.org
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Notes:
Acronyms
AC AP AUI BC BFOC BPDU CRC CSMA/CA CSMA/CD DSAP DSCP DTE ELED FCS FDB FDX FLP F/O FTP GARP GVRP HDX IFG IP IPX LAN LC LD LED LLC Access Client Access Point Attachment Unit Interface Broadcast Bayonet Fiber Optical Connector Bridge Protocol Data Unit Cyclic Redundancy Check Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Avoidance Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection Destination Service Access Point Differentiated Services Code Point Data Terminal Equipment (end device) Edge-emitting LED Frame Check Sequence Forwarding Data Base Full Duplex Fast Link Pulse optical fiber Foiled Twisted Pair File Transfer Protocol Generic Attribute Registration Protocol GARP VLAN Registration Protocol Half Duplex - Halbduplex Inter Frame Gap (also: IPG) Internet Protocol Industrial Protection Internet Packet Exchange (Novell protocol, like IP) Local Area Network Lucent or Lampert Connector Laser Diode Light Emitting Diode Logical Link Control OSI OUI PoE POF QoS RJ RSTP SC SCADA SMF SNMP SSAP STP TOS TP UC UDP UTP VLAN WDS WFQ WLAN NIC NLP NMS OID OPC MAC MC MDI MIB MMF MTU Media Access Control Multicast Medium Dependent Interface Management Information Base Multimode Fiber Maximum Transmission Unit (max. packet size) Network Interface Card Normal Link Pulse Network Management Station Object Identifier Openness, Productivity Connectivity (former: OLE for Process Control) Open Systems Interconnection Organizationally Unique Identifier Power over Ethernet Polymer Optical Fiber Quality of Service Registered Jack Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol Subscriber Connector Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition Singlemode Fiber Simple NetworkNotes: Management Protocol Source Service Access Point Shielded Twisted Pair Spanning Tree Protocol Type of Service Twisted-Pair Unicast User Datagram Protocol Unshielded Twisted Pair Virtual LAN Wireless Distribution System Weighted Fair Queuing Wireless LAN
Layer 1: Physical
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Content: Standardization bodies ISO/OSI Reference model Media: F/O, TP, PoE Media converter Half duplex and Full duplex Ethernet: Access method Design of a collision domain Network structures Hub Repeater Starcoupler Ethernet: 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1000 Mbit/s Autonegotiation
Notes:
Standardization Bodies
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Telecommunications Union (ITU) European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC)
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
IEEE, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers today is the most important organization regarding local data networks with its standard Ethernet. IETF, the Internet Engineering Task Force, creates the TCP/IP standards (Request For Comments RFC). http:// www.ietf.org/rfc ISO, the International Organization for Standardization developed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. Important for networks are the ISO standards for wiring. The approved Ethernet standards are not important anymore due to the international reputation of IEEE. International Telecommunications Union (ITU) is a global organization in which governments and telecoms corporations coordinate the construction and operation of telecommunications networks and services. CENELEC, the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization, is responsible for European standardization in the electrical engineering and electronics field. Important for industrial networks are the standards regarding wiring EN 50173, electrical safety EN 50174 and EMC EN 55022.
Notes:
ISO/OSI Reference Model

7 Processing Application HTTP, FTP, TFTP SNMP, SNTP,
Presentation
Presentation
Comms. control
Session
Transport
Transport
TCP / UDP
Mediation
Network
IP
Frame&Protection Bit transfer
Data Link
Ethernet
1 Physical
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The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model views communication independently of specific manufacturer implementations. Seven layers were defined to that end. Each layer provides services for the next-higher layer and utilizes services from the underlying layers. The services are accessed by way of Service Access Points (SAPs). Each layer offers functions which can be realized as hardware or software solutions, or a combination of the two. Physical Layer The Physical Layer (bit transfer layer) specifies the rules for physical transfer between two devices. It converts bits into signals for transmission, and incoming signals into bits. This layer specifies the connection media and their interfaces. On this layer hubs are operating. Data Link Layer The Data Link Layer (security layer) groups the data bits being transferred into a frame and adds control data (e.g. type or length, destination and source MAC address) and a checksum field for detection of errors in bit transfer. Layer 2 controls access to the physical transmission medium. Switches offer the functionality of L2.
Notes:
Network Layer The Network Layer (mediation layer) controls subnets. Its key task is to forward packets from the source to the destination by way of subnets (routing). These paths can be defined by static tables or dynamically by routing protocols. Layer 3 components are routers. Transport Layer In layers 1 to 3 the protocols only exist between two neighboring machines. The Transport Layer is the first end-to-end layer. Its task is to receive data from the communications control layer, break it down into small units as necessary, and by way of the Network Layer ensure that all parts arrive correctly at the end. The Transport Layer makes and breaks the connection, and monitors it. That means the packets are compiled in the right sequence and, depending on the protocol used, erroneous or lost data is rerequested. Session Layer The Session Layer (communication control layer) allows users to converge in different sessions. Sessions are used, for example, to transfer files between two computers (ftp) or to provide users with access to remote systems. Sessions offer additional services such as synchronization. Fixed points are inserted into the data stream so as to resume the transfer from the last such point if the link is broken at any time. Presentation Layer The Presentation Layer concerns itself with the composition and content significance of data. A typical service is converting data to make it readable for the recipient. Other information presentation services include data compression and cryptography (e.g. data encryption) to attain authenticity and security. Application Layer The Application Layer (processing layer) provides applicationoriented services for standard applications such as file transfer, email or databases, with corresponding data structures. Without them no data or messages can be sent. The computer would not know what to do with the information if it received it.
Notes:
Peer to Peer Communications

http://www.hirschmann.com
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Application
Application
HTTP
Presentation Presentation
Session
Session
TCP
Transport Transport
IP
Network Network
Data Link Physical
Ethernet
Data Link Physical
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This slide shows a general communication between two end devices. Communication takes place at several corresponding layers. Each layer is responsible for a specific task in the communication process: HTTP is used to exchange web site data. TCP is used to facilitate reliable end to end data transfer. IP is used to plot a path through various networks. Ethernet specifies the rules for physically transporting the data By splitting the functionality into different layers with specific responsibilities, it is easy to change between different physical media, transport protocols, etc. For example, changing from Ethernet to WLAN only requires amendments to the lower two layers.
Notes:
Exercise: True or false?

The Physical Layer checks for errors.
The Data Link Layer controls access to the media.
The Transport Layer provides safe data traffic.
The Application Layer ensures security and encryption.
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Notes:
Multimode vs. Singlemode Fiber-Optic Cable
Primary coating 250 m
Cladding 125 m
9 m 50 m Core 62.5 m ...
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Fiber-optic cables have advantages over copper: Immune to electromagnetic interference Long distances Fiber-optic cables are made from: Silica for long distances or high speeds Plastic cheap, only for short distances, low speeds Silica core + plastic sheath: HCS, PCS only field buses 2 fiber types: Multimode fiber (MMF), used for short distances Singlemode fiber (SMF), used for long distances There are 3 types of light source: LEDs low-cost, only for multimode fibers ELEDs value, for SMF, cheaper than LDs, no laser protection measures required Laser, laser diode LD for SMF over long distances
Notes:
F/O Connectors
BFOC (ST)
BFOC
DSC
DSC
LC Industry connectors for IP 67

M12 for F/O DSC or LC with sleeve nut
LC
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The BFOC connector is standardized at 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, DuplexSC (DSC) at Fast and Gigabit Ethernet. Additionally at Gigabit Ethernet the LC connector is used if a small form factor is needed, especially with modular transceivers, so called SFPs. The BFOC sometimes is also used in industrial Fast Ethernet devices. In the past other connectors were used, like F-SMA at 10 Mbit/s and still today MTRJ at 100 Mbit/s.
Notes:
Twisted Pair
RJ45
M12
2 wires twisted as a pair 1 foil screen around each pair = PIMF (Pair In Metal Foil) 1 cable screen of wire mesh Halogen free and flame retardant cable outer sheath
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A Twisted Pair (TP) cable consists of 8 wires, grouped into pairs. The wire pairs are twisted together. Categorization of TP cable: Cat. 3: min. transmission frequency 20 MHz Minimum quality for 10 Mbit Ethernet Cat. 5: min. transmission frequency 125 MHz Minimum quality for Fast and Gigabit Ethernet Cat. 6: min. transmission frequency 250 MHz Cat. 7: min. transmission frequency 600 MHz Connectors in industry require mechanical stability and should be viibration-proof. Sometimes IP protection (IP64 or IP67) is demanded. For this only proprietary solutions exist: M12: Proposed by IAONA for Ethernet, known in the field bus sector VS-RJ45 from Phoenix Contact: Modified RJ45 RJ45 connector with coupling nut from Woodhead:
Notes:
Pin Assignment, RJ45 Connector
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10
Medium Dependent Interface (MDI) Terminal devices such as PCs, PLCs, servers and routers have an MDI interface. The transmission path is located at pins 1-2, and the reception path at pins 3-6. Medium Dependent Interface - Crossover (MDI-X) System components such as hubs and switches have an MDIX interface. The transmission path is located at pins 3-6, and the reception path at pins 1-2. There are two standards for the color coding of wires: T568A specified by TIA/EIA T568B specified by AT&T
Notes:
Patch and Crossover Cables
Patch cable 1:1

PIN PIN PIN
Crossover cable
PIN
1 2 3 6 4 5 7 8
1 2 3 6 4 5 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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To interconnect two devices with different ports (MDI and MDI-X) a straight Twisted-Pair cable (patch cable) is used. To interconnect two devices with the same port (MDI and MDI / MIDX and MDI-X) a crossed Twisted-Pair cable (crossover cable) is needed. Caution: There are also part-crossover cables on the market: 1-2/3-6 crossover, 4-5/7-8 1:1. They will not necessarily work with Gigabit Ethernet!
Notes:
PoE - Power over Ethernet (IEEE 802.3af)

Power Supply via TP cable Advantages:
only one cable necessary and central operation of UPS possible
Power insertion at
hub / switch / router or patch field (Midspan Insertion)
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Standardized under IEEE 802.3af:2003 Devices are supplied by power over the TP cable. Connector: RJ45 Voltage: 48 at <= 350 mA (ca. 14 W due to wire losses) over 2 wire pairs transmitter (source) selects pairs, receiver (destination) must accept Applications: Video cameras IP telephones WLAN Access Points Sensors/Actuators Access Control Lighting control PDAs loading Game and entertainment devices ...
Notes:
Media Converters
HIRSCHMANN
HIRSCHMANN
TP LWL
TP
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Media converters usually are used to bridge long distances by fiberoptic cable. They offer a transparent conversion between different media, usually TP to fiber-optic. Please note that F/O ports support one speed only and thus also the TP port can support only this speed. In addition F/O ports dont transmit the autonegotiation signals. Therefore both communication partners should be manually configured to FDX. Operating mode: Half/full duplex Please note the maximum distance of the collision domain at a HDX link! Media converter regenerate the amplitude but dont offer the repeater function.
Notes:
Exercise: Interfaces and Cables
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14
Define the interfaces (MDI / MDI-X) of the individual components and the required cable (patch/crossover). Hub Switch
Notes:
Half-duplex and Full-duplex

Half duplex
Tx Rx
or
Rx Tx
Full duplex
Tx Rx
and
Rx Tx
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For data transmission there are two communication modes: Half duplex - HDX Either send or receive possible, never simultaneously. A conductor pair or an optical fiber is used as the data path for communication. If there are two paths, one is used for each direction. Full duplex - FDX Send and receive possible simultaneously. Two separate data paths, i.e. 2 TP pairs or 2 F/O fibers, are needed. Also over a single conductor pair, using special techniques, such as echo cancellation (see 1000BASE-T).
Notes:
Collision Domain CSMA/CD - IEEE 802.3 Access Method

Station is ready to send
Listen to channel no
Wait as per backoff strategy
Channel free? yes Send data and listen to channel No collision
Collision
32-bit jam signal (usually 5 MHz signal) detected
Data correctly transferred

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16
Ethernet components in half-duplex mode use the CSMA/CD access method to the medium. Carrier sense: Network users "listen" for whether the medium is free. Multiple access: As soon as the medium is free, any user can start sending. A minimum distance of 12 byte must be kept (IFG or IPG). Collision detection: If multiple users start sending simultaneously, a data collision occurs. The participating users detect this, stop their send and restart it after a random period of time. The jam signal usually consists of a 1-0 sequence, but may also comprise any other bit sequences. The only important factor is that the bus is occupied, thereby generating a send abort for the devices involved in the collision. Binary Exponential Backoff Algorithm BEB: One station waits icollision window (25.6 s) i = random number from 0 < i < 2k k = min (n, 10) n = number of send attempts already made
Notes:
Size of a Collision Domain at 10 MBit/s
Smax = 5120 m
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The sender must detect a collision before it has ended the send operation. Consequently, the standard stipulates the minimum size of an Ethernet frame as 64 bytes or 512 bits. To send 512 bits, at a transfer rate of 10 Mbit/s a repeater or a network card takes 51.2 s. To send half an Ethernet frame it takes 25.6 s. This time is termed the slot time. After this time the packet must have reached the most distant device, so that a collision can be detected reliably. The signal propagation rate of the data over a copper or fiber-optic cable is assumed to be two thirds the speed of light (approx. 200,000 km/s). This results in a maximum distance between any two points ("diameter") of: 25.6 s * 200,000 km/s = 5,120 m In practice the delays of hubs and of both Ethernet controllers of the end devices must be subtracted. This limitation is valid only in HDX operation!
Notes:
Network Topologies
Bus
Ring
Star
Double line Mesh
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The structure of the first networks to use Ethernet was a bus structure using coaxial cables (see 10BASE5 and 10BASE2). Based on its centralized distributor technique, and the use of network components such as hubs and switches, the star structure is becoming more prevalent today. Although the use of a ring structure or meshed structure for Ethernet is not permitted, redundancy mechanisms such as Rapid Spanning Tree or HIPER Ring do allow such networks to be constructed. In this, additional connections are established between two switches as standby links, which are activated in case of error. In process control networks one often find a double redundant line structure. With special protocols the systems provide a fast switch-over to the redundant line in case of a link or whole line failure. Example: VNET/IP
Notes:
Hubs Repeaters Star Couplers
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Hubs offer the functions of OSI layer 1. The repeater/hub sends the data it receives at one port to all other ports. The data signal is regenerated in the process. The ports of a repeater/hub work in half-duplex mode. In that mode collisions of data packets can occur. Networks operated in halfduplex mode are termed collision domains. Repeaters/hubs connect devices to a collision domain, or interconnect multiple collision domains. The access to the network is carried out according the principle while one is talking all others have to listen, thus the bandwidth statistically seen is shared. The advantages of a hub are its small latency and the simple installation, usually plug-and-play. The disadvantage is that the more participants are transmitting, the more often collisions occur and the less bandwidth could be used. Rule of thumb: in industry automation ca. 8 % are usable, else ca. 40 %. The maximum distance of a collision domain at Ethernet is limited by its access method. Thus larger networks are based on switches, which due to FDX transmission have no limits.
Notes:
Ethernet 10 Mbit/s Point to Point
Star Structure
10BASE-T
10BASE-FL
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Today for building networks twisted pair and fiber optics are used. Due to the point-to-point structure a faulty end device cannot paralyze the whole segment. In addition a high quality cable can also used at the faster releases. 10BASE-T Transmission medium: 100 (Twisted Pair) Maximum length: 100 m (90m + 2 * 5m Patch cable) Maximum 1024 terminals 10BASE-FL Optical cabling offers a high degree of data security based on its insensitivity to radiated interference and its high transfer rate. The use of multimode cables enables a minimum segment length of 2000 meters to be attained. Using singlemode fiber, distances of up to 40 km can be bridged.
Notes:
Fast Ethernet: 100 Mbit/s
100BASE-FX
100BASE-TX
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Fast Ethernet Transfer rate: 100 Mbit/s Operating mode: Half-duplex and Full-duplex 100BASE-TX Transmission medium: 100 ( Twisted Pair Maximum length: 100 m (90m + 2 * 5m Patch cable) 100BASE-FX Transmission medium: 2* fiber-optic cable Ranges Multimode (1300 nm): > 3 km Singlemode (1310 nm): up to 30 km (not standardized) Singlemode (1550 nm): up to 100 km (not standardized)
Notes:
Gigabit Ethernet: 1000BASE-T

1st wire pair
RX TX RX TX
2nd wire pair

RX TX RX TX
3rd wire pair

RX TX RX TX
4th wire pair

RX TX RX TX
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Gigabit Ethernet multiplies the data rate of Fast Ethernet by ten. HDX is standardized, but there are no hubs available, so only FDX is in operation. To be able to also use existing copper cabling for a 1000 Mbit/s transfer rate, all four wire pairs of a Twisted Pair cable are used. Parallel processing distributes the data across all the wire pairs. So-called echo cancellation enables data to be transmitted and received over a single wire pair simultaneously. 1000BASE-T Transmission medium: 100 (Twisted Pair) Maximum length: 100 m (90m + 2 * 5m Patch cable)
Notes:
Gigabit via Fiber: 1000BASE-SX, 1000BASE-LX
G62.5/125 G50/125 Multimode G62.5 Multimode G50 Singlemode 275 m 550 m 5000 m
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Transmission medium: Duplex fiber-optic cable 1000BASE-SX (850 nm) range Multimode G62.5/125: Multimode G50/125: 1000BASE-LX (1300 nm) Multimode G62.5/125: Multimode G50/125: Singlemode E10/125: Proprietary solutions (1550 nm) not standardized but wide available Singlemode E10/125: up to 120 km 550 m 550 m at least 5000 m 275 m 550 m
Notes:
Autonegotiation:
Autonegotiation FLP Autonegotiation
FDX
FLP
FDX
Fixed to FDX FLP
Autonegotiation
FDX
HDX
Fixed to HDX FLP
Autonegotiation
HDX
HDX
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Autonegotiation offers the devices to select the best possible data Notes: throughput for the connection. By upgrading the Normal Link Pulse (NLP), which tells the opposite port of its existence, to Fast Link Pulses (FLPs), the best possible transfer rate (10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4) and the mode (HDX, FDX) are negotiated. The FLPs are only transmitted at connection setup, so as not to impair the connection performance. With Autocrossing a port can automatically configured to MDI or MDI-X. This then makes the distinction between patch and crossover cables irrelevant. This feature is often only usable if a port is configured for autonegotiation. Parallel detection Status of autonegotiation when only one of the two connected devices supports autonegotiation. The autonegotiation device detects the speed of the opposite party and configures itself to that speed and half-duplex mode in order to detect collisions. Media converters cannot forward autonegotiation signals, because a fiber-optic port does not support FLPs or NLPs. Workaround: Set both devices permanently to FDX.
Exercise: Autonegotiation
Auto Auto
Auto 100Mbit/s HDX Auto 100Mbit/s FDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX
Auto 10Mbit/s HDX
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Some ports in the example above have fixed transfer rates and modes, and others are set to autonegotiation (Auto). The switches support the autocrossing function when autonegotiation is active. Enter the transfer rate and mode for the ports set to autonegotiation. Define the cable to use (patch/crossover). Hub Switch
Notes:
Appendix
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Notes:
Solution: Interfaces and Cables

MDI Crossover MDI
MDI-X
Patch
MDI
MDI-X
Crossover MDI-X Patch
MDI-X
MDI
MDI-X
Crossover
MDI-X
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Notes:
Solution: Autonegotiation
Auto 100Mbit/s FDX Crossover Auto 100Mbit/s FDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX
Patch 100Mbit/s HDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX Crossover (or Patch)
100Mbit/s FDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX
Patch (or Corssover) 100Mbit/s HDX
Auto 10Mbit/s HDX
Crossover (or Patch) 10Mbit/s HDX
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Notes:
ETHERNET in OSI Reference Model

OSI Reference Model Referenz Model APPLICATION PRESENTATION SESSION TRANSPORT NETWORK DATA LINK PHYSICAL
PMA PHYSICAL MEDIUM ATTACH. MAU MDI
LAN CSMA/CD HIGHER LAYERS

LLC LOGICAL LINK CONTROL MAC MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL PLS PHYSICAL SIGNALING DTE DTE AUI
MEDIUM
Transceiver = MAU
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Ethernet is standardized under IEEE 802.3. Ethernet offers several speeds: 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s Fast Ethernet 1 Gbit/s Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gigabit Ethernet and coming soon 100 Gigabit Ethernet (development of standard just started) Ethernet was developed further from a shared net with CSMA/CD access method (HDX) to switch based nets in FDX mode. Currently in industry the trend is Gigabit Ethernet, due to its smaller packet delay in switches compared to Fast Ethernet. The higher speed/bandwidth has only a subordinate role. Ethernet supports different media: Fiber optics: multimode and singlemode fiber Twisted pair and at 10 Mbit/s coax as well as AUI.
Notes:
Ethernet 10 Mbit/s
10BASE2 BNC T piece
Segment max. 185 m
Terminator 50 min. 0.5 m
10BASE5
Transceiver Transceiver cable max. 50 m
Segment max. 500 m

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Terminator 50 min. 2.5 m 30
Today coax and AUI are used in industry networks for completion. 10BASE2 - Cheapernet or Thinwire Maximum 185 m segment length Maximum 30 user ports Transceivers are integrated into the Network Interface Card (NIC) At least 0.5 m distance between two ports Transmission medium: 50 Ohm coax HDX Repeaters can be used to connect additional segments (10BASE2 or 10BASE5). The maximum length of a Cheapernet is 925 m. 10BASE5 - Yellow cable Transmission medium: 50 Ohm coax HDX Maximum 500 m segment length At least 2.5 m distance between 2 transceivers Maximum 100 transceivers (user ports) Maximum 50 m AUI cable from transceiver to user A maximum of 3 additional segments may be connected to one segment by repeaters.
Notes:
Design of a Collision Domain Model 1: 5-4-3 Rule
Repeater
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Model 1 to IEEE 802.3 section 13 The 5-4-3 rule: A maximum of 5 segments may be connected to 4 repeaters, but devices may only be connected to 3 segments. This does not bring a network up to its limit. The 5-4-3 rule was introduced to simplify the complex computations necessary to calculate the maximum number of hubs/repeaters within a collision domain.
Notes:
Design of a Collision Domain: Model 2: Runtime Equivalent & Path Variability Value
5 4 3 2
10 Mbit/s
10 Mbit/s
Runtime delay
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To reach the limit of a collision domain, two calculations as per 802.3 section 13 are required. Propagation equivalent The delay of a signal due to a component in the data path is converted into a distance. The overall length of permissible cable, after deducting all the delays due to active components, results as 5120 meters. Hub delay: 150m - 300m NIC delay: 100m - 140m Path variability value Another delay occurs because a repeater extends the preamble of an incoming packet by a number of bits. This is the path variability value, and is given in bit times (BT). The maximum number of bit times in a collision domain is 49. As no value is usually obtainable for terminal devices, 40 BT should be assumed as the limit for the rest of the data path.
Notes:
Exercise: Maximum Network Size, Fast ETHERNET

100 m DTEDTE via TP 412 m DTEDTE via optical fiber
200 m over repeater class I via TP 260 m over class I repeater via TP+optical fiber 272 m over class I repeater via optical fiber 200 m over 1 class II repeater via TP 320 m over 1 class II repeater via optical fiber
205 m over 2 class II repeaters via TP 228 m over 2 class II repeaters via optical fiber
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Repeater classification for Fast Ethernet: Class I repeater Within a collision domain only one repeater of this class may be used. Class II repeater Within a collision domain two repeaters of this class, with short internal delays, may be used. Calculate the theoretical maximum network size of the collision domain at a transfer rate of 100 Mbit/s:
Notes:
Solution: 64 byte = 512 bit 10 ns/bit 2.56 s * 200,000 km/s = 512 m
Slottime = 2.56 s;
Acronyms
AUI BFOC BT CSMA/CD DSC DTE ELED EMC EN FDX FLP F/O FTP HCS HDX IEEE IETF IFG IP IPG ISO Attachment Unit Interface Bayonet Fiber Optical Connector = ST Bit Time Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection Duplex Subscriber Connector Data Terminal Equipment Edge-emitting LED Electro-magnetic Compatibility European standard Full duplex Fast Link Pulse Fiber Optics File Transfer Protocol Hard polymer Cladded Silica F/O half-duplex Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Internet Engineering Task Force Inter Frame Gap (also IPG) Internet Protocol, Industry Protection Inter Packet Gap International Organization for Standardization LAN LD MAC MAU MDI MMF NIC NLP OSI PiMF PCS PVV RJ SAP SMF TP UPS WDS WLAN Local Area Network Laser diode Media Access Control Medium Attachment Unit Medium Dependent Interface Multimode Fiber Network Interface Card Normal Link Pulse Open Systems Interconnection Pair in Metal Foil Polymer cladded silica; s. HCS Path Variability Value Registered Jack Service Access Points Singlemode Fiber Twisted Pair Uninterruptible Power Supply Wireless Distribution System Wireless LAN
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Notes:
Layer 1: Physical
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
Content: Standardization bodies ISO/OSI Reference model Media: F/O, TP, PoE Media converter Half duplex and Full duplex Ethernet: Access method Design of a collision domain Network structures Hub Repeater Starcoupler Ethernet: 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1000 Mbit/s Autonegotiation
Notes:
Standardization Bodies
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Telecommunications Union (ITU) European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC)
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
IEEE, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers today is the most important organization regarding local data networks with its standard Ethernet. IETF, the Internet Engineering Task Force, creates the TCP/IP standards (Request For Comments RFC). http:// www.ietf.org/rfc ISO, the International Organization for Standardization developed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. Important for networks are the ISO standards for wiring. The approved Ethernet standards are not important anymore due to the international reputation of IEEE. International Telecommunications Union (ITU) is a global organization in which governments and telecoms corporations coordinate the construction and operation of telecommunications networks and services. CENELEC, the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization, is responsible for European standardization in the electrical engineering and electronics field. Important for industrial networks are the standards regarding wiring EN 50173, electrical safety EN 50174 and EMC EN 55022.
Notes:
communication ?!?
Igel
EAGLE
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
Connection is not communication 3
Notes:
7 layer modell
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Application
Application
HTTP
Presentation Presentation
Session
Session
TCP
Transport Transport
IP
Network Network
Data link Physical
Ethernet
Data link Physical
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model views communication independently of specific manufacturer implementations. Seven layers were defined to that end. Each layer provides services for the nexthigher layer and utilizes services from the underlying layers. The services are accessed by way of Service Access Points (SAPs). Each layer offers functions which can be realized as hardware or software solutions, or a combination of the two.
Notes:
Physical Layer The Physical Layer (bit transfer layer) specifies the rules for physical transfer between two devices. It converts bits into signals for transmission, and incoming signals into bits. This layer specifies the connection media and their interfaces. On this layer hubs are operating. Network Layer The Network Layer (mediation layer) controls subnets. Its key task is to forward packets from the source to the destination by way of subnets (routing). These paths can be defined by static tables or dynamically by routing protocols. Layer 3 components are routers. Transport Layer In layers 1 to 3 the protocols only exist between two neighboring machines. The Transport Layer is the first end-toend layer. Its task is to receive data from the communications control layer, break it down into small units as necessary, and by way of the Network Layer ensure that all parts arrive correctly at the end. The Transport Layer makes and breaks the connection, and monitors it. That means the packets are compiled in the right sequence and, depending on the protocol used, erroneous or lost data is re-requested. Session Layer The Session Layer (communication control layer) allows users to converge in different sessions. Sessions are used, for example, to transfer files between two computers (ftp) or to provide users with access to remote systems. Sessions offer additional services such as synchronization. Fixed points are inserted into the data stream so as to resume the transfer from the last such point if the link is broken at any time. Presentation Layer The Presentation Layer concerns itself with the composition and content significance of data. A typical service is converting data to make it readable for the recipient. Other information presentation services include data compression and cryptography (e.g. data encryption) to attain authenticity and security. Application Layer The Application Layer (processing layer) provides application-oriented services for standard applications such as file transfer, e-mail or databases, with corresponding data structures. Without them no data or messages can be sent. The computer would not know what to do with the information if it received it.
Data Link Layer The Data Link Layer (security layer) groups the data bits being transferred into a frame and adds control data (e.g. type or length, destination and source MAC address) and a checksum field for detection of errors in bit transfer. Layer 2 controls access to the physical transmission medium. Switches offer the functionality of L2.
Example of 3-layer-modell
Philosoph 1 living in: India language: Telugu
Philosoph 2 living in: Kenia language: Kisuaheli
translater
translater
bearer
bearer
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
Notes:
Peer to Peer Communications
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Application
Application
Presentation
HTTP
Presentation
Session Transport
Session
TCP IP
Transport
Network
Network
Data Link Physical
Ethernet
Data Link Physical
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
This slide shows a general communication between two end devices. Communication takes place at several corresponding layers. Each layer is responsible for a specific task in the communication process: HTTP is used to exchange web site data. TCP is used to facilitate reliable end to end data transfer. IP is used to plot a path through various networks. Ethernet specifies the rules for physically transporting the data By splitting the functionality into different layers with specific responsibilities, it is easy to change between different physical media, transport protocols, etc. For example, changing from Ethernet to WLAN only requires amendments to the lower two layers.
Notes:
Exercise: True or false?
The Physical Layer checks for errors.
The Data Link Layer controls access to the media.
The Transport Layer provides safe data traffic.
The Application Layer ensures security and encryption.
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
Notes:
Multimode vs. Singlemode

Fiber-Optic Cable m
Rodent protection and Strain relief made of strain relief aramide fiber Filler Supporting element (GFRP)
PE sheath
PE intermediate sheath Single/multiple fiber with water repelling filler
Glass fibers with primary coating with single fiber or multiple fibers
Primary coating 250 m
Cladding 125 m 10 m 50 m Core 62.5 m ...
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
Fiber-optic cables have advantages over copper: Immune to electromagnetic interference Long distances Fiber-optic cables are made from: Silica for long distances or high speeds Plastic cheap, only for short distances, low speeds Silica core + plastic sheath: HCS, PCS only field buses 2 fiber types: Multimode fiber (MMF), used for short distances Singlemode fiber (SMF), used for long distances There are 3 types of light source: LEDs low-cost, only for multimode fibers ELEDs value, for SMF, cheaper than LDs, no laser protection measures required Laser, laser diode LD for SMF over long distances
Notes:
F/O Connectors
BFOC
BFOC (ST) DSC

DSC
LC
LC
Industry connectors for IP 67

M12 for F/O DSC or LC with sleeve nut
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
The BFOC connector is standardized at 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, DuplexSC (DSC) at Fast and Gigabit Ethernet. Additionally at Gigabit Ethernet the LC connector is used if a small form factor is needed, especially with modular transceivers, so called SFPs. The BFOC sometimes is also used in industrial Fast Ethernet devices. In the past other connectors were used, like F-SMA at 10 Mbit/s and still today MTRJ at 100 Mbit/s.
Notes:
Optical characteristics fiber cable
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
10
Notes:
Optical characteristics Data sheet switches
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11
Notes:
Optical characteristics Data sheet switches
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Notes:
measurement
1.)
Reference test lead
Result of the reference measurement.
660 nm 850 nm 1300 nm
- 15,0 dBm
P0 =
dBm
850nm
Sender
Leistungspegelmesser
2.)
Result of the level measurement Link to be tested
P1 =
660 nm 850 nm 1300 nm
dBm
850nm
- 17,0 dBm
attenuation A = P0 - P1
Sender
Leistungspegelmesser
example: A = 2 dB
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
13
Notes:
Measurement - OTDR
OTDR
Launching fiber
Link to be tested
End faser
screen
attenuation length
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
14
Notes:
Twisted Pair
RJ45
M12
2 wires twisted as a pair 1 foil screen around each pair = PIMF (Pair In Metal Foil) 1 cable screen of wire mesh Halogen free and flame retardant cable outer sheath
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
15
A Twisted Pair (TP) cable consists of 8 wires, grouped into pairs. The wire pairs are twisted together. Categorization of TP cable: Cat. 3: min. transmission frequency 20 MHz Minimum quality for 10 Mbit Ethernet Cat. 5: min. transmission frequency 125 MHz Minimum quality for Fast and Gigabit Ethernet Cat. 6: min. transmission frequency 250 MHz Cat. 7: min. transmission frequency 600 MHz Connectors in industry require mechanical stability and should be viibration-proof. Sometimes IP protection (IP64 or IP67) is demanded. For this only proprietary solutions exist: M12: Proposed by IAONA for Ethernet, known in the field bus sector VS-RJ45 from Phoenix Contact: Modified RJ45 RJ45 connector with coupling nut from Woodhead:
Notes:
Twisted Pair - types of connectors
IAONA Planning & Installation Guide (Version 4.0)
Installation Guideline PROFInet (Version 1.8)
Ethernet/IP Media Planning and Installation Manual (Draft 2.0)
D - Code
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
16
Notes:
Twisted Pair -
RJ45
Whatever housing concept is used, RJ 45 connectors do not reach the demands of industrial applications:
Left: RJ45 connector socket damaged by corrosion Middle/right: X-ray of an RJ45 engaged contact set. Note the very small contact area and the effect of mechanical vibration on the Plug / socket contacts wearing away gold flashing
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
17
Notes:
Pin Assignment, RJ45 Connector
MDI (EIA/TIA T568A)
MDI-X
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18
Medium Dependent Interface (MDI) Terminal devices such as PCs, PLCs, servers and routers have an MDI interface. The transmission path is located at pins 1-2, and the reception path at pins 3-6. Medium Dependent Interface - Crossover (MDI-X) System components such as hubs and switches have an MDIX interface. The transmission path is located at pins 3-6, and the reception path at pins 1-2. There are two standards for the color coding of wires: T568A specified by TIA/EIA T568B specified by AT&T
Notes:
Patch and Crossover Cables
Patch cable 1:1

PIN
Crossover cable
PIN
1 2 3 6 4 5 7 8
1 2 3 6 4 5 7 8
PIN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PIN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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19
To interconnect two devices with different ports (MDI and MDI-X) a straight Twisted-Pair cable (patch cable) is used. To interconnect two devices with the same port (MDI and MDI / MIDX and MDI-X) a crossed Twisted-Pair cable (crossover cable) is needed. Caution: There are also part-crossover cables on the market: 1-2/3-6 crossover, 4-5/7-8 1:1. They will not necessarily work with Gigabit Ethernet!
Notes:
Exercise: Interfaces and Cables
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
20
Notes:
Half-duplex and Full-duplex
Half duplex
Tx Rx
or
Rx Tx
Full duplex
Tx Rx
and
Rx Tx
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21
For data transmission there are two communication modes: Half duplex - HDX Either send or receive possible, never simultaneously. A conductor pair or an optical fiber is used as the data path for communication. If there are two paths, one is used for each direction. Full duplex - FDX Send and receive possible simultaneously. Two separate data paths, i.e. 2 TP pairs or 2 F/O fibers, are needed. Also over a single conductor pair, using special techniques, such as echo cancellation (see 1000BASE-T).
Notes:
Exercise: Autonegotiation
Auto
Auto
Auto 100Mbit/s HDX Auto 100Mbit/s FDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX Auto 10Mbit/s HDX
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22
Notes:
PoE - Power over Ethernet (IEEE 802.3af)
Power Supply via TP cable Advantages:

only one cable necessary and central operation of UPS possible
Power insertion at
hub / switch / router or patch field (Midspan Insertion)
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
23
Standardized under IEEE 802.3af:2003 Devices are supplied by power over the TP cable. Connector: RJ45 Voltage: 48 at <= 350 mA (ca. 12,95 W due to wire losses) over 2 wire pairs transmitter (source) selects pairs, receiver (destination) must accept Applications: Video cameras IP telephones WLAN Access Points Sensors/Actuators Access Control Lighting control PDAs loading Game and entertainment devices ...
Notes:
PoE Supply Techniques

1. Supply on the data pairs (Center Taps) 1 2 4 5 7 8 3 6
48V
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
24
Notes:
PoE Supply Techniques

2. Supply on the unused pairs (Spare Pairs)
1 2 4 5 48V 7 8 3 6
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25
Notes:
Medias in Ethernet
copper: Coax 10Base5 or 10Base 2 500m (10Base5) 185m (10Base2) for bus structure
BNC
N-Connector
RJ45 M12
copper: Twisted Pair 10BaseT, 100BaseTX, connector RJ45 up to 100m for star structure fiber Multimode 10BaseF, 100BaseFX BFOC (ST), SC 50 / 125 m and 62,5 / 125 m Up to 2.000m/5.000m for ring-, bus- and star structure fiber Monomode/singlemode 9 / 125 m and 10 / 125 m Up to 40km or 200km
26
BFOC/ ST
Duplex-LC
D-SC
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
Notes:
Media Converters
HIRSCHMANN
HIRSCHMANN
TP LWL
TP
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Media converters usually are used to bridge long distances by fiberoptic cable. They offer a transparent conversion between different media, usually TP to fiber-optic. Please note that F/O ports support one speed only and thus also the TP port can support only this speed. In addition F/O ports dont transmit the autonegotiation signals. Therefore both communication partners should be manually configured to FDX. Operating mode: Half/full duplex Please note the maximum distance of the collision domain at a HDX link! Media converter regenerate the amplitude but dont offer the repeater function.
Notes:
Collision Domain CSMA/CD

IEEE 802.3 Access Method
Station is ready to send Wait as per backoff strategy no
Listen to channel
Channel free? yes Send data and listen to channel No collision
Collision
32-bit jam signal (usually 5 MHz signal) detected
Data correctly transferred

CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
28
Ethernet components in half-duplex mode use the CSMA/CD access method to the medium. Carrier sense: Network users "listen" for whether the medium is free. Multiple access: As soon as the medium is free, any user can start sending. A minimum distance of 12 byte must be kept (IFG or IPG). Collision detection: If multiple users start sending simultaneously, a data collision occurs. The participating users detect this, stop their send and restart it after a random period of time. The jam signal usually consists of a 1-0 sequence, but may also comprise any other bit sequences. The only important factor is that the bus is occupied, thereby generating a send abort for the devices involved in the collision. Binary Exponential Backoff Algorithm BEB: One station waits icollision window (25.6 s) i = random number from 0 < i < 2k k = min (n, 10) n = number of send attempts already made
Notes:
Length in a collision domain

St1 St2
Free channel for Station St1 Data transmit of message M1
M1
Free channel for ST2 Data transmit of M2
M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2
collision between M1 and M2
ST2 recognize a collision (M2 + M1)
ST2 send a JAM signal
ST1 recognize collision (M2 + M1)
M1 M2
51,2s/2 = 25,6 s
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
(5120m)
29
Min Lnge of a 10Mbit/s Ethernet network 64 bytes (512 bits) => to 10Mbps, in a periode of 51.2 s. CSMA/CD Die Kollision kann von der ST1 nur festgestellt werden, wenn die Nachricht gerade bertragen wird. Dann wird die ST1 von der ST2 ber die Kollision informiert . => the transmission time of a packet have to be not longer than: T = 51,2s / 2 = 25,6s Speed propagation of signals V = Propagationscoeffizient x light speed => V = 0.66 x 300000km/s = 20.0000 km/s Max Length of a network (collision domain) S=VxT S = 20.0000 km/s x 25,6s = 5120 meter
Notes:
CSMA/CD
access method in hub technology

J M A
Hub
Hub
Hub
Hub
1
collision
Switch
Network A
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Notes:
Size of a Collision Domain at 10 MBit/s
Smax = 5120 m
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31
The sender must detect a collision before it has ended the send operation. Consequently, the standard stipulates the minimum size of an Ethernet frame as 64 bytes or 512 bits. To send 512 bits, at a transfer rate of 10 Mbit/s a repeater or a network card takes 51.2 s. To send half an Ethernet frame it takes 25.6 s. This time is termed the slot time. After this time the packet must have reached the most distant device, so that a collision can be detected reliably. The signal propagation rate of the data over a copper or fiber-optic cable is assumed to be two thirds the speed of light (approx. 200,000 km/s). This results in a maximum distance between any two points ("diameter") of: 25.6 s * 200,000 km/s = 5,120 m In practice the delays of hubs and of both Ethernet controllers of the end devices must be subtracted. This limitation is valid only in HDX operation!
Notes:
Network Topologies
Bus
Ring
Star
Double line Mesh
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32
The structure of the first networks to use Ethernet was a bus structure using coaxial cables (see 10BASE5 and 10BASE2). Based on its centralized distributor technique, and the use of network components such as hubs and switches, the star structure is becoming more prevalent today. Although the use of a ring structure or meshed structure for Ethernet is not permitted, redundancy mechanisms such as Rapid Spanning Tree or HIPER Ring do allow such networks to be constructed. In this, additional connections are established between two switches as standby links, which are activated in case of error. In process control networks one often find a double redundant line structure. With special protocols the systems provide a fast switch-over to the redundant line in case of a link or whole line failure. Example: VNET/IP
Notes:
Hubs Repeaters Star Couplers
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
33
Hubs offer the functions of OSI layer 1. The repeater/hub sends the data it receives at one port to all other ports. The data signal is regenerated in the process. The ports of a repeater/hub work in half-duplex mode. In that mode collisions of data packets can occur. Networks operated in halfduplex mode are termed collision domains. Repeaters/hubs connect devices to a collision domain, or interconnect multiple collision domains. The access to the network is carried out according the principle while one is talking all others have to listen, thus the bandwidth statistically seen is shared. The advantages of a hub are its small latency and the simple installation, usually plug-and-play. The disadvantage is that the more participants are transmitting, the more often collisions occur and the less bandwidth could be used. Rule of thumb: in industry automation ca. 8 % are usable, else ca. 40 %. The maximum distance of a collision domain at Ethernet is limited by its access method. Thus larger networks are based on switches, which due to FDX transmission have no limits.
Notes:
Ethernet 10 Mbit/s Point to Point Star Structure
10BASE-T
10BASE-FL
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34
Today for building networks twisted pair and fiber optics are used. Due to the point-to-point structure a faulty end device cannot paralyze the whole segment. In addition a high quality cable can also used at the faster releases. 10BASE-T Transmission medium: 100 (Twisted Pair) Maximum length: 100 m (90m + 2 * 5m Patch cable) Maximum 1024 terminals 10BASE-FL Optical cabling offers a high degree of data security based on its insensitivity to radiated interference and its high transfer rate. The use of multimode cables enables a minimum segment length of 2000 meters to be attained. Using singlemode fiber, distances of up to 40 km can be bridged.
Notes:
Fast Ethernet: 100 Mbit/s
100BASE-FX
100BASE-TX
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
35
Fast Ethernet Transfer rate: 100 Mbit/s Operating mode: Half-duplex and Full-duplex 100BASE-TX Transmission medium: 100 ( Twisted Pair Maximum length: 100 m (90m + 2 * 5m Patch cable) 100BASE-FX Transmission medium: 2* fiber-optic cable Ranges Multimode (1300 nm): > 3 km Singlemode (1310 nm): up to 30 km (not standardized) Singlemode (1550 nm): up to 100 km (not standardized)
Notes:
Gigabit Ethernet: 1000BASE-T

RX TX
1st wire pair
RX TX
2nd wire pair

RX TX
RX TX
3rd wire pair

RX TX
RX TX
4th wire pair

RX TX
RX TX
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
36
Gigabit Ethernet multiplies the data rate of Fast Ethernet by ten. HDX is standardized, but there are no hubs available, so only FDX is in operation. To be able to also use existing copper cabling for a 1000 Mbit/s transfer rate, all four wire pairs of a Twisted Pair cable are used. Parallel processing distributes the data across all the wire pairs. So-called echo cancellation enables data to be transmitted and received over a single wire pair simultaneously. 1000BASE-T Transmission medium: 100 (Twisted Pair) Maximum length: 100 m (90m + 2 * 5m Patch cable)
Notes:
Gigabit via Fiber: 1000BASE-SX, 1000BASE-LX
G62.5/125 G50/125 Multimode G62.5 Multimode G50 Singlemode 275 m 550 m 5000 m
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
37
Transmission medium: Duplex fiber-optic cable 1000BASE-SX (850 nm) range Multimode G62.5/125: Multimode G50/125: 1000BASE-LX (1300 nm) Multimode G62.5/125: Multimode G50/125: Singlemode E10/125: Proprietary solutions (1550 nm) not standardized but wide available Singlemode E10/125: up to 120 km 550 m 550 m at least 5000 m 275 m 550 m
Notes:
Autonegotiation:
Autonegotiation FLP
Autonegotiation
FDX
FLP Fixed to FDX FLP
FDX
Autonegotiation
FDX
HDX
Fixed to HDX FLP
Autonegotiation
HDX
HDX
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
38
Autonegotiation offers the devices to select the best possible data Notes: throughput for the connection. By upgrading the Normal Link Pulse (NLP), which tells the opposite port of its existence, to Fast Link Pulses (FLPs), the best possible transfer rate (10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4) and the mode (HDX, FDX) are negotiated. The FLPs are only transmitted at connection setup, so as not to impair the connection performance. With Autocrossing a port can automatically configured to MDI or MDI-X. This then makes the distinction between patch and crossover cables irrelevant. This feature is often only usable if a port is configured for autonegotiation. Parallel detection Status of autonegotiation when only one of the two connected devices supports autonegotiation. The autonegotiation device detects the speed of the opposite party and configures itself to that speed and half-duplex mode in order to detect collisions. Media converters cannot forward autonegotiation signals, because a fiber-optic port does not support FLPs or NLPs. Workaround: Set both devices permanently to FDX.
Appendix
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
39
Notes:
Solution: Interfaces and Cables
MDI
Crossover
MDI
MDI-X
Patch
MDI
MDI-X
Crossover
MDI-X
MDI-X
Patch
MDI
MDI-X
Crossover
MDI-X
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
40
Notes:
Solution: Autonegotiation
Auto 100Mbit/s FDX Crossover Auto 100Mbit/s FDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX
Patch 100Mbit/s HDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX Crossover (or Patch)
100Mbit/s FDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX
Patch (or Corssover) 100Mbit/s HDX Auto 10Mbit/s HDX
Crossover (or Patch) 10Mbit/s HDX
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
41
Notes:
ETHERNET in OSI Reference Model
OSI Reference Model Referenz Model APPLICATION PRESENTATION SESSION TRANSPORT NETWORK DATA LINK PHYSICAL
LAN CSMA/CD HIGHER LAYERS

LLC LOGICAL LINK CONTROL MAC MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL PLS PHYSICAL SIGNALING DTE DTE AUI PMA PHYSICAL MEDIUM ATTACH. MAU MDI
MEDIUM
Transceiver = MAU
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
42
Ethernet is standardized under IEEE 802.3. Ethernet offers several speeds: 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s Fast Ethernet 1 Gbit/s Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gigabit Ethernet and coming soon 100 Gigabit Ethernet (development of standard just started) Ethernet was developed further from a shared net with CSMA/CD access method (HDX) to switch based nets in FDX mode. Currently in industry the trend is Gigabit Ethernet, due to its smaller packet delay in switches compared to Fast Ethernet. The higher speed/bandwidth has only a subordinate role. Ethernet supports different media: Fiber optics: multimode and singlemode fiber Twisted pair and at 10 Mbit/s coax as well as AUI.
Notes:
Ethernet 10 Mbit/s
10BASE2
BNC T piece
Segment max. 185 m
Terminator 50 min. 0.5 m
10BASE5
Transceiver Transceiver cable max. 50 m
Segment max. 500 m

CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
Terminator 50 min. 2.5 m 43
Today coax and AUI are used in industry networks for completion. 10BASE2 - Cheapernet or Thinwire Maximum 185 m segment length Maximum 30 user ports Transceivers are integrated into the Network Interface Card (NIC) At least 0.5 m distance between two ports Transmission medium: 50 Ohm coax HDX Repeaters can be used to connect additional segments (10BASE2 or 10BASE5). The maximum length of a Cheapernet is 925 m. 10BASE5 - Yellow cable Transmission medium: 50 Ohm coax HDX Maximum 500 m segment length At least 2.5 m distance between 2 transceivers Maximum 100 transceivers (user ports) Maximum 50 m AUI cable from transceiver to user A maximum of 3 additional segments may be connected to one segment by repeaters.
Notes:
Design of a Collision Domain Model 1: 5-4-3 Rule
Repeater
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
44
Model 1 to IEEE 802.3 section 13 The 5-4-3 rule: A maximum of 5 segments may be connected to 4 repeaters, but devices may only be connected to 3 segments. This does not bring a network up to its limit. The 5-4-3 rule was introduced to simplify the complex computations necessary to calculate the maximum number of hubs/repeaters within a collision domain.
Notes:
Design of a Collision Domain: Model 2: Runtime Equivalent & Path Variability Value
5 8 7 6
3 1
2 0
10 Mbit/s
10 Mbit/s
Runtime delay
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
45
To reach the limit of a collision domain, two calculations as per 802.3 section 13 are required. Propagation equivalent The delay of a signal due to a component in the data path is converted into a distance. The overall length of permissible cable, after deducting all the delays due to active components, results as 5120 meters. Hub delay: 150m - 300m NIC delay: 100m - 140m Path variability value Another delay occurs because a repeater extends the preamble of an incoming packet by a number of bits. This is the path variability value, and is given in bit times (BT). The maximum number of bit times in a collision domain is 49. As no value is usually obtainable for terminal devices, 40 BT should be assumed as the limit for the rest of the data path.
Notes:
Exercise: Maximum Network Size, Fast ETHERNET
100 m DTEDTE via TP 412 m DTEDTE via optical fiber
200 m over repeater class I via TP 260 m over class I repeater via TP+optical fiber 272 m over class I repeater via optical fiber 200 m over 1 class II repeater via TP 320 m over 1 class II repeater via optical fiber
205 m over 2 class II repeaters via TP 228 m over 2 class II repeaters via optical fiber
CB1e_2_Layer_1.831
46
Repeater classification for Fast Ethernet: Class I repeater Within a collision domain only one repeater of this class may be used. Class II repeater Within a collision domain two repeaters of this class, with short internal delays, may be used. Calculate the theoretical maximum network size of the collision domain at a transfer rate of 100 Mbit/s:
Notes:
Solution: 64 byte = 512 bit 10 ns/bit 2.56 s * 200,000 km/s = 512 m
Slottime = 2.56 s;
Acronyms
AUI BFOC BT CSMA/CD DSC DTE ELED EMC EN FDX FLP F/O FTP HCS HDX IEEE IETF IFG IP IPG ISO
Attachment Unit Interface Bayonet Fiber Optical Connector = ST Bit Time Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection Duplex Subscriber Connector Data Terminal Equipment Edge-emitting LED Electro-magnetic Compatibility European standard Full duplex Fast Link Pulse Fiber Optics File Transfer Protocol Hard polymer Cladded Silica F/O half-duplex Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Internet Engineering Task Force Inter Frame Gap (also IPG) Internet Protocol, Industry Protection Inter Packet Gap International Organization for Standardization
LAN LD MAC MAU MDI MMF NIC NLP OSI PiMF PCS PVV RJ SAP SMF TP UPS WDS WLAN
Local Area Network Laser diode Media Access Control Medium Attachment Unit Medium Dependent Interface Multimode Fiber Network Interface Card Normal Link Pulse Open Systems Interconnection Pair in Metal Foil Polymer cladded silica; s. HCS Path Variability Value Registered Jack Service Access Points Singlemode Fiber Twisted Pair Uninterruptible Power Supply Wireless Distribution System Wireless LAN
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47
Notes:
Data Link Layer
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
Content: MAC and LLC Layer Packet types: Ethernet II and IEEE 802.3 Address Types MAC Address Switches: Forwarding Database and Aging Timer Switching: Store and Forward / Cut-Through, Latency time Packet Filters Excursion into layer 3: IP address and netmask
Notes:
MAC and LLC Layer

7 Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network LLC 2b
Data Link MAC 2a
Physical
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
The Data link layer is split into the two sub layers MAC and LLC: 2b: Logical Link Control (LLC) Link make and break, packet traffic control, packet sequencing, packet acknowledgement LLC offers link control independent of medium. 2a: Medium Access Control (MAC) Functions in send direction: Receive the data from the LLC layer Create an Ethernet frame Determine the inter-packet gap Media Access Control (CSMA/CD) Creating Frame Check Sequence Number Receive bit stream from layer 1 Check length Reject invalid frames Check the frame for bit errors Check the Frame Check Sequence Number Forward data to the upper layer (LLC)
Notes:
Functions in receive direction
Ethernet Frame
Ethernet-V2.0 Frame
Preamble SFD Destination Source address address Type field: Value > 1.536
Type
PDU
FCS
IFG
Preamble
IEEE-802.3 frame
Preamble SFD Destination Source address address
Length field: Value < 1.536
Length
LLC
PDU
FCS
IFG
Preamble
LLC field: Value = FF FF FFh
Length: 64 bytes - 1518 bytes

7 bytes 1 byte 6 bytes 6 bytes 2 bytes min. 46 bytes / max. 1500 bytes 4 bytes
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
Preamble: The preamble is a sequence of 7 bytes with a "10101010" bit sequence (1010101010) for synchronization of the recipient. SFD - Start of Frame Delimiter: The "Start of Frame Delimiter" with a "10101011" bit sequence marks the start of the Ethernet frame. Destination and source address: The physical address of the recipient/sender is shown here. Type: The type only occurs in Ethernet-V2.0 frames, and refers to the protocol (e.g. IP) to which the useful data of the frame belong. Length: This field indicates the length of the data field, and is only given in Ethernet frames to IEEE 802.3. PDU - Protocol Data Unit Here the data to be transported by Ethernet is shown (e.g. packet of Internet Protocol). FCS - Frame Checking Sequence The "Frame Checking Sequence" is a 4-byte checksum of the Ethernet frame. Only error detection is offered, but with a very low probability of error. The IEEE 802.3 packet is used rarely beside the functions RSTP, GMRP and GVRP. IFG -Interframe Gap Minimum gap between two frames - 96 Bit Times (12 bytes)
Notes:
Jumbo Frames
Definition: Packet with oversize usually ca. 9000 byte Standard: max. length untagged = 1,518 byte MTU size Most of available chip sets cannot process jumbo frames and can enter a dead-lock state. Small overhead Increase of jitter of other applications Bit errors generate higher load and larger interferences
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
Standards care for compatibility of devices and ease planning and installation of a network. If a user later adds devices not capable of jumbos interferences can appear. The overhead part of the bandwidth is reduced from 2.3 to 0.4 %, thats an improvement of 1.9 %. For calculation jumbo frames of 9,180 byte, i.e. 6 regular packets, were assumed. A bit error (BER<= 10^-12) destroys one of 81 mio normal packets. If the packet is re-transmitted load is increased by less than 1 . This will result at use of jumbos in imperceptible increase of load. On the other hand a jumbo covers that much bandwidth to considerably delay other applications such that they are disturbed. Wirespeed router usually cannot fragment, because this would reduce the performance considerably. Experience: Applications with jumbo frames showing an improvement of performance of ca. 20 % indicating problems of the protocol stack.
Notes:
Address Types
Unicast
A Daten Von A An B C B
Broadcast
Daten A C Von A An Alle B
Multicast
B A Daten Von A An Gruppe C
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
Unicast A unicast is a data packet addressed only to a single device within a LAN and read by it. Broadcast A broadcast is a data packet sent to all the stations in a LAN. This packet must be read and evaluated by all recipients. One address is reserved for broadcasts.
Notes:
Multicast A multicast is a data packet sent to all the stations in a LAN. It is only intended for a specific group of stations, however, which read the packet. A range of addresses is reserved for multicasts.
MAC Address
Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3 Byte 4 Byte 5 Byte 6
x U/L I/G
"0" Individual address "1" Multicast address
0 Globally administered address 1 Locally administered address
Manufacturer ID: Multicast: Broadcast:
00 : 80 : 63 : 01 : 00 : 5e : FF : FF : FF :
6
xx : xx : xx xx : xx : xx FF : FF : FF
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
The MAC address (Media Access Control) is the hardware address of network devices (especially network cards) used for unique device identification in the network. The MAC address comprises 48 bits / 6 bytes, and is usually written in hexadecimal format. The Least Significant Bit (LSB) of the first byte indicates whether the address is an individual address ("0"), e.g. the address of a network card, or a multicast address ("1"). The second bit of the first byte indicates whether the address is global ("0") or local ("1"). Manufacturers of network components can purchase address ranges from the IEEE. The first three bytes of the network address serve as the manufacturer's identifier (also termed OUI - Organization Unique Identifier). This must comprise global and individual addresses. The remaining three bytes are assigned individually by the manufacturer for each interface. The MAC address in which all 48 bits are set to 1 is used as a broadcast address sent to all the devices in a LAN.
Notes:
Solution: There are several ways. At a Windows computer you can type in ipconfig /all, netstat r, or route print
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
Exercise: MAC Address
Find out the MAC address of your computer
Notes:
Switches
A B
Po rt 1
2 rt Po
Port 3
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
The switch is a device on layer 2 of the ISO/OSI reference model. Each port of a switch can operate in half-duplex or full-duplex mode. This means each port comprises its own segment (collision domain).
Notes:
The switch checks incoming packets for their destination and for any errors. By means of an address table (Forwarding Database) the switch learns during online operation which addresses (devices) are connected to which port. This means frames are forwarded to specific destinations and do not unnecessarily place load on segments in which the frame's destination is not located. If the destination is not yet known to the switch, however, the packet is sent to every segment. This ensures that the destination receives the frame (termed "flooding").
Erroneous packets or collisions in connected segments are not forwarded by a switch and do not reach other connected segments.
Forwarding Database and Aging Timer

Port: 1 2 3 4 00:08:74:D3:04:5D MAC address 00:08:74:E9:C8:4E
old
tAging
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
Each switch has a forwarding database where it stores which port, or ports, conceal(s) which MAC address (or multiple addresses). This enables the switch to forward data packets directly to the destination without placing data load on other network segments. If a switch receives a data packet from a sender not known to it, it enters the MAC address dynamically in its table. MAC address entries may be permanent (e.g. system or static addresses) or dynamic (learned). If the destination of a data packet is not known to the switch (Unknown Unicast), the packet is sent to all ports except the receiving port (flooding). As soon as a new address is learned, the aging timer is started (setting range: 10 s ( tAging ( 1 million s (= 11.5 days)). If the address is not detected as new within this time, the entry is set to old. After a further aging time the entry is definitively deleted from the table. The aging timer is reset when an address that has already been learned once is re-detected. Advantage: Small address table for improved performance If aging is not to apply, enter address as "static".
Notes:
Switching: Store and Forward / Cut-Through

PA
Ethernet Packet
Store and Forward
Packet is completely read-in and is checked
72-1526 byte
Cut-Through
Immediately after the destination address the packet is transported
14 byte
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
10
Store and Forward In this mechanism a complete data packet (8 byte PA/SFD + 1518 byte) is read-in at a port and the header evaluated. Then a fault-free and valid packet is forwarded. If an error is detected the packet is rejected. Thus the delay is maximum 10 Mbit/s: 1,221 s 100 Mbit/s: 122 s 1000 Mbit/s: 12.2 s Cut-through In this mechanism an incoming data packet is read-in as far as the destination address. At that point the switch knows which port the packet has to be forwarded to. Only once the complete packet has been received can it be checked for errors. At that point part of the packet has already been sent at the sending port however. Erroneous packets and fragments are transported. The following latency times result for the various transfer rates: 10 Mbit/s: 20.8 s 100 Mbit/s: 2.08 s 1000 Mbit/s: 0.208 s Not contained are the delays caused by another packet, which is already in transmit process.
Notes:
Exercise: Address Table A B

Po rt 1
2 rt Po
Port 3
C
T4: 12:03
Port Address 1 2 3 Aging Timer
T1: 12:00
T2: 12:01
T3: 12:02
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
11
Below you see the data exchange between the three computers A, B and C: T1 (12:00): "A" sends a packet to "B" T2 (12:01): "B" answers "A" T3 (12:02): "B" sends a packet to "C" T4 (12:03): "C" answers "B"
Notes:
Starting point: The switch does not yet have an entry in the Forwarding Database For each point in time write the complete Forwarding Database of the switch to the tables provided for the purpose. Think about which point in time the switch learns which entry.
Packet Filters
Data packet
ck et
Data packet
Data packet
Da t
pa
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
12
Packets can be filtered by switches based on various criteria. Either data packets are forwarded based on defined criteria (Forward) or they are rejected (Discard). The packets can be filtered by specific destination or source addresses, by packet length and by protocol being transported. It is also possible to set a filter on any bits in a packet by way of a mask. Different criteria can be logically linked. These filters make sense, for example, in order to restrict broadcasts of specific protocols (e.g. IPX), to prevent unauthorized access to a network, or for packet analysis.
Notes:
Network Layer: IP Address and Network Mask

Network ID Host ID
IP address Network mask
192.168.0. 255.255.255.
136 0
Net ID Broadcast
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
192.168.0. 192.168.0.
13
0 255
The IP address has a fixed length of 4 bytes. These 4 bytes are subdivided into the network ID and the host ID. The network and host IDs have variable sizes, defined by the network mask. The set bits ("1") of the network mask indicate the network ID; non-set bits ("0") indicate the host ID. Always the netmask belongs to the IP address! All existing terminal devices are in a network if they are physically interconnected (linked by hubs/switches) and the network IDs and network masks of all devices are identical. To reach all the hosts in a network, one IP address is reserved for broadcast. At this address all bits of the host ID are set ("1"). The IANA (www.iana.org) is responsible for the administration of the IP addresses and delivered the allocation to three regional organizations. To check a connection on layer 3 the ping operation of the ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) can be used: ping <ip address> [t] The extension -t creates an endless ping, to be stopped by ctrl+c.
Notes:
Appendix
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
14
Notes:
Solution: Address Table A B

Po rt 1
r Po t2
Port 3
C
T4: 12:03
Port Address 1 2 3 A B C Aging Timer 2 min 4 min 5 min
T1: 12:00
Port Address 1 2 3 A Aging Timer 5 min
T2: 12:01
Port Address 1 2 3 A B Aging Timer 4 min 5 min
T3: 12:02
Port Address 1 2 3 A B Aging Timer 3 min 5 min
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
15
Below you see the data exchange between the three computers A, B and C: T1 (12:00): "A" sends a packet to "B" T2 (12:01): "B" answers "A" T3 (12:02): "B" sends a packet to "C" T4 (12:03): "C" answers "B"
Notes:
Starting point: The switch does not yet have an entry in the Forwarding Database For each point in time write the complete Forwarding Database of the switch to the tables provided for the purpose. Think about which point in time the switch learns which entry.
Logical Link Control
Preamble SFD
Destination Source address address
Length
LLC
PDU
FCS
DSAP
SSAP Control
CB1e_3_Layer_2.831
16
Even where IEEE packets are used, the LLC information usually is not evaluated. Logical Link Control:
DSAP Destination Service Access Point SSAP Source Service Access Point Control = Type and Class of Service
Notes:
SAPs offer the facility in Ethernet to define which information is transported in the PDU field. 06h ARPANET Internet Protocol (IP) 42h IEEE 802.1 Bridge Spanning Tree Protocol E0h Novell NetWare F0h IBM NetBIOS Type of Service Type 1 Connectionless Type 2 Connection-oriented Type 3 Acknowledged connectionless Class of Service Class 1 Type 1 Class 2 supports type 1 and type 2 Class 3 supports type 1 and type 3 Class 4 supports type 1, type 2 and type 3 Layer 2 connection-oriented links are faster than layer 4 links.
Redundancy Techniques at Layer 2
CB1e_4_L2-Redundancies.831
Content: Spanning Tree & Rapid Spanning Tree Link Redundancy and Link Aggregation (Trunking) Industrial Ring Redundancy MRP
Notes:
For industrial use RSTP can be recommended only with some limitations, already mentioned in the 1998 edition of standard IEEE 802.1D: short-time loops, packet multiplication and no guaranteed maximum recovery time. In the current edition this sounds: The active topology will, with a high probability, stabilize within a short, known bounded interval,, s. IEEE 802.1D 2004, chapt. 17.1 c Thus ring redundancy methods usually are used. The new MRP protocol offers a fast (<1 s) ring redundancy, but without meshing. To use Link-Aggregation only for redundancy (point-to-point) usually is too expensive, but based on the bandwidth extension acceptable. Only for bandwidth extension its also not really cost effective, because the migration to the next faster technology (10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1000 Mbit/s) multiplies the bandwidth by 10 and cost only double.
Two Stages of Redundancy

Whichever redundancy method is used, there are two stages Re-establish the physical connection Re-establish the logical connection
Notes:
Re-establishing Physical Communication PC1 A
PC2
Notes:
Re-establishing Logical Communication PC1 A

Learned Address Table Switch D
Device PC1 PC1
Path Port 1 Port 2
C
Port 1
Po rt
PC2
Notes:
Spanning Tree Algorithm (STA)
BC
By means of redundant links between the individual network components the availability of a network is increased. This creates loops in the network, which in turn can cause the network to come to a standstill. Mechanisms are needed to ensure a loop-free network structure. Spanning Tree to 802.1D constructs a loop-free tree structure by means of logical blocking of redundant paths. Switches configure themselves automatically by sending so-called Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDUs) at active and redundant ports. The BPDUs must be sent to all switches at which the Spanning Tree protocol is activated. The Hello BPDUs are sent every 2 seconds by default. For this the multicast address 01:80:c2:00:00:00, which is reserved for STA, is used. To implement a Spanning Tree the following preconditions must be met. Each switch has a unique bridge ID in the network. Each path between two switches has path costs. Each port of a switch has a port- ID. The old STA standard proposes a maximum cascade of 7 switches with default timers.
Notes:
STA and RSTP: Bridge ID and Port ID

80:00 00:80:63:04:05:06
Root Bridge
Port1 Port 2 Port 3
Designated Port Root-Port

Port 4 Port 5 Port 4
Bridge
80:00 00:80:63:55:55:55
Port1 Port 2 Port 3 Port1
Bridge
80:00 00:80:63:99:99:99
Port 2 Port 3
Each switch is uniquely described by its bridge ID. This ID is 8 bytes long, and consists of a priority (2 bytes) and the MAC address (6 bytes). To map multiple STAs onto VLANs, the 2 bytes of priority were divided into 4 bits (MSB) of priority and 12 bits of system ID. Thus the granularity of the priority is 4096. The switch with the lowest bridge ID is termed the root. The port ID is 2 bytes long and consists of the priority (1 byte) and the port number (1byte). The port with the lowest ID has the highest priority. This port ID split has since been changed. The new split entails a 4-bit priority and a 12-bit port number. The port of a switch having the lowest path costs to the root becomes the root port. The root port is connected to the designated port.
Notes:
STA and RSTP: Path Costs

Standard before 1998
Path cost to old standard:

1000 Path costs = performance capacity in Mbit/s Standard from 1998 to 2001
Data rate 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1 Gbit/s 10 Gbit/s
Path costs 100 19 4 2
Standard since 2001
Data rate 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1000 Mbit/s 10 Gbit/s

Recommended path costsRecommended range 2,000,000 200,000 20,000 2,000

7
200,000-20,000,000 20,000-2,000,000 2,000-200,000 200-20,000
Any connection between two switches incurs path costs. The aim of STA is that every switch (not root) should reach the root with the lowest possible path costs. If there are multiple paths from a switch to the root with identical path costs, the lower bridge ID of the connected switches is the tie-breaker. If both ports are on the same switch between the root and the switch, the port ID decides which port is used.
Notes:
Rapid Spanning Tree: Port States
DISCARDING
FORWARDING
LEARNING
The Rapid Spanning Tree standard (IEEE 802.1D-2004) was adopted in June 2004. This new standard incorporated the former 802.1w standard. The reason for revising the Spanning Trees was the long switchover time of at least 30 seconds (default configuration) and more. The number of port states for RST was reduced to three: Discarding, Learning and Forwarding. The Learning state is only assumed in exceptional cases (in combined operation with Spanning Tree). Rapid Spanning Tree was designed so that a port can switch from Discarding to Forwarding in less than a second. A new Root can switch more rapidly to Forwarding and with an acknowledgement mechanism between the switches designated ports can rapidly switch to Forwarding mode. Frame duplications and a change in the frame sequence may occur in the process, however.
Notes:
STA and RSTP: Port States

RSTP (802.1w) PortState Discarding Discarding Discarding Learning Forwarding IsPort Included InActive Topology? No No Yes Yes Yes IsPort Learning MAC Addresses? No No No Yes Yes
STA(802.1D) PortState Disabled Blocking Listening Learning Forwarding
RSTP is faster because: 3 port states instead of 5 Switches actively pass BPDU's as "Keep Alives" Ports can change more rapidly to Forwarding
Notes:
Rapid Spanning Tree: Port Roles

Root D D
R A
R B D
Alternate Port
Backup Port R C
10
In Rapid Spanning Tree each switch port is assigned one of the following port roles: Root Port (R), Designated Port (D), Alternate Port or Backup Port. The root port of a switch is the port which receives frames with the lowest costs to the root. If there are multiple paths with the same costs, the port ID decides. The designated port is the port which by way of itself offers the most cost-effective path to the root for the connected LAN. If there are multiple paths to the root with the same costs, the switch with the lowest bridge ID is the winner. If there are multiple ports at one switch with paths having the same costs, the port ID decides. An Alternate Port offers an alternate path in the direction of the Root Bridge to that provided by the Bridges own Root Port. The backup port offers a backup path when two ports of the switch in question are connected to one LAN segment.
Notes:
Exercise: Rapid Spanning Tree

Switch 1
1 2 3
Switch 2
1 2 3
32768 00-80-63-04-05-01
4 5 6 4
32768 00-80-63-04-05-02
5 6
Switch 5
1 2 3
Switch 3
1 2 3
00000 00-80-63-04-05-05
4 5 6 4
32768 00-80-63-04-05-03
5 6
Switch 4
1 2 3
32768 00-80-63-04-05-04
4 CB1e_4_L2-Redundancies.831 5 6
1 Gbit/s 100 Mbit/s
11
First define the Root Bridge. Define the Root Ports (RP) and the Designated Ports (DP) and mark the redundant links.
Notes:
Solution: see Annex of this presentation
Rapid Transition To Forwarding

Rapid transition to forwarding can only be acheived on Edge Ports and point to point links Edge Ports
Connected directly to end devices Cannot create loops An Edge Port which receives a BDPU immediately loses its Edge Port status
Link Type
Point to point links should be full duplex This can be overridden
12
Notes:
New link is added between Root and A Link is placed in Discarding mode
X X
A
13
Notes:
Synch Operation R A blocks non-edge designated ports
X X
A
X
B
X
C D
14
Notes:
When non-edge ports are blocked, A asks the Root to put the new link into forwarding Network is now blocked below A
X
B
X
C D
15
Notes:
B and C then synch with A B only has edge ports, so it instructs A to open the link
X
B C D
16
Notes:
C blocks the non-edge port, and then instructs A to open the link Final result - loop blocked between C and D
17
Notes:
Link Aggregation (Trunking) IEEE 802.3ad
18
Link Aggregation, often colloquially named trunking, is part of standard IEEE 802.3. The standard draft was named 802.3ad. It offers redundancy as a safeguard against failure of a link, and at the same time it groups together multiple physical links to form a single logical link. Recovery time according to standard is 1 s. The links must be operated in full-duplex mode and with the same transfer speed. Different media can be aggregated. The Link Aggregation Control Protocol LACP is used for fast activation/deactivation of all aggregated ports, also the ones of the other switch. For this a multicast to 01:80:c2:00:00:02 is used. If one of both switches doesnt support LACP static aggregation can be used. The traffic distribution algorithm is depending on the respective manufacturer based on different criteria. The data transport is organized connection parallel, i.e. a connection between two devices can use only one of the aggregated links!
Notes:
Media Ring Protocol IEC Standardized Ring
Redundancy manager
test packets
19
The concept of the MRP Ring is similar to the one of HIPER ring, nevertheless Notes: both ring types are not compatible to each other. Recovery time of a ring with up to 50 switches typically is 150 ms (maximum 500 ms). MRP in Basic mode uses test packets only for fault detection, MRP in Advanced mode use additional link states on devices in ring. Configuring the MRP-Ring dialog Redundancy MRP-Ring Set up the network to meet your requirements. Note: Before you connect the redundant line, you must complete the configuration of the MRP-Ring. You thus avoid loops during the configuration phase. At exactly one switch, you activate the redundancy manager. Ring ports must be configured either Fast Ethernet FDX or Gigabit Ethernet autoneg Note: When you use 100 Mbit/s and full-duplex with twisted pair cables, usually the autocrossing function is deactivated. You therefore use crossover cables. If a switch in the ring does not support the advanced mode for fast switching times, you deactivate the advanced mode in the redundancy manager. All Hirschmann switches that support the MRP-Ring also support the advanced mode. Note: Deactivate the Spanning Tree protocol for the ports connected to the redundant ring, because Spanning Tree and ring redundancy work with different reaction times. Note: If VLANs are configured (VLAN ID >0) at ring ports then the ring ports of all switches must belong to the same VLAN and forward frames untagged (egress table).
Exercise: Redundancies
Redundancies Backup port IEEE 802.3ad Logical link
Physical link
Bridge ID
Designated port 802.1D RSTP Port states Trunking
Root path costs
Root port Forwarding Discarding

Alternate port
20
Assign the following terms to logically related groups.
Notes:
Solution: see annex of this presentation
Appendix
21
Notes:
Exercise: Spanning Tree

Switch 1
1 2
DP
3
Switch 2
1
RP
2 3
32768 00-80-63-04-05-01
4 5 6
32768 00-80-63-04-05-02
RP
Switch 5
1 2
DP
Switch 3
1
DP
00000 00-80-63-04-05-05
4 5 6 4
32768 00-80-63-04-05-03
Switch 4
1 2
RP DP
3
RP
32768 00-80-63-04-05-04
100 Mbit/s 10 Mbit/s
22
First define the Root Bridge. The switch with the lowest Bridge ID becomes Root. For manual configuration the Bridge Priority can be changed. At switch 5 the priority was set to 0, thus its Bridge ID is the lowest and it becomes Root. Backup Root is switch 1. Determine the Root Ports (RP) and the Designated Ports (DP) and mark the redundant links. The port with the lowest overall path costs to the Root (Root Path Cost) becomes Root Port (RP). Switch 1: Port 4 = Root Port Switch 2: Port 2 = Root Port Switch 3: Port 4 = Root Port Switch 4: Port 2 = Root Port
Notes:
Exercise solution: Redundancies

Redundancies
RSTP 802.1D Port states Root port Designated port Alternate port Backup port
Trunking IEEE 802.3ad Forwarding Discarding Physical link Logical link
Bridge ID Root path costs
23
Notes:
Redundancy Techniques at Layer 2
Content: Spanning Tree & Rapid Spanning Tree Link Redundancy and Link Aggregation (Trunking) Industrial Ring Redundancy MRP
Notes:
For industrial use RSTP can be recommended only with some limitations, already mentioned in the 1998 edition of standard IEEE 802.1D: short-time loops, packet multiplication and no guaranteed maximum recovery time. In the current edition this sounds: The active topology will, with a high probability, stabilize within a short, known bounded interval,, s. IEEE 802.1D 2004, chapt. 17.1 c Thus ring redundancy methods usually are used. The new MRP protocol offers a fast (<1 s) ring redundancy, but without meshing. To use Link-Aggregation only for redundancy (point-to-point) usually is too expensive, but based on the bandwidth extension acceptable. Only for bandwidth extension its also not really cost effective, because the migration to the next faster technology (10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1000 Mbit/s) multiplies the bandwidth by 10 and cost only double.
Two Stages of Redundancy

Whichever redundancy method is used, there are two stages Re-establish the physical connection Re-establish the logical connection
Notes:
Re-establishing Physical Communication PC1 A
PC2
Notes:
Re-establishing Logical Communication PC1 A

Learned Address Table Switch D
Device PC1 PC1
Path Port 1 Port 2
C
Port 1
Po rt
PC2
Notes:
Spanning Tree Algorithm (STA)
BC
By means of redundant links between the individual network components the availability of a network is increased. This creates loops in the network, which in turn can cause the network to come to a standstill. Mechanisms are needed to ensure a loop-free network structure. Spanning Tree to 802.1D constructs a loop-free tree structure by means of logical blocking of redundant paths. Switches configure themselves automatically by sending so-called Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDUs) at active and redundant ports. The BPDUs must be sent to all switches at which the Spanning Tree protocol is activated. The Hello BPDUs are sent every 2 seconds by default. For this the multicast address 01:80:c2:00:00:00, which is reserved for STA, is used. To implement a Spanning Tree the following preconditions must be met. Each switch has a unique bridge ID in the network. Each path between two switches has path costs. Each port of a switch has a port- ID. The old STA standard proposes a maximum cascade of 7 switches with default timers.
Notes:
STA and RSTP: Bridge ID and Port ID

80:00 00:80:63:04:05:06
Root Bridge
Port1 Port 2 Port 3
Designated Port Root-Port

Port 4 Port 5 Port 4
Bridge
80:00 00:80:63:55:55:55
Port1 Port 2 Port 3 Port1
Bridge
80:00 00:80:63:99:99:99
Port 2 Port 3
Each switch is uniquely described by its bridge ID. This ID is 8 bytes long, and consists of a priority (2 bytes) and the MAC address (6 bytes). To map multiple STAs onto VLANs, the 2 bytes of priority were divided into 4 bits (MSB) of priority and 12 bits of system ID. Thus the granularity of the priority is 4096. The switch with the lowest bridge ID is termed the root. The port ID is 2 bytes long and consists of the priority (1 byte) and the port number (1byte). The port with the lowest ID has the highest priority. This port ID split has since been changed. The new split entails a 4-bit priority and a 12-bit port number. The port of a switch having the lowest path costs to the root becomes the root port. The root port is connected to the designated port.
Notes:
STA and RSTP: Path Costs

Standard before 1998
Path cost to old standard:

1000 Path costs = performance capacity in Mbit/s Standard from 1998 to 2001
Data rate 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1 Gbit/s 10 Gbit/s
Path costs 100 19 4 2
Standard since 2001
Data rate 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1000 Mbit/s 10 Gbit/s

Recommended path costsRecommended range 2,000,000 200,000 20,000 2,000

7
200,000-20,000,000 20,000-2,000,000 2,000-200,000 200-20,000
Any connection between two switches incurs path costs. The aim of STA is that every switch (not root) should reach the root with the lowest possible path costs. If there are multiple paths from a switch to the root with identical path costs, the lower bridge ID of the connected switches is the tie-breaker. If both ports are on the same switch between the root and the switch, the port ID decides which port is used.
Notes:
Rapid Spanning Tree: Port States
DISCARDING
FORWARDING
LEARNING
The Rapid Spanning Tree standard (IEEE 802.1D-2004) was adopted in June 2004. This new standard incorporated the former 802.1w standard. The reason for revising the Spanning Trees was the long switchover time of at least 30 seconds (default configuration) and more. The number of port states for RST was reduced to three: Discarding, Learning and Forwarding. The Learning state is only assumed in exceptional cases (in combined operation with Spanning Tree). Rapid Spanning Tree was designed so that a port can switch from Discarding to Forwarding in less than a second. A new Root can switch more rapidly to Forwarding and with an acknowledgement mechanism between the switches designated ports can rapidly switch to Forwarding mode. Frame duplications and a change in the frame sequence may occur in the process, however.
Notes:
STA and RSTP: Port States

RSTP (802.1w) PortState Discarding Discarding Discarding Learning Forwarding IsPort Included InActive Topology? No No Yes Yes Yes IsPort Learning MAC Addresses? No No No Yes Yes
STA(802.1D) PortState Disabled Blocking Listening Learning Forwarding
RSTP is faster because: 3 port states instead of 5 Switches actively pass BPDU's as "Keep Alives" Ports can change more rapidly to Forwarding
Notes:
Rapid Spanning Tree: Port Roles

Root D D
R A
R B D
Alternate Port
Backup Port R C
10
In Rapid Spanning Tree each switch port is assigned one of the following port roles: Root Port (R), Designated Port (D), Alternate Port or Backup Port. The root port of a switch is the port which receives frames with the lowest costs to the root. If there are multiple paths with the same costs, the port ID decides. The designated port is the port which by way of itself offers the most cost-effective path to the root for the connected LAN. If there are multiple paths to the root with the same costs, the switch with the lowest bridge ID is the winner. If there are multiple ports at one switch with paths having the same costs, the port ID decides. An Alternate Port offers an alternate path in the direction of the Root Bridge to that provided by the Bridges own Root Port. The backup port offers a backup path when two ports of the switch in question are connected to one LAN segment.
Notes:
Exercise: Rapid Spanning Tree

Switch 1
1 2 3
Switch 2
1 2 3
32768 00-80-63-04-05-01
4 5 6 4
32768 00-80-63-04-05-02
5 6
Switch 5
1 2 3
Switch 3
1 2 3
00000 00-80-63-04-05-05
4 5 6 4
32768 00-80-63-04-05-03
5 6
Switch 4
1 2 3
32768 00-80-63-04-05-04
1 Gbit/s 100 Mbit/s
11
First define the Root Bridge. Define the Root Ports (RP) and the Designated Ports (DP) and mark the redundant links.
Notes:
Solution: see Annex of this presentation
Rapid Transition To Forwarding

Rapid transition to forwarding can only be acheived on Edge Ports and point to point links Edge Ports
Connected directly to end devices Cannot create loops An Edge Port which receives a BDPU immediately loses its Edge Port status
Link Type
Point to point links should be full duplex This can be overridden
12
Notes:
New link is added between Root and A Link is placed in Discarding mode
X X
A
13
Notes:
Synch Operation R A blocks non-edge designated ports
X X
A
X
B
X
C D
14
Notes:
When non-edge ports are blocked, A asks the Root to put the new link into forwarding Network is now blocked below A
X
B
X
C D
15
Notes:
B and C then synch with A B only has edge ports, so it instructs A to open the link
X
B C D
16
Notes:
C blocks the non-edge port, and then instructs A to open the link Final result - loop blocked between C and D
17
Notes:
Link Aggregation (Trunking) IEEE 802.3ad
18
Link Aggregation, often colloquially named trunking, is part of standard IEEE 802.3. The standard draft was named 802.3ad. It offers redundancy as a safeguard against failure of a link, and at the same time it groups together multiple physical links to form a single logical link. Recovery time according to standard is 1 s. The links must be operated in full-duplex mode and with the same transfer speed. Different media can be aggregated. The Link Aggregation Control Protocol LACP is used for fast activation/deactivation of all aggregated ports, also the ones of the other switch. For this a multicast to 01:80:c2:00:00:02 is used. If one of both switches doesnt support LACP static aggregation can be used. The traffic distribution algorithm is depending on the respective manufacturer based on different criteria. The data transport is organized connection parallel, i.e. a connection between two devices can use only one of the aggregated links!
Notes:
Media Ring Protocol IEC Standardized Ring
Redundancy manager
test packets
19
The concept of the MRP Ring is similar to the one of HIPER ring, nevertheless Notes: both ring types are not compatible to each other. Recovery time of a ring with up to 50 switches typically is 150 ms (maximum 500 ms). MRP in Basic mode uses test packets only for fault detection, MRP in Advanced mode use additional link states on devices in ring. Configuring the MRP-Ring dialog Redundancy MRP-Ring Set up the network to meet your requirements. Note: Before you connect the redundant line, you must complete the configuration of the MRP-Ring. You thus avoid loops during the configuration phase. At exactly one switch, you activate the redundancy manager. Ring ports must be configured either Fast Ethernet FDX or Gigabit Ethernet autoneg Note: When you use 100 Mbit/s and full-duplex with twisted pair cables, usually the autocrossing function is deactivated. You therefore use crossover cables. If a switch in the ring does not support the advanced mode for fast switching times, you deactivate the advanced mode in the redundancy manager. All Hirschmann switches that support the MRP-Ring also support the advanced mode. Note: Deactivate the Spanning Tree protocol for the ports connected to the redundant ring, because Spanning Tree and ring redundancy work with different reaction times. Note: If VLANs are configured (VLAN ID >0) at ring ports then the ring ports of all switches must belong to the same VLAN and forward frames untagged (egress table).
work with
20
Notes:
Rail Operating voltage
Redundant operating voltage Sense contact

This alarm contact can be used to trigger an external device
21
Notes:
HIPER ring
-----
MRP
0 1
Line structure
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ring structure
redundant link
FDX, Autonegotiation off

22
Notes:
Lets start with four areas of a typical industrial Ethernet network.
0 Production line 3 Process control 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Production line 2 Production line 1

23
Notes:
Is this network secure enough ?
ATTENTION If only one of the three backbone connections fails, at least one area will be disconnected.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Production line 3
Process control

24
Notes:
Creating a redundant ring prevents loss of communication if one connection fails.
Production line 3
Process control
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

25
Notes:
Permanent monitoring by watchdog packets

The Ring Manager sends out watchdog packets (every 20ms) Production the to test the integrity ofline 3ring.
Process control
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ring Manager 9

26
Notes:

In normal conditions, when no error has occured, no data packet is transmitted over the redundant connection. Production line 3 Only watchdog packets are forwarded.
Process control 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ring Manager 8 9

27
Notes:

If the Ring Manager doesnt receive the watchdog packets, it immediately Production line 3 activates the redundant connection to establish the communication. If more than 10 packets are lost.
0 1 2 Process control 3 4 5 6 7 link activ in 30ms Ring Manager ACTIVE 8 9

28
Notes:

The Ring Manager send now also the information to all attached switches, Production should canceled that they line 3 their MAC-address list at once!
0 1 Process control 2 3 4 5 6 Ring Manager ACTIVE 7 8 9

29
Notes:
Functionality of a switch
MAC Address-list Port 1 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4 Port 5 PC 1 RC 11 PLC 2 MC 20 PLC 1 RC 12 RC 13

From PC 1
To PLC 2
P3 P1 P2
From PC 1
PC 1
P5 P4
To PLC 2
PLC 2 PLC 1 MC 20 RC 11 RC 12 RC 13
30
Notes:
Hirschmann - HIPER-Ring structure

0
Hirschmann HiPER-Ring Structure
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Optimized interaction of all product families Ring Manager inside Fast learning in a ring is guaranteed by sending of clear address table messages Reconfiguration time typ. 200 ms/ 10 ms Reduction of machine downtimes cost saving Exchange of devices and network extension is possible during operation Simple and clear topology Up to 100 switches in a ring Plug & Work (without management)
31
Notes:
Redundant Ring Coupling

Objectives
Connection of HIPER Ring networks with fast recovery Connection of a HIPER Ring to other networks with slower recovery
HIRSCHMANN
HIRSCHMANN
HIRSCHMANN
HIRSCHMANN
32
Notes:
Redundant Ring Coupling

Advantages
Predictable recovery times
Average 250ms
Simple to implement Compensates for two faults in a HIPER Ring
Disadvantages
Proprietary
33
Notes:
Subrings
integrated in MACH1000- and RSR - family
Overview
RM SRM
Basis-Ring
Sub-Ring
SRM
2 Sub-Ring Manager (SRM) per Sub-Ring

SRM observes only the associated Sub-Ring MRP supported in Sub-Ring
34
Notes:
Topology
RM
SRM1
Basis-Ring
SRM2
Sub-Ring 1
SRM2
SRM1
Sub-Ring 2
35
Notes:
Topology
SubRing SubRing
RM
SRM
Basis-Ring
SubRing
Sub-Ring
SRM
SubRing
SubRing
36
Notes:
Topology
RM
SRM
Basis Ring
SRM SRM
Sub Ring
SRM
Sub Ring
37
Notes:
Topology
RM SRM SRM
Basis-Ring
SRM SRM
38
Notes:
Topology
RM
Basis-Ring
SRM SRM
39
Notes:
Restriction
Max. SRM instances:
Devices:
05.0.00 RSR, MACH1000 05.1.00 MACH1000GE, MACH4002xgL3P 06.0.00 PowerMICE, MACH4002
40
Notes:
Fast HIPER Ring

Objective
Creation of resilient ring structure
41
Notes:
Fast HIPER Ring

Advantages
Predictable recovery times
10ms with 10 switches 40ms with 100 switches 60ms with 200 switches
Theoretical limit of 20,460 switches in a ring
Disadvantages
Proprietary Only tolerates a single fault
42
Notes:
Exercise: Redundancies
Redundancies
Backup port IEEE 802.3ad Logical link
Physical link
Bridge ID
Designated port 802.1D RSTP Port states Trunking
Root path costs
Root port Forwarding Discarding

Alternate port
43
Notes:
Solution: see annex of this presentation
Appendix
44
Notes:
Exercise: Spanning Tree

Switch 1
1 2
DP
3
Switch 2
1
RP
2 3
32768 00-80-63-04-05-01
4 5 6
32768 00-80-63-04-05-02
RP
Switch 5
1 2
DP
Switch 3
1
DP
00000 00-80-63-04-05-05
4 5 6 4
32768 00-80-63-04-05-03
Switch 4
1 2
RP DP
3
RP
32768 00-80-63-04-05-04
100 Mbit/s 10 Mbit/s
45
First define the Root Bridge. The switch with the lowest Bridge ID becomes Root. For manual configuration the Bridge Priority can be changed. At switch 5 the priority was set to 0, thus its Bridge ID is the lowest and it becomes Root. Backup Root is switch 1. Determine the Root Ports (RP) and the Designated Ports (DP) and mark the redundant links. The port with the lowest overall path costs to the Root (Root Path Cost) becomes Root Port (RP). Switch 1: Port 4 = Root Port Switch 2: Port 2 = Root Port Switch 3: Port 4 = Root Port Switch 4: Port 2 = Root Port
Notes:
Exercise solution: Redundancies

Redundancies
RSTP 802.1D Port states Root port Designated port Alternate port Backup port
Trunking IEEE 802.3ad Forwarding Discarding Physical link Logical link
Bridge ID Root path costs
46
Notes:
Traffic Control at Layer 2
CB1e_5_L2-TrafficControl.831
Content: Restricting Broadcasts Flow Control Quality of Service (IEEE 802.1D and Q) Prioritization Virtual LANs (VLAN)
Notes:
Restricting Broadcasts
Broadcasts
Broadcasts
Broadcasts
A switch operating on Physical and Data Link Layer only is transparent for higher-level protocols of the Network Layer (e.g. IP, IPX). Thus a broadcast generated by a Network Layer protocol is also sent as an Ethernet broadcast to all the stations in the LAN. To relieve the load on the LAN, there are a range of ways to restrict these broadcasts. The Broadcast Limiter enables the switch to send only a defined number of broadcasts per second at an output port. The remaining broadcasts are discarded. The local network can be subdivided into so-called virtual LANs (VLANs). By this technique a broadcast is no longer distributed across the entire LAN, but only in the virtual LAN in which the broadcast was generated. The use of routers enables a local network to be split into multiple local networks. Alongside routing, the function of a router is also to forward no broadcasts to another network. The router will generate a new broadcast in a connected network as required. At each router port there is a so-called broadcast domain.
Notes:
Flow Control
A
90 %
to
130% to D
B
80%
20% to D
to D
% 20
85 %
to
130% to D
B
40%
5% to D
D
5%
to
If data is sent from multiple stations to one port, the port may be overloaded. As a consequence, data packets may be lost. The flow control mechanism in IEEE 802.3 (former .3x) prevents this by telling the next transmitting device (switch, hub, or the generating end device) in a line to wait for a certain time. In half-duplex mode this is activated by simulation of a collision. Caution: "Wandering backpressure" phenomenon which causes an undesirable affect to communications between nodes B and C.
Notes:
Ethernet Frame With Tag
Destination Source Address Address
ET PID
TCI
Type / Length
Data
FCS
With the success of Ethernet in local networks, data volumes in those networks have also increased substantially. As a result, two functions have been added to Ethernet. Firstly, the data packets can be assigned a priority; and secondly, a local network can now be subdivided into separate virtual networks. To accommodate the relevant information in the Ethernet frame, the frame was extended by 4 bytes by inserting the tag field between the source address and the type or length field. This causes the Ethernet frame to grow to a maximum size of 1522 bytes. The first two bytes contain the Tag Protocol Identifier ETPID (81-00 hex). The recipient signals that the Ethernet frame has been extended by the tag field. The next two bytes are termed Tag Control Information (TCI). Priority (3 bit): 8 priority classes CFI (1 bit): Canonical Format Indicator CFI signals whether the addresses are transmitted in canonical (=1; e.g. Token ring) or non-canonical (=0; e.g. Ethernet) format. VLAN-ID (12 bit): marks definite the assigned VLAN; max. 4094 0 = no VLAN defined 4095 = reserved for future use
Notes:
Quality of Service (IEEE 802.1D and Q)

Type of Traffic Background free Best-Effort Excellent-Effort Controlled-Load Video Voice Network control Acr BK BE EE CL VI VO NC user_prio 1 2 0 (default) 3 4 5 6 7
high
Attention:
Priority 0 is higher than priority 1 and 2!
As a result of the tag field being added to the Ethernet frame, the frames can be assigned one of 8 priority levels. In this, high-priority data should be prioritized ahead of low-priority data. For this the switches must have at least two so-called queues. Depending on priority, the frames received at a port are distributed across different queues. By special access methods the queues are worked through according to the priorities. The names of the priorities are pre-defined by the standard. This gives a hint what should be how prioritized. Please note that the priority 0 is sorted in between 2 and 3. Thus a frame is already treated with a certain priority by default (0).
Notes:
QoS: Assigning Priority to Queue

Default configuration in practice:
Avail. queues user_prio 1 2 0 (default) 3 4 5 6 7 2 4 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 1 2 1 3
high
Queues are named as Traffic Classes by the standard. The smaller the ID of a queue the lower the priority of it. In practice either no. 2, 4 or 8 queues are available, while the standard offers the possibility to implement e.g. 5. Example: A packet with priority 3 joins queue 1 of 4 available queues
Notes:
QoS: Concepts to arbitrate Queues

Priority-Scheduling (Starve or Strict) Round-Robin-Scheduling Weighted-Fair-Queuing WFQ
Maintenance Voice Supervision
Control
Control Supervision Voice Maintenance

Priority 6 5 3 1
Priority-Scheduling (Starve or Strict) Queues arbitrated according to priority Disadvantage: high-priority queues can block low-prioritized ones, no transmission guarantee possible Round-Robin-Scheduling Frequency of access (bandwidth) respective of priority, e.g.: Prio 7: 50 %, Prio 6: 20 %, Prio 5: 10 %, ... Weighted-Fair-Queuing WFQ bandwidth division with additional consideration of frame length
Notes:
Exercise
Using an analyser, you capture a frame with the Tag value: 81:00:a0:36 (Hex-Code) What does this Tag mean? ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________
Notes:
Solution: Prio 5, VLAN 54
Physical LAN
Notes:
Virtual LANs
10
Definition of a VLAN Connection of data terminal equipment to closed, logical LANs within a physical infrastructure with the aim of broadcasts limitation Nowadays VLANs are more used for security aims than for broadcast limitation. Nevertheless can be broadcast limitation a point of industry networks. To make it absolutly clear: VLANs offer only low security, also with proprietary solutions such as Ciscos private VLAN. If overlapping groups are used - what this is youll see later - then this might be an advantage for end devices, but not for centrally connected servers and other components, because these receive (have to) the broadcasts of all the groups. VLANs are defined in the standards IEEE 802.1D (Bridging), .1Q (port based) and .1v (Layer 3 protocol based).
Notes:
Multiple VLANs per Switch

HIRSCHMANN HIRSCHMANN
11
Notes:
Management VLAN
HIRSCHMANN HIRSCHMANN
12
Notes:
Different VLANs
VLANs layer 1: port-based (IEEE 802.1Q) VLANs layer 3: protocol based (IEEE 802.1v)
13
Today's switches usually offer port-based VLANs according to standard. L3 VLANs - even with a standard - are rarely used, because routing is more attractive after its now reasonably priced. L3 VLANs protocol based distinguish between the protocols, e.g. IP, IPX, ... and limit each to its VLAN L2 (MAC address based) and L4 VLANs - even interesting by their idea - are not demanded. Combined VLANs are not used anymore due to their complexity in programming and troubleshooting. Therefore you learn now about L1 VLANs. Information about the others youll find in the appendix.
Notes:
11
VLANs Layer 1 (Port Based)
14
Advantages: very easy to configure protocol independent best performance low cost solution
Notes:
VLANs Layer 1 (Port Based)
15
By tagging the next switch can assign the packets to the respective VLANs (ports). Without tagging one needs for every VLAN a specific connection between the switches.
Notes:
VLANs: Tagging
1 2 3 4 5 6
VLAN2 Switch 1 Ingress Station A B C D Uplink Port 1 2 3 4 5 6 PVID 2 2 N/A 3 3 N/A
VLAN3 Switch 1 Egress VID Port 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 U U M 3 U U M
16
Port based VLANs are standardized to IEEE 802.1Q. The configuration needed for this is restricted to the switches used. To divide a LAN into virtual LANs, two tables are needed: the Ingress and Egress tables. The Ingress table specifies what VLAN ID the frames arriving at a port are assigned. The Egress table specifies at which port frames can be sent with what VLAN ID (VID). The Egress table also specifies whether an Ethernet frame is to be sent with a tag field (M = tagged) or without (U = Untagged) at the port in question.
Notes:
VLANs: Tagging
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5
VLAN2
VLAN3
VLAN2
VLAN3
Switch 2 Ingress Station Port PVID Uplink 1 N/A E 2 2 F 3 2 G 4 3 H 5 3

Switch 2 Egress VID Port 1 2 3 4 5 2 M U U 3 M U U
17
Notes:
VLANs: Overlapping
1 2 3 4 5 6
B VLAN4
VLAN2
VLAN3 Switch 1
Switch 1 Ingress Station A B Server C D Uplink Port 1 2 3 4 5 6 PVID 2 2 4 3 3 N/A
Egress VID Port 1 2 2 U U 3 4 U U
3 4 5 6 U U U U U U U
18
Shall devices from two VLANs have access to a server, you get mathematically spoken - a cut set like its shown in the slide. The device of the cut set belongs not to two VLANs! The cut set itself is a separate VLAN. This process is explained in the annex B1.3 of IEEE 802.1Q Below the mechanism is explained: 1. A packet of station A is received at port 1 and thus is marked by tag according to the ingress rules with Port-VLAN-ID 2. 2. The packet - now belonging to VLAN 2 - is forwarded according to the egress rules. Of course an entry in the FDB is taken into account before the final transmission at a port.
Notes:
GARP VLAN Registration Protocol
Switch 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
Switch 2 1 2 3 1 2
Switch 3 3 4 5
VLAN2
VLAN3
VLAN2
VLAN3
19
The GARP VLAN Registration Protocol, GVRP, is standardized in IEEE 802.1Q. GVRP transmits the VLAN information via the uplink port to automatically configure attached switches per multicast address 01:80:c2:00:00:21 The Generic Attribute Registration Protocol GARP is as general protocol standardized in IEEE 802.1D to propagate parameters between switches. Parameter (time values in centi-seconds): Join Time (default: 20 = 0,2 s) Leave Time (default: 60 = 0,6 s) LeaveAll Time (default: 1.000 = 10 s) Each parameter should be identical on all components of a network, to prevent oscillating effects. Situation: GVRP enabled at all switches 1. Switch 1 transmits at all ports a packet informing that it has connected ports in VLANs 2, and 3. 2. Switch 2 learns, configures port 1 to uplink and VLANs 2 and 3 in ingress/egress rules. 3. Switch 3 informs like switch 1 thus configuring port 3 of switch 2. A F (forbidden) in the Egress Table of a VLAN prevents that this VLAN is learned at that port, meaning that packets with this Tag are transmitted at the port.
Notes:
Exercise: VLAN
Switch 1 3 4 5
VLAN 3 VLAN 2 Switch 2 3 4 5
VLAN 2
VLAN 4
20
Construct the Ingress and Egress tables for the two switches in the above example.
Notes:
Appendix
21
Notes:
Solution VLAN Exercise

Switch 1 3 4 5
VLAN 3 VLAN 2 Switch 2 3 4 5
VLAN 2
VLAN 4
22
Construct the Ingress and Egress tables for the two switches in the above example. Switch 1: Ingress Port 1 2 3 4 5 6 VLAN ID 2 2 2 arbitrary 3 3 Egress VLAN ID 1 2 3 4 1 U 2 U 3 U 4 M M M 5 U 6 U -
Notes:
Switch 2: Port 1 2 3 4 5 6 VLAN ID arbitrary" 2 2 1 4 4 VLAN ID 1 2 3 4 1 M M M 2 U 3 U 4 5 U 6 U
Example Tagging
Printscreen with NetXRay:

8100 = ET-PID 2 = Prio 1 aab = VLAN 2731 2dez = 0010 001 = Prio 0 = Canonical Form.I.
23
Notes:
Network Management
CB1e_6_NM.831
Content: Exercise: Network Management What can you do with Network Management? Managers and Agents SNMP Messages Traps Relieve Network and Management Station Capacity Network Management Classification to ISP MIB Events in the network OPC
Notes:
Communication: Manager and Agents

NMS
AGENT MANAGER
MIB
MIB MIB
MP SN
MIB
AGENT
AGENT
Workstation
AGENT
MIB
Router
AGENT
Hub
Switch
MIB Management Information Base NMS Network Management Station SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
CB1e_6_NM.831
A network management system consists of 3 main components: Agent in network device collects data about status, performance and faults and provides this data to Network Management Station configures device Network Management Station NMS collects data from all agents using Polling receives alarm messages from agents central control and visualization of device states central configuration Simple Network Management Protocol SNMP for communication between Agents and NMS SNMPv1 does not use encryption and for example transmits the community (like password) in plain text SNMPv3 offers authentication. To access data of the agents the NMS needs to know their functionality, i.e. existing parameters and the way to address them. The parameters and their implementation are listed in the respective Management Information Base MIB. A NMS must know the MIBs of the agents. Usually an agent has several MIBs, some standardized, some private, which access a specific agent type of a manufacturer.
Notes:
SNMP Operations Agent

GET REQUEST GET NEXT REQUEST SET REQUEST
GET RESPONSE GET RESPONSE SNMPv1 GET RESPONSE TRAP
GET Bulk REQUEST
RESPONSE Inform REQUEST Report

3
RESPONSE Report
CB1e_6_NM.831
additionally at SNMPv2c
SNMP belongs to the TCP/IP protocol family and uses the connectionless protocol UDP. SNMP sends frames to the agents UDP port 161 and traps to the managers port 162. Information is regularly requested from the Agents by the Manager. This is done with Get Requests and is called Polling. If in the meantime a critical situation occurs the Agent can send an alarm message called Trap to the Manager. A GET REQUEST asks for a single parameter of an agent. With the GET NEXT REQUEST further information the next parameter value can be requested. A SET REQUEST of the manager changes a parameter value of the agent. The agent acknowledges it. Response is the answer of the agent to a request or a set command. (v1 till v3) In SNMPv1 this is called a Get Response. SNMPv2c provides an expanded command set: With the GET Bulk REQUEST multiple items of information can be requested in one packet. The Inform REQUEST is used to exchange information between two network management stations or as an acknowledged trap. The Report allows SNMP-compatible devices to communi-cate with each other. E.g. a station can transmit that during processing an incoming message an error occurred.
Notes:
Traps Relieve Network and Management Station Capacity
Load
Without traps: Time
Load
Traps
Special polling After trap
Regular polling
With traps: Time
Load
With gauges:
Traps
Time
CB1e_6_NM.831
Without traps All defined attributes of each agent must be regularly and frequently polled. With traps: The agent signals events immediately by alarms. ( Reduces polling to a minimum) Traps are sent to the management stations UDP port 162. With gauges: The agent itself monitors custom-configured threshold values. (No polling data, only traps) Please note: SNMP uses the connection-less transport protocol UDP. There is no supervision of the connection. Because a trap is not acknowledged information can get lost by interferences.
Notes:
Network Management Classification to ISO
Configuration management Performance management Error management Security management
Accounting management
CB1e_6_NM.831
Some functions cannot be sorted into one of these classes, thus additional classes are generated in practise or they are assigned to one of the mentioned ones.
Notes:
Solution: Detect and optimize net structures, detect and find bottlenecks, avoid interference and failures, manage investments right, shorten trouble-shooting, reduce costs and thus save money!
CB1e_6_NM.831
Name the key points for which network management is important.
Exercise: Network Management
Notes:
MIB 2 branch
1 iso 3 org 6 dod 1 internet 2 mgmt 1 system 2 interfaces 3 at 4 ip 5 icmp 10 transmission 7 Ethernet like ... 15 fddi 16 rmon
CB1e_6_NM.831
1 mib II
1 statistics 2 history
7
A lot functions are standardized and thus offered by public MIBs. The MIB 2 is the most important public MIB offering RMON for Remote MONitoring, i.e. troubleshooting by analyzing received packets. Manufacturer specific functions are defined in private MIBs. A MIB is noted in ASN.1 (Abstract Syntax Notation.One) and thus readable in plain text. Usually each MIB object offers also a detailed description. Each managed object has as address for access: the Object ID OID and the Object Description, a reversibly unambiguous name.
Notes:
RMON MIB RFC 1757

Group
1 statistics 2 history 3 alarm 4 host 5 host TopN 6 matrix 7 filter 8 packetcap 9 event
Meaning
Network statistics counter time interval monitoring threshold monitoring Host supervising Top N of Host table traffic relations defined frames trigger event store defined frames triggering and logging of defined events
CB1e_6_NM.831
9 RMON groups exist For network components the groups 1-3 and 9 are important, the others are for analyzer Some devices support only RMON 1 or RMON 1 and 2. Thus they dont support alarms! Group 3 needs group 9 and vice-versa.
Notes:
RMON Statistics Counters

etherStatsDropEvents etherStatsOctets: counted bytes etherStatsPkts: counted packets etherStatsBroadcastPkts: counted broadcasts etherStatsMulticastPkts: counted multicasts etherStatsCRCAlignErrors: counted CRC and alignment faults etherStatsUndersizePkts: packets smaller than 64 bytes etherStatsOversizePkts: packets larger than 1518 bytes etherStatsFragments: short frames with ALE/FCS error, etherStatsJabbers, etherStatsCollisions, etherStatsPkts64Octets, etherStatsPkts65to127Octets, etherStatsPkts128to255Octets, etherStatsPkts256to511Octets, etherStatsPkts512to1023Octets, etherStatsPkts1024to1518Octets
CB1e_6_NM.831
The name of managed objects must be unique. The consequence is a cryptic naming on first sight. DropEvents: number of events in which packets were dropped by the probe (agent or analyzer) due to lack of resources Attention: not number of packets dropped! Octets: all bytes received - of bad and good frames
Notes:
Question: How about counted unicasts? RMON statistics only include received values.
Answer: packets - BCs - MCs = UCs
Frame and Error on Layers 1 and 2
PA
7 5.6
SFD
1 0.8 0
DA
6 4.8 4.8
SA
6 4.8 9.6
T/L
2 1.6 11.2
Data
46 - 1500 36.8 - 1200
FCS
4 3.2 48 1211.2 Oct. s
51.2 - s 1214.4
SP
SHEV
RNT 8 - 56 s SF < 64 oct. after SFD IFG < 4.7 s
FRG
LC
0.7 - 8 s 0.02 - 0.7 s - 24 bits PL
56 - 1220 s > 1,229 ms
FCS
PF
CB1e_6_NM.831
10
The time values given in the slide are based on 10 Mbit/s. At 100 Mbit/s the dot must be moved one digit to the left. If an event is registered counted as spike (SP), short event (SHEV), runt (RNT), fragment (FRG) or long carrier (LC) only depends on its length and that its not detected as a damaged frame. Between two packets there must be a gap Inter Frame Gap or Inter Packet Gap of 12 byte.
Notes:
LLDP Link Layer Discovery Protocol (IEEE 802.1AB)
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LLDP is a protocol on LLC layer (2b). Information exchange among neighbors and NMS Chassis ID Port ID TTL Optional information elements Optional for end devices, switches, etc. Each device transmits every 30 s its info on all its LLDP enabled ports. A LLDP packet is labeled by its type field info 88:CC and multicast destination address 01:80:C2:00:00:0E.
Notes:
Exercise Network Management 2 (optional)

Check the statistics of your computer with DOS command netstat-es. Configure the switch port your computer is connected to FDX. What will happen? Your computer: _____________________________________ Switch port: ________________________________________ Produce network load and afterwards check the event counters! What do you recognize? __________________________________________ __________________________________________
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Notes:
Solutions: a) netstat s displays statistics of the TCP/IP-Stacks, but not the one of Ethernet. b) End device (autonegotiation) configures itself automatically to HDX and to the same speed like the switch port. At high network load at the FDX port CRC errors occur while at the HDX device Late Collisions will be detected.
SNMP and OPC
SNMP Management (HiVision) SNMP SNMP SNMP
SNMP
SNMP/OPC OPC OPC Gateway Server (HiControl)
Visualization System (SCADA) OPC Client OPC OPC
SNMP SNMP SNMP Agent Agent Agent (RS20) (MACH) (...)
OPC OPC Server Server (Actuator) (Sensor)
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In the area of fieldbusses the communication between systems and control room with its SCADA system usually is done by OPC. Openness Productivity and Connectivity, former named OLE for Process Control, offers a simple possibility to embed parameters of devices into software. The difficulty doing this is that OPC is based on OLE (DCOM) and thus on the Microsoft world. Many controllers and SCADA systems, based on LINUX or UNIX therefore offer own solutions. OPC server (s. SNMP agents) provide information for an OPC client. Its normal that several OPC clients access simultaneously one OPC server. Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition offers a slightly different monitoring and control. At SCADA its normal to influence devices during operation while in data networks intervention is usually only in case of a failure observed. Hirschmann has implemented OPC servers into their SNMP management shells supporting a SCADA system with status information and traps via tags.
Notes:
OPC Functions
OPC DA - Data Access
Similar to SNMP polling
OPC A & E - Alarm and Events

Similar to SNMP Traps
OPC DX - Data Exchange

Gateway
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Controllers originally talk their own language, like EtherNet/IP, PROFInet, etc. The idea of OPC was to develop a common second language supported by all. Because no manufacturer went to support OPC they do as less as possible not to be compatible with competitors devices and thus not to be replacable. Currently only Iconics support A&E, because this is not important according to the view of SCADA users. All devices constantly are polled, thus a status change will be recognized soon. OPC DX is relatively new, a software gateway between noncompatible devices, e.g. between a Rockwell PLC and a Mitsubishi PLC. OPC is based on Microsofts COM/DCOM. With OPC-UA, OPC Unified Architecture, the successor based on XML already is available. OPC-UA merges the single OPC functions. Also OPC-UA is independent of OLE and thus of Microsoft. As a result OPC-UA can be supported by Linux systems.
Notes:
Typical Tags
Digital I/O Analogue I/O Message I/O Calculations / Process Variables Timers Statistical control functions / Exceptions Alarms
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A tag can be compared to a Managed Object of SNMP. But with a focus on a good readability of the names. In comparison to SNMP OPC offers the possibility to calculate new parameter by old ones. This offers a large flexibility. The protocol under OPC is DCOM, which runs under Windows only. A difficulty is the communication across firewalls, for which special tunneling SW is offered.
Notes:
Appendix
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Notes:
SNMPv3
Framework modular concept Security
User Security Model USM Authentication with MD5 or SHA-1 Encryption with CBC-DES View-based Access Control ModelVACM
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With SNMPv2 new 64 bit counter were introduced and the frame format was changed slightly. SNMPv2 wasnt used widely because of the missing security functionality. SNMPv3 introduced security functions to protect against Manipulation of information Replay Spoofing Sniffing privacy integrity
Notes:
Fault Causes possible reason Display

ALE CD CDLA CDLO CDSH CRC FRG IFG LC LL/S PL RNT SF SHEV
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Alignment Error Collision Detection Collision Detection Late Collision Detection Long Collision Detection Short Cyclic Redundancy Check Error Fragment Inter Frame Gap Error Long Carrier Low Light / Segmentation Preamble Loss Runt Short Frame Short Event / Spike
18
This table is based on experience. Today one of the most frequent faults you find in the last column. In today's switched networks on layer 1 dominate at simple problems EMI, autonegotiation, jitter. The most frequent fault is the combination HDX with FDX due to Autonegotiation/Parallel Detection, where at the FDX side unusual many CRC/ALE errors are detected. The HDX port counts between the usual looking CDs a lot of CD-LA (not a RMON counter). Collision Short: Collision shorter than Jam size. After detection of a collision both stations must transmit at least 32 BT before interrupting transmission.
Regular collision product Faulty LAN Controller / Transceiver Faulty Repeater / Starcouppler Too many Repeater Network diameter too large EMI - ElectroMagnetic interference Hubcascading to many Jitter / Wiring weaknesses Autonegotiation problem x x x x x x x x x x x (x) x x x x x x x x (x) x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x (x) x x x x x x x
Notes:
Acronyms
ASN.1 CRC FCS HTTP IAB ICMP IEEE IETF IFG IP ISO MAC Abstract Syntax Notation No. 1 Cyclic Redundancy Check Frame Check Sequence HyperText Transfer Protocol Internet Activity Board Internet Control Message Protocol Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Internet Engineering Task Force Inter Frame Gap Internet Protocol International Organization for Standardization Medium Access Control PDU RFC RMON SA SFD SNMP TFTP UDP MIB NMS OPC Management Information Base Network Management Station Openness, Productivity, Connectivity former: OLE for Process Control Protocol Data Unit Request For Comment Remote Monitoring Source Address Start Frame Delimiter Simple Network Management Protocol Trivial File Transfer Protocol User Datagram Protocol
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Notes:

Industrial Networking I

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Industrial Networking I

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Industrial Networking I

The Technical Fundamentals

1st day 2nd day

The Hirschmann Competence Center

Innovative Value Added Services around the Network Technology firsthand!

Consulting Planning Projects

Basics Product Introduction Workshops

Commissioning Hotline Maintenance Concepts

Technology Know-how Product Know-how

ISO/OSI Reference Model

Frame&Protection Bit transfer

Peer to Peer Communications

Data Link Physical

Data Link Physical

Exercise: True or false?

The Data Link Layer controls access to the media.

The Transport Layer provides safe data traffic.

The Application Layer ensures security and encryption.

Multimode vs. Singlemode Fiber-Optic Cable

Primary coating 250 m

LC Industry connectors for IP 67

Pin Assignment, RJ45 Connector

Patch and Crossover Cables

Patch cable 1:1

PoE - Power over Ethernet (IEEE 802.3af)

Exercise: Interfaces and Cables

Half-duplex and Full-duplex

Collision Domain CSMA/CD - IEEE 802.3 Access Method

Wait as per backoff strategy

Channel free? yes Send data and listen to channel No collision

32-bit jam signal (usually 5 MHz signal) detected

Data correctly transferred

Size of a Collision Domain at 10 MBit/s

Double line Mesh

Hubs Repeaters Star Couplers

Ethernet 10 Mbit/s Point to Point

Fast Ethernet: 100 Mbit/s

Gigabit Ethernet: 1000BASE-T

2nd wire pair

3rd wire pair

4th wire pair

Gigabit via Fiber: 1000BASE-SX, 1000BASE-LX

Fixed to FDX FLP

Fixed to HDX FLP

Auto 100Mbit/s HDX Auto 100Mbit/s FDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX

Auto 10Mbit/s HDX

Solution: Interfaces and Cables

Crossover MDI-X Patch

Patch 100Mbit/s HDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX Crossover (or Patch)

100Mbit/s FDX Auto 100Mbit/s HDX

Patch (or Corssover) 100Mbit/s HDX

Auto 10Mbit/s HDX

Crossover (or Patch) 10Mbit/s HDX

ETHERNET in OSI Reference Model

LAN CSMA/CD HIGHER LAYERS

Segment max. 185 m

Terminator 50 min. 0.5 m

Segment max. 500 m

Terminator 50 min. 2.5 m 30

Design of a Collision Domain Model 1: 5-4-3 Rule

Exercise: Maximum Network Size, Fast ETHERNET

Solution: 64 byte = 512 bit 10 ns/bit 2.56 s * 200,000 km/s = 512 m

Connection is not communication 3