1 lbooetlcs a branch of llngulsLlcs LhaL comprlses Lhe sLudy of Lhe sounds of human speech

orln Lhe case of slgn languagesLhe equlvalenL aspecLs of slgn

lboooloqy concerned wlLh Lhe absLracL grammaLlcal characLerlzaLlon of sysLems of sounds
or slgns
2 lbooemes a sound or a group of dlfferenL sounds percelved Lo have Lhe same funcLlon by
speakers of Lhe language or dlalecL ln quesLlon canL be replaced by each oLher (/k/ /k/
unasplraLed or krasplraLed)
Allopbooes one of a seL of mulLlple posslble spoken sounds (or phones) used Lo pronounce a
slngle phoneme expresslng one and Lhe same phonemes lor example pr (as ln pln) and p (as ln
spln) are allophones for Lhe phoneme /p/ ln Lhe Lngllsh language
3 vowels ClasslflcaLlon monophLhongs dlphLhongs (12 monophLhongs 7 shorL and 3
long 7 dlphLhongs 3 closlng and 2 (3) cenLrlng)
CharacLerlsLlc feaLures pronounced wlLh volce and shaplng Lhe llps wlLh an
open vocal LracL as opposed Lo consLanLs whlch are pronounced wlLh a closed LracL wlLh Lhe gloLLls
(h) Lhe Longue by lLself agalnsL LeeLh sofL or hard palaLe or wlLh llps buL noL always wlLh Lhe volce
4 5bott vowels When Lhere ls a slngle vowel ln a shorL word or syllable Lhe vowel usually makes a
shorL sound 1hese shorL vowels usually appear aL Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe word or beLween Lwo
consonanLs
3 looq vowels When a shorL word or syllable ends wlLh a vowelconsonanL e comblnaLlon (ake)
Lhe vowel ls usually long and Lhe e aL Lhe end of Lhe word ls sllenL (Lhls rule does noL apply ln all
cases) C8 When a word or syllable has a slngle vowel and Lhe vowel appears aL Lhe end of Lhe word
or syllable Lhe vowel usually makes Lhe long sound Lxamples are no he go
6 ulpbtbooqs sounds whlch conslsL of a movemenL or gllde from one vowel Lo anoLher
Accordlng Lo !C Wells a dlphLhong ls a complex vowel a sequence of Lwo vowel quallLles wlLhln a
slngle syllable
1he Longue moves durlng Lhe pronunclaLlon of Lhe vowel
ln closlng dlphLhongs Lhe second elemenL ls more close Lhan Lhe flrsL A cenLerlng dlphLhong ls one
LhaL beglns wlLh a more perlpheral vowel and ends wlLh a more cenLral one
ClasslflcaLlon Closlng dlphLhongs endlng ln r er ar rr
Closlng dlphLhongs endlng ln ar rr
CenLrlng dlphLhongs endlng ln r er rr
ulphLhongs + r ttlpbtbooqs err arr arr rrr
7 coosoooots arLlculaLlons lnvolvlng Lhe obsLrucLlon or narrowlng whlch produce acousLlcally a
nolse componenL 1here are aL leasL 24 consonanLs ln some of Lhelr reallsaLlons
ClasslflcaLlon volclng vlbraLlon or lack of vlbraLlon of Lhe vocal folds
lace of ArLlculaLlon Lhe polnL aL whlch Lhe alr sLream ls mosL resLrlcLed
Llps 8llablal consonanLs /p b m w/ pronounced wlLh Lhe llps LogeLher
Llps and LeeLh LablodenLal consonanLs /f v/ arLlculaLed wlLh Lhe lower llp and Lhe upper LeeLh
1eeLh lnLerdenLal consonanLs /0 / Lhe Llp of Lhe Longue ls placed beLween Lhe upper and lower
fronL LeeLh
Alveolar rldge Alveolar consonanLs /L d s z n l/ pronounced wlLh Lhe Longue near or Louchlng Lhe
alveolar rldge [usL behlnd Lhe Lop LeeLh
CenLral palaLe (or hard palaLe) alaLal consonanLs / r r r Lr dr y/ arLlculaLed wlLh Lhe body of Lhe
Longue ralsed agalnsL Lhe hard palaLe
velum (or sofL palaLe) velar consonanLs /k g q/ pronounced wlLh Lhe Longue near or Louchlng Lhe
velum or sofLpalaLe"
Manner of ArLlculaLlon WhaL happens Lo Lhe movlng column of alr
loslves frlcaLlves affrlcaLes nasals approxlmanLs laLeral
8 lloslves pLkbdg Cne arLlculaLor ls moved agalnsL anoLher so as Lo form a sLrlcLure LhaL allows
no alr Lo escape from Lhe vocal LracL 1he sLrlcLure ls Lhen LoLal AfLer Lhe sLrlcLure has been formed
lL ls released Lhe alr ls allowed Lo escape When Lhe ploslve ls released Lhe escape of alr wlll produce
a nolse loud enough Lo be heard 1hls nolse ls called ploslon a bursL of nolse
4 phases ln Lhe producLlon of ploslves
1) Lhe flrsL Lhe arLlculaLor or arLlculaLors move Lo form Lhe sLrlcLure for Lhe ploslve closure phase
2) Lhe second Lhe compressed alr ls sLopped from escaplng hold phase
3) Lhe Lhlrd Lhe arLlculaLors used Lo form Lhe sLrlcLure are moved so as Lo allow alr Lo escape
release phase
4) Lhe fourLh whaL happens lmmedlaLely afLer Lhe Lhlrd phase posLrelease phase
lace of arLlculaLlon
8lLA8lAL ALvLCLA8 vLLA8

vClCLLLSS lC81lS p L k


vClCLu LLnlS b d g

p and b
p and b are bllablal ploslve consonanLs
1he sofL palaLe ls ralsed Lhe llps are sllghLly spread formlng a closure Lung alr ls pressed behlnd Lhe
closure durlng whlch perlod Lhe vocal folds are held wlde aparL for p buL vlbraLe for all parL of Lhe
compresslon sLage for b
ln Lhe posLrelease phase for p alr escapes Lhrough Lhe vocal folds maklng a sound llke h asplraLlon
p ls volceless forLls b ls volced lenls
L and d
L and d are alveolar ploslve consonanLs L ls volceless forLls and d volced lenls
L ls also asplraLed
1he sofL palaLe ls ralsed A closure ls formed beLween Lhe Llp of Lhe Longue and Lhe alveolar rldge
1he alr ls compressed behlnd Lhe closure and when Lhe Llp of Lhe Longue ls qulckly removed from Lhe
alveolar rldge Lhe alr escapes wlLh a klnd of ploslon 1he vocal cords are wlde aparL for L and
vlbraLlng for d
k and g
k and g are velar ploslve consonanLs k ls asplraLed volceless forLls and g ls volced lenls
1he sofL palaLe ls ralsed 1he obsLacle for Lhe alr sLream ls formed by a closure made beLween Lhe
back of Lhe Longue and Lhe sofL palaLe velum Lung alr ls compressed behlnd Lhls closure durlng
whlch sLage Lhe vocal cords are wlde aparL for k buL vlbraLe for g When Lhe back parL of Lhe Longue
ls qulckly removed from Lhe sofL palaLe Lhe alr escapes wlLh a ploslon
9 ltlcotlves
lrlcaLlves are consonanLs wlLh Lhe characLerlsLlc LhaL when Lhey are produced Lhe alr escapes
Lhrough a small passage and makes a hlsslng sound
lace of arLlculaLlon
alveolar palaLo lablo denLal gloLLal
alveolar denLal
volceless forLls s r f 0
h
volced lenls z r v
1he forLls frlcaLlves are sald Lo be arLlculaLed wlLh greaLer force Lhan Lhe lenls ones and Lhelr frlcLlon
nolse ls louder lorLls frlcaLlves have Lhe effecL of shorLenlng Lhe precedlng vowel as do forLls
ploslves Lenls frlcaLlves Lend Lo be fully volced only when Lhey occur beLween volced sounds
/s/ and /z/ are alveolar frlcaLlve consonanLs
1he sofL palaLe ls ralsed and Lhe nasal resonaLor ls shuL off 1he Llp and blade of Lhe Longue make a
llghL conLacL wlLh Lhe alveolar rldge 1he slde rlms of Lhe Longue are ln a close conLacL wlLh Lhe upper
slde LeeLh formlng a shorL and narrow channel and causes frlcLlon beLween Lhe Longue and Lhe
alveolar rldge
/r/ and /r/ palaLoalveolar frlcaLlve consonanLs
1he place of arLlculaLlon ls parLly palaLal and parLly alveolar 1he Longue ls ln conLacL wlLh Lhe area
sllghLly furLher back Lhan LhaL for /s/ and /z/ 1he passage Lhrough whlch Lhe alr escapes ls sllghLly
wlder Llps are rounded
/f/ and /v/ are lablodenLal frlcaLlve consonanLs
1he sofL palaLe ls ralsed Lhe nasal resonaLor ls shuL off 1he lower llp makes a llghL conLacL wlLh Lhe
upper LeeLh formlng a flaL narrowlng 1he escaplng alr passes Lhrough Lhls narrowlng wlLh frlcLlon
lor /f/ Lhe frlcLlon ls volceless whereas Lhere may be some vocal cord vlbraLlon accompanlng /v/
accordlng Lo lLs poslLlon beLween volced sounds eg cover
/h/ ls a gloLLal frlcaLlve consonanL
1he place of arLlculaLlon ls gloLLls Lhe narrowlng LhaL produces Lhe frlcLlon nolse ls beLween Lhe
vocal cords
/h/ always has Lhe quallLy of Lhe vowel LhaL lL precedes
honeLlcally /h/ ls a volceless vowel wlLh Lhe quallLy of Lhe volced vowel LhaL follows lL
honologlcally lL ls a consonanL found before vowels
/0/ and // are denLal frlcaLlve consonanLs
1he Longue ls placed lnslde Lhe LeeLh wlLh Lhe Llp Louchlng Lhe lnslde of Lhe lower fronL LeeLh and Lhe
blade Louchlng Lhe lnslde of Lhe upper LeeLh1he alr escapes Lhrough Lhe gaps beLween Lhe Longue
and Lhe LeeLh /0/ ls volceless and forLls and //ls volced and lenls
10 Afftlcotes
r and r
AffrlcaLes begln as ploslves and end as frlcaLlves
1hey sLarL wlLh Lhe closure and hold phase of /L/ and /d/ buL lnsLead of a rapld release wlLh ploslon
and asplraLlon Lhe Longue moves Lo Lhe poslLlon of Lhe frlcaLlves /r/ and /r/
So Lhe ploslve ls followed lmmedlaLely by frlcaLlve nolse
n8! we would noL classlfy all sequences of ploslve + frlcaLlve as affrlcaLes eg k+f ln Lhe word
breakfasL ls noL an affrlcaLe
1he ploslve and frlcaLlve musL be homorganlc Lo be classlfled as affrlcaLes
r and r are palaLoalveolar affrlcaLe consonanLs
/r/ ls volceless and forLls and /r/ ls volced and lenls
11 Apptoxlmoots
/w/ and /[/ have also been called semlvowels 1wo arLlculaLors approach each oLher buL Lhe conLacL
ls noL made 1hey are phoneLlcally llke vowels and phonologlcally llke consonanLs 1he place of
arLlculaLlon ls pracLlcally Lhe same as LhaL of /u/ and /l/ 1hey are used as consonanLs
before vowel phonemes wlLh arLlcles a and Lhe /r/ eg Lhe way Lhe year
/w/ ls a bllablal approxlmanL consonanL
1he sofL palaLe ls ralsed 1he llps are rounded and sllghLly proLruded formlng a small narrowlng
whlle Lhe back of Lhe Longue ls ralsed Lowards Lhe sofL palaLe as for /u/ 1he phoneme ls very shorL
and weak 1he Longue and llps lmmedlaLely move away Lo Lhe poslLlon of Lhe followlng vowel
Avold conLacL beLween Lhe upper LeeLh and Lhe lower llp
ulsLlncLlon beLween /v/ and /w/
ulsLlncLlon beLween /u/ and /w/
llps move more qulckly Lhe openlng for alr passage ls smaller
/[/ ls a palaLal approxlmanL consonanL
1he sofL palaLe ls ralsed 1he mlddle of Lhe Longue ls held agalnsL Lhe hard palaLe aL abouL Lhe same
helghL as ln pronounclng Lhe vowel /l/ formlng a narrowlng for alr sLream 1he alr passes wlLh no
frlcLlon /[/ ls very shorL and weak
12 Nosols
1he baslc characLerlsLlc of nasal consonanLs ls LhaL Lhe alr escapes Lhrough Lhe nose
1he sofL palaLe ls lowered 1he alr cannoL pass Lhrough Lhe mouLh lL ls prevenLed by compleLe
closure ln Lhe mouLh aL some polnL
1he Lhree Lypes of closure are
8llablal m alveolar n velar q
/m/ bllablal nasal consonanL
1he sofL palaLe ls lowered 1he llps are sllghLly spread pressed LogeLher formlng a compleLe
obsLrucLlon Lo Lhe alr sLream Lhrough Lhe oral cavlLy 1he alr passes Lhrough Lhe nose 1he vocal
cords vlbraLe
/n/ alveolar nasal consonanL
1he sofL palaLe ls lowered Lhe Llp of Lhe Longue Louches Lhe alveolar rldge formlng a compleLe
obsLrucLlon Lo Lhe flow of alr Lhrough Lhe oral cavlLy 1he alr passes Lhrough Lhe nose 1he vocal
cords are vlbraLlng
/q/ velar nasal consonanL
A closure ls formed ln Lhe mouLh beLween Lhe back of Lhe Longue and Lhe velum as for /k/ and /g/
1he sofL palaLe ls lowered 1he vocal cords vlbraLe
13 lotetol
/l/ alveolar laLeral consonanL
1he sofL palaLe ls ralsed 1he Llp of Lhe Longue ls ln llghL conLacL wlLh Lhe alveolar rldge whlle Lhe
sldes of Lhe Longue are lowered formlng raLher wlde passages 1he alr escapes along Lhe sldes of Lhe
Longue ln Lngllsh Lhere ls less conLacL beLween Lhe Longue and Lhe alveoll
1he so called 'clear' /l/ ls used before vowels and /[/ eg llve laLe value
'dark' /l/ occurs before consonanLs and ln wordflnal poslLlon eg help almosL call
ln case of Lhe clear /l/ Lhe fronL parL of Lhe Longue ls ralsed ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe sofL palaLe ln case
of Lhe dark /l/ Lhe back parL of Lhe Longue ls ralsed
1he devolced /l/ followes sLressed asplraLed /p/ /k/ eg play clay
1he essenLlal feaLure of Lhe dark /l/ ls Lhe accompanylng dark resonance due Lo Lhe /r/
quallLy of Lhe sound ln Lhe words where Lhe lablal consonanLs precedes eg bubble people apple

? osL alveolar approxlmanL consonanL /r/
Conslderable dlfferences can be found ln Lhe pronunclaLlon of /r/ ln dlfferenL accenLs of Lngllsh
1here ls only one pronunclaLlon LhaL can be recommended Lo Lhe learners of 8 posL alveolar
approxlmanL
1he arLlculaLors approach each oLher buL do noL geL sufflclenLly close Lo each oLher Lo produce a
compleLe consonanL
1he Llp of Lhe Longue approaches Lhe alveolar area ln approxlmaLely Lhe way lL would for a /L/ or /d/
buL never acLually makes conLacL wlLh any parL of Lhe roof of Lhe mouLh aL any Llme 1he Longue ls
sllghLly curved backwards wlLh Lhe Llp ralsed
/r/ ls noL always pronounced ln 8
lL ls pronounced lf lL ls followed by a vowel
Lg red arrlve hearlng
lL ls noL pronounced aL Lhe end of words and when lL ls followed by a consonanL
Lg car ever here hard verse
AccenLs whlch have /r/ ln flnal poslLlons and before consonanLs are called rhoLlc
AccenLs ln whlch /r/ only occurs before vowels are called nonrhoLlc
When a word endlng wlLh Lhe leLLer r ls lmmedlaLely followed by a word beglnnlng wlLh a vowel
Lhen /r/ ls generally lnserLed ln Lhe pronunclaLlon llnklng /r/
SomeLlmes Lhe llnklng usage ls exLended Lo all /r/ /r/ /r/ endlngs lnLruslve /r/
Lg drama and muslc law and order

14 1ooe oolt
WrlLLen language vs spoken language words vs Lone unlLs
1one unlL boundarles colnclde wlLh Lhe boundarles beLween ma[or grammaLlcal unlLs egbeLween
phrases 1hey have meanlng A posslble break ln Lhe conLlnulLy of Lhe lnLonaLlon 1he change of plLch
beLween a sLressed and unsLressed syllable usually lndlcaLes a Lone unlL boundary
ALLlLudlnal funcLlon lnLonaLlon plLch placemenL Lempo volce quallLy lndlcaLlng aLLlLude or
emoLlons Lowards Lhe Loplc
AccenLual funcLlon lace of Lhe Lonlc syllable ln Lhe Lone unlL
13 ltomloeot ooJ toolc syllobles
Clvlng more accenLuaLlon welghLlng Lo one syllable relaLlve Lo anoLher ln Lhe same sLrlng ls whaL
whaL makes LhaL syllable promlnenL romlnenL syllables sLand ouL from Lhe oLher syllables ln Lhe
same sLrlng lf a syllable has a hlgher plLch/longer duraLlon or ls louder Lhan anoLher lL wlll be
promlnenL
1onlc syllable ls a syllable on whlch a ma[or change of Lone occurs 1he lasL promlnenL syllable ln Lhe
Lone unlL where Lhe Lone change beglns

Lach Lone unlL conLalns only one Lonlc syllable
Lach Lone unlL carrles one change of Lone
1onlc syllables musL have a hlgh degree of promlnence
1onlc syllables are syllables whlch carrles a Lone and also a Lype of sLress
1onlc syllables are also known as nucleus



Close Longue ls ln a hlgh poslLlon
Mldopen movemenL of Lhe Longue noL hlgh and noL low
Cpen Lounge ls ln a low poslLlon