Org. Geochem. Vol. 20, No. 6, pp. 747-758, 1993 Printed in Great Britain.

All rights reserved

0146-6380/93 $6.00+ 0.00 Copyright 1993PergamonPress Ltd

Application of colour image analysis in coal petrology

I~TRA DAVID and WILLEMJ. J. FERMONT Geological Survey of the Netherlands, P.O. Box 126, 6400 AC Heerlen, The Netherlands Abstract--The Olympus CUE-3 Colour Image Analysis System (CIAS) offers various processing and statistical functions for the analysis of two-dimensional images of a variety of materials, based on the colour characteristics and geometric properties of structural and textural elements. In this investigation the applicabilityof CIAS to coal petrology is described. Four high volatile bituminous coal samples from the Westphalian Coal Measures of well Kemperkoul-1 (The Netherlands) have been analysed using CIAS as well as conventional point count analysis. A statistical comparison of the results shows that CIAS is competitive to conventional coal petrological analysis. The reduction of processing time by 50% and the improvement of the repeatability suggests that CIAS deserves serious consideration as an efficient alternative to conventional maceral group analysis.

INTRODUCTION The determination of the relative abundance of macerals in coal is a fundamental activity of organic petrologists. Traditionally this determination has been performed by point count analysis (ICCP, 1963). Over the years, several automated microscope systems have been adapted for coal petrologic analysis. These systems can be divided into two general types. The first type is the photometric type, in which the reflected light intensity at a standard wavelength from a single point per field, or several points on a scan line, is measured and classified. Examples of this type are the systems used by the Nippon Steel Corporation (Kojima, 1976) and the U.S. Steel Corporation (Gray et al., 1979). The second type is the black and white image analysis system using a television or video camera. In this type the reflectance intensity of a coal surface is determined via grey level ranges of hundreds of thousands of points per field. Examples of this type of system are the Leitz T.A.S. (Texture Analysis System) (Zeiss, 1979; Riepe and Steller, 1984) and the Cambridge Quantimet System (Harris, 1974; Harris and DeRoos, 1979). A limitation of these methods is the reduction of the complex colour pattern of coal macerals into a one dimensional classification system, i.e. integrated intensity measurements of different grey levels. Yet it is well known that macerals are complex constituents of coal, showing a broad variation with respect to colour, textural and structural composition. The analysis of the maceral composition of coals by methods that do not consider these properties of macerals logically leads to results of restricted value. Moreover, most natural coals consist of a complex agglomeration of macerals and minerals. Both groups of constituents frequently differ con-

siderably in colour composition but may show similar grey levels. With the development of image analysis systems that are capable of processing multi-colour images, it has become possible to define more complex units, taking into account the colour composition of different objects. The colour composition of each maceral group can thus be defined by the intensity levels of three different colours, i.e. red, blue and green. In this publication the term grey level is restricted to black and white image analysis, whereas the term intensity levels is used for colour image analysis. This investigation presents the results of a joint project of the Geological Survey of The Netherlands and PAES OLYMPUS, The Netherlands, concerning the application of a Colour Image Analysis System (CIAS) in coal petrology in comparison to conventional quantitative optical methods. EQUIPMENT The instrument used in this study was an OLYMPUS CUE-3 Colour Image Analysis System equipped with a Sony CCD RGB ( R = r e d , G = green, B = blue) video camera, a Sony monitor (512 x 512 pixels) and an OLYMPUS BH-2 microscope equipped with a D-Plan 50 x oil immersion objective (OLYMPUS) and an eyepiece magnification x 10. The camera connected to the CUE-3 system is a Sony DXC-151P single chip colour camera, which is designed for the PAL colour system. It has a resolution of 440,000 effective picture elements. The camera converts the image information into an analog RGB signal. This signal of the scanned image is transmitted to the hardware of the CUE-3 using a PC-386/33 computer. The three signals (R, G, B) are digitized into three separate 512 x 512 x 8 bit image buffers. Each signal is converted into 256 intensity

747

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PETRA DAVIDand WILLEMJ. J. FERMONT

MICROSCOPE

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I VIDEO CAMERA I

grid of observations. After counting 500 points per sample, the volume percentage of each maceral group is calculated. COLOUR IMAGE ANALYSIS The colour of each maceral can be described as being composed of three basic colours with different intensity levels. Prior to the measurements the colour composition of each maceral group has to be defined via the intensity levels of red, blue and green. The threshold setting for each maceral group (i.e. determination of the upper and lower limits of the intensity levels of the three different colour components) is the most crucial step in optimizing colour image analysis. Only pixels whose RGB values fall within the thresholds specified for all three colours will be assigned to a specific maceral group. In Figs 2(a-c) the intensity ranges of red, green and blue for three distinct macerai specimens are illustrated. Figure 2(d) shows the grey levels of the same maceral species using black and white image analysis. The vertical axes show the number of pixels at each intensity and grey level. In Fig. 3(a) these threshold settings are visualized schematically for three distinct macerals (vitrinite, liptinite and inertinite) and a "red" mineral in a 3D diagram. The intensities of red, green and blue are plotted along the x-, y- and z-axes. The threshold settings of the macerals, which are derived from a realistic example show that there is no spatial overlap between the three groups. The position of a "red" mineral is also indicated in the diagram. The thresholds of the macerals and the mineral are different and the CIAS will separate pixels that fall within the thresholds of the red mineral. In Fig. 3(b) the same specimens are plotted along the one-dimensional axis of the black and white system. Here also, the macerals fall into three well separated groups of different intensities. However, the red mineral and vitrinite, which are clearly different in the 3D system [Fig. 3(a)], show a distinct overlap. This implies that they cannot be distinguished by means of black and white image analyses. For maceral groups the intensity ranges of each colour are broader than for individual maceral species. This might cause an overlap between the intensity ranges of different maceral groups in black and white image analysis as well as in colour image analysis. However, in colour image analysis the spatial overlap in the 3D subdivision of maceral groups is relatively reduced. The correct choice of thresholds must reduce this source of error, at least, to the same level as the identification limit of the human eye, to be successful.

INPUT FRAMEBUFFER OUTPUT

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Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the CUE-3 Colour Image Analysis System (CIAS). level values thus allowing the user to distinguish up to 16.7 million colours (256 red x 256 green x 256 blue). The digitized image, which is displayed on the Sony monitor, can be used for several types of analyses. The equipment is schematically shown in Fig. 1. The CUE-3 software is able to convert the RGB values transmitted from the camera into parameters commonly used in colourimetry. However, in this investigation we did not attempt to calibrate the system for absolute intensities or colours. This implies that the intensity levels of red, green and blue (as shown, for instance, in Figs 2 and 3) are only relative values. The factors determining the intensity levels, i.e. light source, diaphragm settings, filters, voltage, lenses, etc. were kept constant. PETROLOGIC ANALYSIS In coal petrology several different procedures have been published to estimate the volume fractions of macerals or maceral groups in coal. They are usually concerned with determinations made on polished particulate blocks using reflected white light. In this investigation the procedures of the International Standards Organization (ISO 7404/3, 1984) have been followed. A representative sample of coal is examined using a reflected light microscope, having an oil immersion objective of magnification x 50 and an eyepiece magnification of x 10. The eyepiece incorporates a fine cross graticule. The transport of the polished block is done via a mechanical stage (Swift point counter) by equal steps of such length that only one count per particle occurs. This is necessary to avoid grain size effects. Furthermore the whole sample has to be covered by a regular

Fig. 2. The distribution of the intensity levels of distinct specimens of liptinite, vitrinite and inertinite, (a) intensity levels of red, Co) intensity levels of green, (c) intensity levels of blue, (d) grey levels of the same specimens using black and white image analysis.

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Fig. 2. Caption on previous page. 749

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PETRA DAVID and WILLEM J, J. FERMONT

(a)

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Fig. 3. (a) Schematic 3D diagram of the RGB intensities of three distinct macerals (liptinite, vitrinite, inertinite) and a "red mineral", (b) grey levels of the same specimens plotted along a one dimensional axis, using black and white image analysis. Plate l(a) shows a normal microphoto of a polished coal. The CIAS recognizes the separate maceral groups as a result of the threshold setting for the three different maceral groups. The pixels which fall within the threshold limits of all three colours are overlain with black. In Plate l(b) the liptinites are black. In Plate l(c) the inertinites are black and in Plate l(d) the vitrinites are black. Variations in the threshold settings are directly visible in the image on the monitor. Broader threshold settings result in more pixels attributed to a specific maceral group and consequently to a larger area. During threshold setting, the operator can switch between the original image and the "thresholded image" and is thus able to optimize the threshold settings. This facility is of great help in specifying the optimal threshold settings of a maceral group. F o r the determination of the amount of each maceral group within a field a volume fraction analysis can be carried out. The volume fraction is the ratio of a specific phase in an image to the total image field. A phase is defined by all the objects whose pixel characteristics fall within the chosen thresholds of all three colours. The software of the CUE-3 is capable of measuring up to five percentage image fractions based on different colours. The total image (100%) represents 512 x 512 = 262,144 pixels with RGB information. This number is slightly reduced by the presence of an image frame. By defining the thresholds the user is able to discriminate several image components (e.g. vitrinite, liptinite and inertinite). The number of pixels separated by a certain threshold, divided by the total number of pixels (262,144), results in a percentage of the image covered by one phase.

Plate I. Recognition of the threshold settings by the CUE-3 Colour Image Analysis System. (a) A normal microphoto of polished coal. The CIAS recognizes the separate maceral groups as a result of threshold setting for the three different maceral groups. The pixels which fall within one threshold are overlain by black. (b) Liptinites are overlain by black, inertinites are yellow, vitrinites are red. (c) Inertinites are overlain by black, liptinites are yellow, vitrinites are green. (d) Vitrinites are overlain by black, liptinites are red, inertinites are yellow.

751

Application of colour image analysis in coal petrology

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

753

The aim of this investigation is to test the repeatability of CIAS using different numbers of fields measured on one polished particulate coal block. Furthermore, the reproducibility of CIAS in comparison to conventional point count analysis is investigated. For that purpose it was decided to start with the analyses of maceral groups by CIAS and point count analysis (PCA). Four high volatile bituminous coals from Westphalian Coal Measures in well Kemperkoul-1, The Netherlands, have been selected for this study. These are: Sample KPK-II KPK-V KPK-XI KPK-XXVIII Code 1 2 3 4 Rank (% Rm) 0.71 0.77 0.83 0.90

eral groups have been carried out using CUE-3. They have been based on different numbers of randomly chosen fields of the polished blocks. The size of one field was about 110 x 140 #m. The number of investigated fields on one polished block was 5, 10, 15 and 20, respectively. Each analysis was repeated four times. The thresholds were set by one operator for each sample based on the colour characteristics of the different maceral groups within the sample. In order to include the natural variation within the colour characteristics of maceral groups the final threshold setting had been adjusted using different randomly chosen images. The series of 5, 10, 15 and 20 analyses of each sample has been performed using the same thresholds but randomly chosen fields. Furthermore, four different operators, A, B, C and D counted the maceral group distribution of each polished block, following the procedures of the International Standards Organization (ISO 7404/3, 1984).
RESULTS

From these samples polished blocks of randomly oriented crushed grains, embedded in polymer binder, were prepared following the procedure given in the ISO 7404/2 (1984). Several autoroute volume fraction analyses of mac-

The results of the maceral group analyses of both CIAS and PCA of samples 1, 2, 3, and 4 are given in Tables l(a--d), respectively. The analyses performed

Table 1. Maceral group composition (a) sample 1, (b) sample 2, (c) sample 3, (d) sample 4 Vitr.
(a) CIAS 105 205 305 405 110 210 310 410 115 215 315 415 120 220 320 420 PCA A B C D 105 205 305 405 110 210 310 410 115 215 315 415 120 220 320 420 PCA A B C D 74.96 66.51 77.32 69.38 70.06 64.75 70.33 73.54 71.52 77.19 69.85 69.50 72.06 72.55 74.28 74.68 74.85 67.80 71.80 73.54 63.00 77.52 70.53 75.09 69.50 63.74 61.39 70.16 67.15 60.67 73.64 74.29 68.98 73.80 74.24 73.71 73.47 66.40 75.90 72.75

Lipt.
17.80 29.20 11.00 23.52 13.92 18.53 19.59 17.91 18.08 13.02 19.06 20.28 17.21 18.77 14.24 14.50 12.37 14.00 11.70 13.75 9.47 11.86 16.31 15.25 9.90 17.27 16.39 15.25 13.96 21.19 11.35 11.64 14.45 13.60 13.65 15.40 11.02 14.80 14.50 11.44

Incr.
7.24 4.30 11.68 7.10 16.02 16.72 10.09 8.56 10.40 9.79 11.09 10.23 10.73 8.68 11.48 10.82 12.78 18.20 16.50 12.71 27.53 10.61 13.17 9.67 20.60 18.99 22.22 14.59 18.89 18.14 15.01 14.08 16.57 13.32 12.11 10.89 15.51 18.80 9.60 16.31 PCA PCA (b) CIAS 105 205 305 405 110 210 310 410 115 215 315 415 120 220 320 420 A B C B 105 205 305 405 110 210 310 410 115 215 315 415 120 220 320 420 A B C D

Vitr.
87.16 79.49 84.86 92.53 73.32 84.6 82.99 85.10 79.83 74.76 74.22 74.32 74.02 76.19 75.71 76.24 77.17 70.84 78.70 74.79 77.91 68.90 82.87 85.89 76.12 81.70 69.51 85.35 73.70 80.20 74.55 78.00 76.17 75.94 74.05 74.80 77.22 75.20 76.50 77.45

Lipt.
3.43 17.71 11.41 4.66 18.10 8.92 13.65 8.39 13.00 13.44 16.33 19.72 16.92 13.70 14.45 13.84 15.86 18.14 12.60 15.21 14.87 10.70 13.20 7.07 2.18 9.90 13.14 8.18 6.87 10.83 10.85 11.29 11.82 15.47 12.90 13.13 9.88 9.10 11.20 6.89

Iner.
9.41 2.81 3.73 2.81 8.58 6.47 3.36 6.51 7.17 11.81 9.45 5.95 9.06 10.11 9.83 9.92 6.98 11.02 8.60 10.00 7.23 20.40 3.93 7.03 11.09 8.40 17.35 6.47 19.43 8.97 14.60 10.71 12.01 8.59 13.05 12.07 12.90 15.70 12.30 15.66

(c) CIAS

(d) CIAS

OG 20/6--J

754

PETRA DAVID and WILLEM J. J. FERMONT

on each sample via CIAS are given in a 3-digit code. The first digit gives the number of the analyses (1-4), the last two digits the number of fields that were analysed. The results of the point count analyses of the four operators, A, B, C, and D are shown in the lowest part of the tables. Frequency diagrams of the maceral group analyses for each sample are shown in Figs 4(a-d). In each of these figures the CIAS analytical results are shown in the four groups of bars on the left side, whereas the counts of the operators A, B, C and D are shown

in the group of bars on the right side. From this figure it is obvious that the variance of CIAS decreases significantly with an increase in the number of investigated fields. In Table 2 the means and the standard error of the true sample means (SE) are given for the analyses of different numbers of fields in each sample. The same data are given for the average results of the operators A, B, C, and D. In Figs 5(a-d) the standard error of the mean values (SE) of each maceral group analysis of

(a)

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INERTINITE

Fig. 4. Maceral group composition, (a) sample 1, (b) sample 2, (e) sample 3, (d) sample 4.

Application of colour image analysis in coal petrology Table 2. Meansand standarderror of the true samplemeans(SE)for the analysisof different numbers of fields,and for the averageresults of the operatorsfor (a) sample !, (b) sample
2, (c) sample 3, (d) sample 4

755

Vitrinite Mean SE
(a) CIAS 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 x 05 fields x 10 fields x 15 fields x 20 fields operators x 05 fields x 10 fields x 15 fields x 20 fields operators x 05 fields x 10 fields x 15 fields x 20 fields operators x 05 fields x 10 fields x 15 fields x 20 fields operators 72.04 69.87 72.01 73.39 72.00 86.01 81.50 75.78 75.54 75.38 71.53 66.20 68.94 72.50 72.00 78.89 78.32 76.61 75.24 76.59 2.48 1.82 1.78 0.64 1.53 2.70 2.77 1.35 0.52 1.71 3.19 2.16 3.19 1.20 2.02 3.72 3.43 1.51 0.50 0.51

Liptinite Mean SE
20.38 17.49 17.61 16.18 12.98 9.30 12.26 15.62 14.57 15.45 13.22 14.70 14.54 14.27 12.94 11.46 10.85 9.96 13.33 9.27 3.90 1.24 1.59 1.09 0.55 3.31 2.28 1.55 0.75 1.14 1.57 1.65 2.29 0.42 0.99 1.69 1.12 1.04 0.77 0.90

Inertinite Mean SE
7.58 12.85 10.38 10.43 15.05 4.69 6.23 8.59 9.73 9.15 15.24 19.10 16.53 13.22 15.06 9.65 10.83 13.43 11.43 14.14 1.53 2.06 0.27 0.60 1.37 1.59 1.08 1.29 0.23 0.88 4.16 1.64 1.17 1.22 1.95 3.66 2.37 2.32 0.98 0.90

PCA (b) CIAS

PCA (c) CIAS

PCA (d) CIAS

PCA

the samples 1 4 are compared. The left four bars represent the SE-values of CIAS with an increasing number of analysed fields from the left to the right. The right most bar represents the SE-values of the conventional maceral analysis performed by the 4 operators. From the figure it is clear that the SErange generally converges with an increasing number of measured fields. Although there are exceptions at 10 and 15 fields, for instance in the inertinite counts at 10 fields of sample 1, or the vitrinite counts at 15 fields of sample 3, the general pattern of decrease of the SE with an increase in the number of fields analysed is convincing. Moreover, at 20 measured fields the SE-values of CIAS have reached values generally lower than the SE-values of conventional maceral analysis.
DISCUSSION

individual component in two sets, divided by the total number of components identified. For instance, the mean variation V, calculated for the analysis of maceral groups is given by the summed variations Vv, VL and VI for vitrinite, liptinite and inertinite: V = (Vv + VL + VI)/3 (1)

A statistical evaluation of the results of two different approaches is not easy. Standard statistical procedure for coal petrological analyses lack a severe theoretical background and moreover, are not applicable to CIAS. The number of counts per sample and the statistical approaches for evaluating the results vary widely and are subject to debate. The International Committee for Coal Petrology (ICCP, 1963) proposed to count 500-1000 points per block. The accuracy of the analyses based on 500 points should be + 2-3% for each maceral or maceral group. To increase this accuracy to + 1%, at least 3000 points have to be counted. The American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM D 2799, 1980) suggests to count at least 1000 points on each of 2 or 3 blocks. The mean variation is calculated as the summation of the differences between the volume percentages of the

If the variation is less than 2%, the average of the results is reported. If not, a third set of at least 1000 points has to be counted and the results of the three sets of counts, are averaged, or, the two sets, which comprise the lowest mean variation are averaged. The "Deutsche Institut fiir Normung" (DIN 22020/3, 1986) proposed to count at least 500 points on a coal crushed to 1 mm. The results obtained are within the norm if the differences between two sets counted by the same operator are less than 3%. If these analyses are done by different operators, the differences have to be less than 4%. These procedures lack a statistical background, however. The International Standards Organization (ISO 7404/3, 1984) suggests to count a minimum of 500 points on a coal crushed to 1 mm. After counting 500 points per sample, the volume percentage of each maceral group is calculated, which is equal to the volume percentage of points counted. The repeatability of the determination of a component (i.e. the value of the difference between two single determinations each based on the same number of point counts carried out by the same operator on the same block using the same equipment) can be calculated from the equations (with a significance level of 95%):
2 X 2112O"t

(2)

756

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J. J. FERMONT

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Fig. 5. Standard error of the mean values (SE) for each maceral group analysis, (a) sample 1, (b) sample 2, (c) sample 3, (d) sample 4.

Application of colour image analysis in coal petrology Table 3. t-values of the maceral groups of each sample, based on 20 fieldanalyses using CIAS and the results of the PCA of the four operators, (a) sample 1, (b) sample 2, (c) sample 3, (d) sample 4 Maceral t-value Probability Maceral t-value Probability group 5% 1% group 5% 1% (a) vitrinite 0.84 (b) vitrinite 0.09 liptinite 2.64 + liptinite 0.53 inertinite 3.08 + inertinite 0.64 (c) vitrinite 0.21 (d) vitrinite 1.91 liptinite 1.24 liptinite 3.43 + inertinite 0.80 inertinite 2.04 f

757

where: a t = theoretical standard deviation, derived from the binomal distribution and at = [p(100 - p ) / N ] where: p = % of number of counts per component N = total number o f points counted. In practice, the repeatability in coal petrological analyses is frequently much worse than might be expected from the theoretical standard deviation. A p a r t from statistical variance, there are additional sources of error, for instance a poorly defined classification concept, maceral border problems, or poorly defined point count procedures. The reproducibility of the determination of the volume percentage of a component (i.e. the value of the difference between two single determinations, each based on the same number of point counts carried out by two different operators on two different subsamples taken from the same sample, using different equipment) can be calculated from the following equations (with a significance level of 95%): 2 x 2 ~/2 go where: tro = observed standard deviation and
1/2

(3)

calculating counting errors. This was also found by Bustin (1991). Using C I A S it was impossible to use any of the proposed statistical methods. To compare the results of C I A S and PCA, repeated analyses had to be executed with CIAS, as well as with PCA. The standard error of the true sample mean, which is another expression for the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the mean values, was used to express the quality of the investigations.
1

SE = ao/n~ where: go = observed standard deviation n = number of observations

(6)

In order to make the comparison between C I A S and P C A more transparent, the number of observations was fixed at 4 in all cases. The SE allows an estimation of the true sample means whatever method is used. In order to test the hypothesis that C I A S and P C A give equal estimates of the true sample means of the maceral groups, a t-test was performed. The results of a series of 20 fields observations were compared to the results of the PCA. The t-test applied here was calculated as:
t = I X c - XpI/[S2/N~ + S~/N2] ~/2

(4)
(7) where: X~ = Xp = S~ = S~ = N~ = mean maceral group percentage of C I A S mean maceral group percentage of P C A sample variance of C I A S sample variance of P C A N2=4.

ro = l E ( x , where:

xm)2/(n

l)l 1/2

(5)

x i = the score of analysis i of component x xm = mean of the % of counts per component x n = number of investigations. It has been found that the reproducibility varies from approx. 1.5 to 2.0 times the theoretical values depending on the rank and the heterogeneity of the coal. Even more than in the case for repeatability interpretations, the reproducibility is subject to sources of error linked to the investigators subjectivity. As can be seen above, the published standard procedures for maceral analyses which are used by most o f the organic petrographers do not provide adequate and statistically significant procedures for

The t-values of the maceral groups of each sample were tested at a 5% and a 1% probability level (p) (onesided, 4 degrees of freedom). The results are summarized in Table 3. The onesided significance levels for 4 degrees of freedom are 2.13 and 3.75 for p = 0.05 and p = 0.01, respectively. When tested at p = 0.05 only the liptinite and inertinite contents of sample 1 and the liptinite content of sample 4 show significant differences between the C I A S and P C A analyses. When tested at p = 0.01 there are no significant differences between the P C A and C I A S measurements of all maceral groups in all samples.

758

PETRA DAVID and WILLEMJ. J. FERMONT

These differences may be explained by misidentification either by CIAS or by the operators. Using CIAS some problems occurred with the discrimination of liptinite and binder at the low grey level scale. This problem can possibly be solved by colouring the binder. Also some misidentification between inertinite and pyrite at the high grey level range might have caused differences in the inertinite contents between CIAS and PCA. On the other hand, misidentification of the macerals by operators is another possibility. Taking into account that the SE values at 20 fields are generally lower than the SE values of the conventional point count analysis, it may be concluded that CIAS in this investigation provides better estimates of the true sample means of the maceral group fractions than PCA. CONCLUSIONS The results of this investigation indicate that CIAS is competitive to conventional point count analysis and can thus be considered as a useful method in coal petrological analysis. Furthermore, CIAS is time efficient. Conventional point count analysis based on 500 specimens needs some 40--60 min, depending on the experience of the operator and the complexity of the sample, The analysis by means of CIAS, based on 20 fields, is done in 15-20 min, including the setting of thresholds. This time can be reduced considerably when large sets of samples for similar threshold settings are investigated.
Acknowledgements--We wish to thank PAES OLYMPUS,

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The Netherlands for their financial and technical support. Advice and technical assistance by M. Eijsackers is grate-