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ISLAM HELMY ISLAM

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SUMMER TRAINING REPORT (or any other suitable title)

Scope The scope of this report is to present summer training. The training was in (company name) in the period from ?? to ??. (company name) is working on ??? field and my training was in (department name) department. So the report is interested on pumps, compressors and air conditioning. ==================================== SECTION 1: PUMPS

1.

Pumps Definition The pump is a device used to displace (move or transfer) fluids, such as liquids or slurries. It displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. The pump does not add a direct pressure to the fluid, the pump displaces the fluid and the fluid resistance to move or to compression causes the pressure. Pumps Types

2.

Pumps according to work theory fall into two major groups: Positive displacement pumps Positive displacement pumps can be further classified according to the mechanism used to move the fluid to: 2.1.1 Reciprocating Pumps 2.1.1.1 Piston pumps 2.1.1.2 Plunger pumps 2.1.1.3 Diaphragm pumps

2.1

2.1.2 2.1.2.1 2.1.2.2 2.1.2.3 2.1.2.4 2.1.2.5 2.1.2.6

Rotary Pumps Gear pumps Screw pumps Lobe pumps Van pumps Peristaltic pumps Rotary-Pistons pumps

2.2

Non-Positive displacement pumps Centrifugal pumps 2.2.1.1 Radial Flow pumps 2.2.1.2 Axial Flow pumps 2.2.1.3 Mixed Flow pumps The report will present in brief some of these pumps type. 3. Positive displacement pumps 2.2.1

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A positive displacement pump causes a fluid to move by trapping a fixed amount of it then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe. So the positive displacement pumps are constant flow machines. Reciprocating Pumps Piston Pumps and Plunger Pumps Piston pumps and plunger pumps are reciprocating pumps that use a plunger or piston to move media through a cylindrical chamber. The plunger or piston is actuated by a steam powered, pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric drive. Piston pumps and plunger pumps are also called well service pumps, high pressure pumps, or high viscosity pumps. Piston pumps and plunger pumps use a cylindrical mechanism to create a reciprocating motion along an axis, which then builds pressure in a cylinder or working barrel to force gas or fluid through the pump. The pressure in the chamber actuates the valves at both the suction and discharge points. Plunger pumps are used in applications that could range from 70 to 2070 bars. Piston pumps are used in lower pressure applications. The volume of the fluid discharged is equal to the area of the plunger or piston. The capacity of the piston pumps and plunger pumps can be calculated with the area of the piston or plunger, the number of pistons or plungers, the displacement of the stroke, and the speed of the drive. The power from the drive is proportional to the capacity of the pump. Seals are an integral part of piston pumps and plunger pumps to separate the power fluid from the media that is being pumped. A stuffing box or packing is used to seal the joint between the vessel where the media is transferred and the plunger or piston. A stuffing box may be composed of bushings, packing or seal rings, and a gland. Piston pumps and plunger pumps have a number of components that require the choice of materials based upon wear considerations and contact with the media type. Components may have a number of materials used including bronze, brass, steel, stainless steel, iron, nickel alloy, or other material. For example, piston pumps that function in general service or oil service applications may have an iron cylinder and piston with a steel piston rod. The plunger, discharge valves, and suction valves come in contact with the media type transferred; material choices should be considered based on the fluid transferred. In power applications where continuous duty piston pumps and plunger pumps are needed, solid ceramic plungers may be used when in contact with water and oil, but may not be the appropriate choice for use with highly acidic media types. The difference between piston pumps and plunger pumps as compared to rotary piston pumps is the actual mechanism used to transfer the fluid. The piston elements

3.1 3.1.1

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moving along an axis are called axial piston pumps. Rotary piston pumps typically have an internal rotating mechanism that moves the pistons.

Fig. 1

Piston Pumps

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3.1.2

Fig. 2 Diaphragm Pumps

Plunger Pumps

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it is a positive displacement pump that uses a combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber, thermoplastic or teflon diaphragm and suitable non-return check valves to pump a fluid. Sometimes this type of pump is also called a membrane pump. There are three main types of diaphragm pumps: Those where the diaphragm is sealed with one side in the fluid to be pumped, and the other in air or hydraulic fluid. The diaphragm is flexed, causing the volume of the pump chamber to increase and decrease. A pair of non-return check valves prevents reverse flow of the fluid. Those employing volumetric positive displacement where the prime mover of the diaphragm is electro-mechanical, working through a crank or geared motor drive. This method flexes the diaphragm through simple mechanical action, and one side of the diaphragm is open to air. Those employing one or more unsealed diaphragms with the fluid to be pumped on both sides. The diaphragm(s) again are flexed, causing the volume to change. When the volume of a chamber of either type of diaphragm pump is increased (the diaphragm moving up), the pressure decreases, and fluid is drawn into the chamber. When the chamber pressure later increases from decreased volume (the diaphragm moving down), the fluid previously drawn in is forced out. Finally, the diaphragm moving up once again draws fluid into the chamber, completing the cycle. This action is similar to that of the cylinder in an internal combustion engine.

Fig. 3a

Diaphragm Pumps

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Fig. 3b

Diaphragm Pumps

3.2 3.2.1

Rotary Pumps Gear Pumps This uses two meshed gears rotating in a closely fitted casing. Fluid is pumped around the outer periphery by being trapped in the tooth spaces. It does not travel back on the meshed part, since the teeth mesh closely in the centre. Widely used on car engine oil pumps. Gear pumps are positive displacement (or fixed displacement), meaning they pump a constant amount of fluid for each revolution. Some gear pumps are designed to function as either a motor or a pump. The gear pumps are classified into two main variations:1. External gear pumps which use two external spur gears. 2. Internal gear pumps which use an external and an internal spur gear. The theory of operation of the gear is; As the gears rotate they separate on the intake side of the pump, creating a void and suction which is filled by fluid. The fluid is carried by the gears to the discharge side of the pump, where the meshing of the gears displaces the fluid. The mechanical clearances are small in the order of 10 m. The tight clearances, along with the speed of rotation, effectively prevent the fluid from leaking backwards. The rigid design of the gears and housing allow for very high pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids.

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Many variations exist, including; helical and herringbone gear sets (instead of spur gears), lobe shaped rotors similar to Roots Blowers (commonly used as superchargers), and mechanical designs that allow the stacking of pumps. The most common variations are shown below (the drive gear is shown in blue and the idler is shown in purple).

External gear pump design for hydraulic power applications

Internal gear (Gerotor) pump design for automotive oil pumps Fig. 4 Gear Pumps

Internal gear (Gerotor) pump design for high viscosity

The gear pumps are generally used in: Petrochemicals; Pure or filled bitumen, pitch, diesel oil, crude oil, lube oil etc. Chemicals; Sodium silicate, acids, plastics, mixed chemicals, isocyanates etc. Paint and Ink. Resins and Adhesives. Pulp and Paper Industry; acid, soap, lye, black liquor, kaolin, lime, latex, sludge etc. Food Industries; Chocolate, cacao butter, fillers, sugar, vegetable fats and oils, molasses, animal food etc. 3.2.2 Screw Pumps The idea of the screw pump is generated from Archimedes' screw idea, the Archimedean screw or the screw pump is a machine historically used for transferring water from a low-lying body of water into irrigation ditches. It was one of several inventions and discoveries traditionally attributed to Archimedes in the 3rd. century BC.

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Fig. 5a

Archimedes' screw Pump

Screw pumps for power transmission systems are generally used only on submarines. Although low in efficiency and expensive, the screw pump is suitable for high pressures (3000 psi), and delivers fluid with little noise or pressure pulsation. Screw pumps are available in several different designs; however, they all operate in a similar manner.

Fig. 5b

Screw Pump

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Fig. 5c 3.2.3 Lobe Pumps

Screw Pump

This pump is based on two parallel rotors located within a shaped case. The rotors include a number of lobes these are arranged such that as the rotors are rotated they contain spaces which increase and reduce in volume. Fluid enters these spaces through the inlet connection and is trapped as the rotors rotate. The fluid is compressed and forced out of the discharge connection as the rotor continues to rotate. This pump is effectively a development of the external gear pump. The rotors are synchronised by external timing gears and therefore the internal contact between the lobes is a sealing contact and not a driving contact. The rotors need not actually contact. Various shapes of rotor are used, the tri-lobe rotor is probable the most popular. The lower the number of lobes the better the pump is for handling viscous and solids laden fluids. The rotor can be made from a wide selection of materials from exotic steel to synthetic rubber-with steel internal support. When soft rotors are used this type of pump can achieve high levels of volumetic efficiency.

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This type of pump includes for relatively low internal fluid velocities with low level of shear. The resulting flow includes some level of pulsation. The pump can run dry, subject to the design of the bearings and the pump is self priming especially if the rotors are wetted. As the pump has clean internal surface with few crevices the pump can be used for hygiene related applications. The pump can transfer fluid at flowrates up to 500 m3/hr (200 dia pump) and can deliver total heads of 20 bar.

Fig. 6 3.2.4 Vane Pumps

Lobe Pump

The vane pump includes a ring mounted inside a cylindrical case. The ring includes a number of radial slots in which are located sliding vanes. The ring is mounted eccentric to the case and the vanes are designed to press against the inside wall of the case. The vanes are forced against the wall by hydraulic pressure or spring force or due the centrifugal force resulting as the ring is rotated.

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The prime mover is use to rotate the ring and liquid flow into compartments between the vanes and the case inner circumference. As the ring rotates the liquid is trapped in the compartment and is then compressed and forced out through the discharge connection. The older designs of vane pump are based on an eccentric ring as described above. These are not hydraulically balanced and are thus limited in the hydraulic presssure which can be developed. More modern designs include for an elliptical inner ring which results in two pressure cycle per revolution. These pumps can develop much higher pressures at high rotational speeds. The vanes outer edges are subject to continuous wear and the vanes need to be replaced after periods of continuous use. Modern pumps are design for convenient maintenance by having the internal components design as cartidges. The hydraulic circuit based on these pumps should include a relief valve. This design of pump include a large number of mechanical parts related to its duty. In transfer duties these pumps can develop high suction heads. They are smooth operating and have higher efficiency compared to gear pumps. They can handle suspended non-abrasive solids. Certain designs can tolerate significant vane wear. (carbon vanes) This type of pump when pumping hydraulic oil can develop head of 200 barg.

Fig. 7

Vane Pump

3.2.5

Peristaltic Pumps

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A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made). A rotor with a number of "rollers", "shoes" or "wipers" attached to the external circumference compresses the flexible tube. As the rotor turns, the part of the tube under compression closes (or "occludes") thus forcing the fluid to be pumped to move through the tube. Additionally, as the tube opens to its natural state after the passing of the cam ("restitution") fluid flow is induced to the pump. This process is called peristalsis and is used in many biological systems such as the gastrointestinal tract.

4.

Fig. 8 Rotary peristaltic pump Non-Positive displacement pumps

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Rotodynamic pumps (or dynamic pumps) are a type of velocity pump in which kinetic energy is added to the fluid by increasing the flow velocity. This increase in energy is converted to a gain in potential energy (pressure) when the velocity is reduced prior to or as the flow exits the pump into the discharge pipe. This conversion of kinetic energy to pressure can be explained by the First law of thermodynamics or more specifically by Bernoulli's principle. Dynamic pumps can be further subdivided according to the means in which the velocity gain is achieved. These types of pumps have a number of characteristics: 1. Continuous energy 2. Conversion of added energy to increase in kinetic energy (increase in velocity) 3. Conversion of increased velocity (kinetic energy) to an increase in pressure head One practical difference between dynamic and positive displacement pumps is their ability to operate under closed valve conditions. Positive displacement pumps physically displace the fluid; hence closing a valve downstream of a positive displacement pump will result in a continual build up in pressure resulting in mechanical failure of either pipeline or pump. Dynamic pumps differ in that they can be safely operated under closed valve conditions (for short periods of time).

4.1

Centrifugal Pumps A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure and flow rate of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used to move liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing racially outward or axially into a diffuser or volute chamber, from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are typically used for large discharge through smaller head. Centrifugal pumps are most often associated with the radial flow type. However, the term "centrifugal pump" can be used to describe all impeller type rotodynamic pumps including the radial, axial and mixed flow variations.

4.1.1

Radial Flow Pumps Often simply referred to as centrifugal pumps. The fluid enters along the axial plane, is accelerated by the impeller and exits at right angles to the shaft (radially). Radial flow pumps operate at higher pressures and lower flow rates than axial and mixed flow pumps.

4.1.2

Axial Flow Pumps

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Axial flow pumps differ from radial flow in that the fluid enters and exits along the same direction parallel to the rotating shaft. The fluid is not accelerated but instead "lifted" by the action of the impeller. They may be likened to a propeller spinning in a length of tube. Axial flow pumps operate at much lower pressures and higher flow rates than radial flow pumps.

4.1.3

Mixed Flow Pumps Mixed flow pumps, as the name suggests, function as a compromise between radial and axial flow pumps, the fluid experiences both radial acceleration and lift and exits the impeller somewhere between 0-90 degrees from the axial direction. As a consequence mixed flow pumps operate at higher pressures than axial flow pumps while delivering higher discharges than radial flow pumps. The exit angle of the flow dictates the pressure head-discharge characteristic in relation to radial and mixed flow.

Fig. 7a

Centrifugal Pumps

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Fig. 7b

Centrifugal Pumps and Impeller Types Illustration

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SECTION 2: COMPRESSORS

1. Compressor Definition Compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids. 2. Compressors Types The three basic types of air compressors are: Rotary Centrifugal compressors Axial compressors Rotary screw Reciprocating compressors Rotary screw compressors These types are further specified by: the number of compression stages cooling method (air, water, oil) drive method (motor, engine, steam, other) lubrication (oil, Oil-Free where Oil Free means no lubricating oil contacts the compressed air) packaged or custom-built

2.1
2.2

2.3 2.4

Fig. 1 3. Centrifugal compressors

Compressors Classification

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The centrifugal air compressor is a dynamic compressor which depends on transfer of energy from a rotating impeller to the air. Sometimes referred to as radial compressors, are a special class of radial-flow workabsorbing turbomachinery that include pumps, fans, blowers and compressors. The earliest forms of these dynamic-turbo machines were pumps, fans and blowers. What differentiates these early turbo machines from compressors is that the working fluid can be considered incompressible, thus permitting accurate analysis through Bernoulli's equation. In contrast, modern centrifugal compressors are higher in speed and analysis must deal with compressible flow. For purposes of definition, centrifugal compressors often have density increases greater than 5 percent. Also, they often experience relative fluid velocities above Mach 0.3 when the working fluid is air or nitrogen. In contrast, fans or blowers are often considered to have density increases of less than 5 percent and peak relative fluid velocities below Mach 0.30.5. In an idealized sense, the dynamic compressor achieves a pressure rise by adding kineticenergy/velocity to a continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted to an increase in static pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser. Single-stage and two-stage reciprocating compressors are commercially available. Single-stage compressors are generally used for pressures in the range of 70 psig to 100 psig. Two-stage compressors are generally used for higher pressures in the range of 100 psig to 250 psig. Applications A partial list of centrifugal compressor applications includes: In pipeline transport of natural gas to move the gas from the production site to the consumer. In oil refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical and chemical plants. In air separation plants to manufacture purified end product gases. In refrigeration and air conditioner equipment refrigerant cycles: see Vaporcompression refrigeration. In industry and manufacturing to supply compressed air for all types of pneumatic tools. In gas turbines and auxiliary power units. In pressurized aircraft to provide atmospheric pressure at high altitudes. In automotive engine and diesel engine turbochargers and superchargers. In oil field re-injection of high pressure natural gas to improve oil recovery.

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Fig. 2

Centrifugal Compressors

4. Axial compressors are rotating, airfoil based compressors in which the working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation. This is in contrast with other rotating compressors such as centrifugal, axi-centrifugal and mixed-flow compressors where the air may enter axially but will have a significant radial component on exit.

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Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of compressed gas, and have the benefits of high efficiencies and large mass flow capacity, particularly in relation to their cross-section. They do, however, require several rows of airfoils to achieve large pressure rises making them complex and expensive relative to other designs (e.g. centrifugal compressor). Axial compressors are widely used in gas turbines, such as jet engines, high speed ship engines, and small scale power stations. They are also used in industrial applications such as large volume air separation plants, blast furnace air, fluid catalytic cracking air, and propane dehydrogenation. Axial compressors, known as superchargers, have also been used to boost the power of automotive reciprocating engines by compressing the intake air, though these are very rare.

Fig. 3

Axial Compressors

5. Reciprocating compressors Reciprocating compressors or a piston compressor is a positive-displacement compressor that uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications

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and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors well over 1,000 hp (750 kW) are commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>18000 psi or 180 MPa). In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, and more costly than comparable rotary units. Another type of reciprocating compressor is the swash plate compressor, which uses pistons which are moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft. Household, home workshop, and smaller job site compressors are typically reciprocating compressors 1 1/2 hp or less with an attached receiver tank. The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder where it gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is then discharged. We can categorize reciprocating compressors into many types and for many applications. Primarily, it is used in a great many industries, including oil refineries, gas pipelines, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants and refrigeration plants. One specialty application is the blowing of plastic bottles made of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET).

Fig. 4a

Reciprocating Compressors Working procedure

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Fig. 4b 6. Rotary Screw Compressors

Reciprocating Compressors

Rotary air compressors are positive displacement compressors. The most common rotary air compressor is the single stage helical or spiral lobe oil flooded screw air compressor. These compressors consist of two rotors within a casing where the rotors compress the air internally. There are no valves. These units are basically oil cooled (with air cooled or water cooled oil coolers) where the oil seals the internal clearances. Since the cooling takes place right inside the compressor, the working parts never experience extreme operating temperatures. The rotary compressor, therefore, is a continuous duty, air cooled or water cooled compressor package. Rotary screw air compressors are easy to maintain and operate. Capacity control for these compressors is accomplished by variable speed and variable compressor displacement. For the latter control technique, a slide valve is positioned in the casing. As the compressor capacity is reduced, the slide valve opens, bypassing a portion of the compressed air back to the suction. Advantages of the rotary screw compressor include smooth, pulse-free air output in a compact size with high output volume over a long life. The oil free rotary screw air compressor utilizes specially designed air ends to compress air without oil in the compression chamber yielding true oil free air. Oil free rotary screw air compressors are available air cooled and water cooled and provides the same flexibility as oil flooded rotaries when oil free air is required.

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Fig. 5 Rotary Screw Compressors SECTION 3: AIR CONDITIONING

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1. Air Conditioning Definition Air conditioning is the dehumidification of indoor air for thermal comfort. In a broader sense, the term can refer to any form of cooling, heating, ventilation, or disinfection that modifies the condition of air. An air conditioner (often referred to as AC or air con.) is an appliance, system, or machine designed to stabilize the air temperature and humidity within an area (used for cooling as well as heating depending on the air properties at a given time), typically using a refrigeration cycle but sometimes using evaporation, commonly for comfort cooling in buildings and motor vehicles. The concept of air conditioning is known to have been applied in Ancient Rome, where aqueduct water was circulated through the walls of certain houses to cool them. Similar techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season. Modern air conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the 19th century, and the first large-scale electrical air conditioning was invented and used in 1902 by Willis Havilland Carrier.

Fig. 1

Cisterns and Wind Tower in Medieval Persia

Air conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into comfort and process applications.

2. Comfort Applications
Comfort applications aim to provide a building indoor environment that remains relatively constant in a range preferred by humans despite changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads. Air conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible, for otherwise they'd have to be built narrower or with light wells so that inner spaces receive sufficient outdoor air via natural ventilation. Air conditioning also allows buildings to be taller since wind speed increases

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significantly with altitude making natural ventilation impractical for very tall buildings. Comfort applications for various building types are quite different and may be categorized as: Low-Rise Residential buildings, including single family houses, duplexes, and small apartment buildings High-Rise Residential buildings, such as tall dormitories and apartment blocks Commercial buildings, which are built for commerce, including offices, malls, shopping centers, restaurants, etc. Institutional buildings, which includes hospitals, governmental, academic, and so on. Industrial spaces where thermal comfort of workers is desired. In addition to buildings, air conditioning can be used for many types of transportation motor-cars and other land vehicles, trains, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft.

3. Process applications Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for a process being carried out, regardless of internal heat and humidity loads and external weather conditions. Although often in the comfort range, it is the needs of the process that determine conditions, not human preference. Process applications include these: Hospital operating theatres, in which air is filtered to high levels to reduce infection risk and the humidity controlled to limit patient dehydration. Although temperatures are often in the comfort range, some specialist procedures such as open heart surgery require low temperatures (about 18 C, 64 F) and others such as neonatal relatively high temperatures (about 28 C, 82 F). Cleanrooms for the production of integrated circuits, pharmaceuticals, and the like, in which very high levels of air cleanliness and control of temperature and humidity are required for the success of the process. Facilities for breeding laboratory animals. Since many animals normally only reproduce in spring, holding them in rooms at which conditions mirror spring all year can cause them to reproduce year-round. Aircraft air conditioning. Although nominally aimed at providing comfort for passengers and cooling of equipment, aircraft air conditioning presents a special challenge because of the changing density associated with changes in altitude, humidity and temperature of the outside air. Data centers Textile factories Physical testing facilities Plants and farm growing areas Nuclear facilities Chemical and biological laboratories Mines

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Industrial environments Food cooking and processing areas

4. Central Air Conditioning

Central air conditioning, commonly referred to as central air (U.S.) or air-con (UK), is an air conditioning system that uses ducts to distribute cooled and/or dehumidified air to more than one room, or uses pipes to distribute chilled water to heat exchangers in more than one room, and which is not plugged into a standard electrical outlet. With a typical split system, the condenser and compressor are located in an outdoor unit; the evaporator is mounted in the air handler unit. With a package system, all components are located in a single outdoor unit that may be located on the ground or roof. Central air conditioning performs like a regular air conditioner but has several added benefits: When the air handling unit turns on, room air is drawn in from various parts of the building through return-air ducts. This air is pulled through a filter where airborne particles such as dust and lint are removed. Sophisticated filters may remove microscopic pollutants as well. The filtered air is routed to air supply ductwork that carries it back to rooms. Whenever the air conditioner is running, this cycle repeats continually. Because the condenser unit (with its fan and the compressor) is located outside the home, it offers a lower level of indoor noise than a free-standing air conditioning unit.

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Fig. 2

Air Conditioning Cycle of a Big Building

In both comfort and process applications, the objective may be to not only control temperature, but also humidity, air quality and air movement from space to space.

5. Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System

The vapor-compression refrigeration system uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere. Figure 1 depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system. All such systems have four components: a compressor, a condenser, an expansion valve (also called a throttle valve), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor. and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed with typically available cooling water or cooling air. That hot vapor is routed through a condenser where it is cooled and condensed into a liquid by flowing through a coil or tubes with cool water or cool air flowing across the coil or tubes. This is where the circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the rejected heat is carried away by either the water or the air (whichever may be the case).

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The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space to be refrigerated. The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. A fan circulates the warm air in the enclosed space across the coil or tubes carrying the cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture. That warm air evaporates the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture. At the same time, the circulating air is cooled and thus lowers the temperature of the enclosed space to the desired temperature. The evaporator is where the circulating refrigerant absorbs and removes heat which is subsequently rejected in the condenser and transferred elsewhere by the water or air used in the condenser. To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor.

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Fig. 3 6. Chiller

Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System

A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycle. A vapor-compression water chiller comprises the four major components of the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle (compressor, evaporator, condenser, and some form of metering device). These machines can implement a variety of refrigerants. Absorption chillers use municipal water as the refrigerant and benign silica gel as the desiccant. Absorption chillers utilize water as the refrigerant and rely on the strong affinity between the water and a lithium bromide solution to achieve a refrigeration effect. Most often, pure water is chilled, but this water may also contain a percentage of glycol and/or corrosion inhibitors; other fluids such as thin oils can be chilled as well. There are two basic types of chillers; Mechanical compression chillers and Absorption chillers. Mechanical Compression Chillers Component Evaporator

Description

Component in which liquid refrigerant flows over a tube bundle and evaporates, absorbing heat from the chilled water circulating through the tube bundle. Pumps the refrigerant vapor to the condenser by raising the refrigerant pressure (and thus, the temperature).

Compressor

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Condenser Expansion Valve Component in which refrigerant condenses on a set of cooling water coils giving up its heat to the cooling water. The high-pressure liquid refrigerant coming from the condenser passes through this expansion device, reducing the refrigerant's pressure (and temperature) to that of the evaporator.

Fig. 3

Mechanical Compression Chillers

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Absorption Chiller Component Evaporator Absorber

Description Where evaporation of the liquid refrigerant takes place. Where concentrated absorbent is sprayed through the vapor space and over condensing water coils. Since the absorbent has a strong attraction for the refrigerant, the refrigerant is absorbed with the help of the cooling water coils. Where the dilute solution flows over the generator tubes and is heated by the steam or hot water. Where the refrigerant vapor from the generator releases its heat of vaporization to the cooling water as it condenses over the condenser water tube bundle.

Generator Condenser

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Fig. 4 7. Use in industry

Absorption Chiller

In industrial application, chilled water or other liquid from the chiller is pumped through process or laboratory equipment. Industrial chillers are used for controlled cooling of products, mechanisms and factory machinery in a wide range of industries. They are often used in the plastic industry in injection and blow molding, metal working cutting oils, welding equipment, die-casting and machine tooling, chemical processing, pharmaceutical formulation, food and beverage processing, paper and cement processing, vacuum systems, X-ray diffraction, power supplies and power generation stations, analytical equipment, semiconductors, compressed air and gas cooling. They are also used to cool high-heat specialized items such as MRI machines and lasers, and in hospitals, hotels and campuses. The chillers for industrial applications can be centralized, where each chiller serves multiple cooling needs, or decentralized where each application or machine has its own chiller. Each approach has its advantages. It is also possible to have a combination of both central and decentral chillers, especially if the cooling requirements are the same for some applications or points of use, but not all. Decentral chillers are usually small in size (cooling capacity), usually from 0.2 tons to 10 tons. Central chillers generally have capacities ranging from ten tons to hundreds or thousands of tons.

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Chilled water is used to cool and dehumidify air in mid- to large-size commercial, industrial, and institutional (CII) facilities. Water chillers can be either water cooled, air-cooled, or evaporatively cooled. Water-cooled chillers incorporate the use of cooling towers which improve the chillers' thermodynamic effectiveness as compared to air-cooled chillers. This is due to heat rejection at or near the air's wet-bulb temperature rather than the higher, sometimes much higher, dry-bulb temperature. Evaporatively cooled chillers offer efficiencies better than air cooled, but lower than water cooled. Water cooled chillers are typically intended for indoor installation and operation, and are cooled by a separate condenser water loop and connected to outdoor cooling towers to expel heat to the atmosphere. Air Cooled and Evaporatively Cooled chillers are intended for outdoor installation and operation. Air cooled machines are directly cooled by ambient air being mechanically circulated directly through the machine's condenser coil to expel heat to the atmosphere. Evaporatively cooled machines are similar, except they implement a mist of water over the condenser coil to aid in condenser cooling, making the machine more efficient than a traditional air cooled machine. No remote cooling tower is typically required with either of these types of packaged air cooled or evaporatively cooled chillers. Where available, cold water readily available in nearby water bodies might be used directly for cooling, or to replace or supplement cooling towers. The Deep Lake Water Cooling System in Toronto, Canada, is an example. It dispensed with the need for cooling towers, with a significant cut in carbon emissions and energy consumption. It uses cold lake water to cool the chillers, which in turn are used to cool city buildings via a district cooling system. The return water is used to warm the city's drinking water supply which is desirable in this cold climate. Whenever a chiller's heat rejection can be used for a productive purpose, in addition to the cooling function, very high thermal effectiveness is possible Industrial chiller selection Important specifications to consider when searching for industrial chillers include the total life cycle cost, the power source, chiller IP rating, chiller cooling capacity, evaporator capacity, evaporator material, evaporator type, condenser material, condenser capacity, ambient temperature, motor fan type, noise level, internal piping materials, number of compressors, type of compressor, number of fridge circuits, coolant requirements, fluid discharge temperature, and COP (the ratio between the cooling capacity in RT to the energy consumed by the whole chiller in KW). For medium to large chillers this should range from 3.5-7.0 with higher values meaning higher efficiency. Chiller efficiency is often specified in kilowatts per refrigeration ton (kW/RT). Process pump specifications that are important to consider include the process flow, process pressure, pump material, elastomer and mechanical shaft seal material, motor

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voltage, motor electrical class, motor IP rating and pump rating. If the cold water temperature is lower than -5C, then a special pump needs to be used to be able to pump the high concentrations of ethylene glycol. Other important specifications include the internal water tank size and materials and full load amperage. Control panel features that should be considered when selecting between industrial chillers include the local control panel, remote control panel, fault indicators, temperature indicators, and pressure indicators. Additional features include emergency alarms, hot gas bypass, city water switchover, and casters.

8. Gas Engine Chillers A gas engine chiller, as shown in the schematic above, mates a natural gas internal combustion engine to a compressor-driven chiller. Ever thought of using a car engine to run your air conditioner That's essentially the idea behind gas engine chillers. In a traditional compressor-driven chiller, the compressor is powered by an electric motor. In a gas engine chiller, the electric motor is replaced by a natural gas-powered internal combustion engine. Gas engine chillers have been marketed in North America since 1960 but they have enjoyed only limited success until now, that is. Over the fast few years the demand for gas engine chillers has increased and naturally so has the number of manufactures who are selling them. What is driving this sudden increase in demand four decades after these systems first came to market? While environmental concerns may be a factor behind the growing popularity of other gas cooling technologies like absorption chillers, this is not the case with gas engine chillers. Unlike absorption cooling, which uses water as the refrigerant, compressor-driven chillers whether they are powered by an electric motor or a gas engine use HCFC or HFC refrigerants. Although not as harmful as CFCs, these compounds are certainly not benign, and have subsequently come under the watchful eye of environmental interests and legislators. Also, the internal combustion engine, with its wide variety of harmful emissions has never been the paragon of environmental friendliness. To be fair, however, natural gas engines have lower emissions than gasolinepowered engines do. The main reason the demand for gas engine chillers is growing is one of the main reasons that all gas cooling technology is becoming more popular the cost of electricity. Rising, unstable electricity prices are making natural gas-powered chillers much more attractive from the standpoint of operating costs if not from the standpoint of purchase price.

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Fig. 5 Gas Engine Chiller The Natural Gas Engine Besides providing the energy needed to drive the compressor, the gas engine also generates heat which, if recovered, can be used for other purposes, such as water heating. The heat recovery feature is partly what makes gas engine chillers cost less to operate over electric chillers.

9. The Vapor Compression Cycle

The underlying process of any compressor-driven chiller is the vapour compression cycle. The vapour compression cycle relies on two principles. The first principle is that a fluid absorbs heat when changing from a liquid to a gas and releases heat when changing from a gas to a liquid. During this change in state, the temperature of the fluid does not change until all of the fluid is evaporated or condensed. The energy needed to change the state of a fluid is called latent energy or latent heat. A proportionately larger quantity of heat is needed to change state than to raise temperature. This is because when a fluid evaporates the molecular bonds that hold the fluid in a liquid state must be broken, and breaking molecular bonds requires a lot of energy. The second principle is that the boiling point of a liquid changes with pressure. The lower the pressure, the lower the boiling point. In fact, it is possible to boil a liquid without adding heat, but simply by sufficiently lowering the pressure it is under. Following is an explanation of the vapour compression cycle;

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Refrigerant enters the compressor as a gas. The compressor applies pressure to the gas, reducing its volume and raising its temperature. Compressing the refrigerant also raises the temperature at which the refrigerant will condense to liquid. After leaving the compressor the hot, compressed refrigerant gas travels to the condenser. 2. The Condenser In the condenser, cold water is used to cool the refrigerant gas and condense it to liquid. While the temperature of the refrigerant changes, the pressure of the refrigerant is the same as it was when it left the compressor. The Expansion Valve After leaving the condenser, the high-pressure liquid refrigerant passes through an expansion valve that restricts the flow of refrigerant. The flow restriction reduces the pressure of the refrigerant. By reducing the pressure, the boiling point is lowered making the refrigerant more efficient at removing heat. As the pressure is reduced the refrigerant begins to expand and its temperature drops.

3.

4. The Evaporator After flowing through the expansion valve the refrigerant enters the evaporator. Due to the lower pressure in the evaporator, some of the refrigerant immediately evaporates and absorbs heat from the system water, thus chilling it. As the refrigerant flows through the evaporator, more and more of it evaporates as heat is absorbed. By the time the refrigerant leaves the evaporator it is entirely gaseous. It is then piped to the compressor where the cycle begins again. 10. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers) is an organization devoted to the advancement of indoor-environment-control technology in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) industry. ASHRAE was founded in 1894 to serve as a source of technical standards and guidelines. Since that time, it has grown into an international society that offers educational information, courses, seminars, career guidance, and publications. The organization also promotes a code of ethics for HVAC professionals and provides for liaison with the general public. Its headquarters are in Atlanta, GA.

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