Near Surface Geophysics, 2006, 49-55

Delineating the near-surface geometry of the fracture system affecting the Valley of Quertaro, Mexico: Correlation of GPR signatures and physical properties of sediments
Dora C. Carreon-Freyre1* and Mariano Cerca,2
1

Centro de Geociencias, Iniversidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Campus Juriquilla, Apartado Postal 1-742, Quertaro, Qro. 76001, Mexico 2 Instituto de Geologa, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Ciudad Universitaria, Mxico, D.F. 04510, Mexico Received January 2005, revision accepted May 2005 ABSTRACT We present a combined ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and geotechnical investigation of a faultfracture system that affects the Valley of Quertaro. The main fracture, known as Falla Central (FC), is aligned with NS-orientated regional faults suggesting that the buried fault scarps influence the geometry and propagation of fractures. Although the origin of fracturing is closely related to geological factors, in the urbanized area of Quertaro the mechanical and hydraulic equilibrium in the subsoil is also perturbed by anthropogenic activities, such as overexploitation of groundwater and overloading of compressible ground. In order to delineate the fracturing geometry, we obtained several vertical GPR profiles, perpendicular and oblique to the main trace of the fracture, with two different prospecting frequencies, 900 and 300 MHz. Processing of radar profiles consisted of background removal, topographic correction and AGC amplitude correction to enhance stratigraphicrelated records. The near-surface stratigraphy consists of partially saturated fluvio-lacustrine granular and pyroclastic deposits. Detailed measurements of specific gravity, grain-size, plasticity, water content, and electrical conductivity were performed on samples collected from two shallow trenches in order to relate physical changes in the sedimentary sequence to the recorded electrical contrasts. The analysis of the GPR profiles, plus the stratigraphic record, enabled us to identify variations in the deformation of layers, and changes in direction, width and vertical displacement of fractures. Our results suggest that the propagation of the fracture is influenced by the conditions of deposition of the geological materials and by the anthropogenic activity. INTRODUCTION Major urban areas in central Mexico, and specifically within the Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) area, were built on the plane surface of sedimentary basins bounded by volcanoes and affected by regional geological faults. In the last three decades an increasing problem for these cities is that fractures in near-surface sediments, caused by subsidence, have considerably affected the urban infrastructure. Thus, understanding the causes of generation and the geometry of propagation of this type of fracture and fault has become a major focus of study since it can help to predict where new fractures will appear. Although the origin of fracturing in these recent sedimentary basins is closely related to regional geological factors, in some urbanized areas, such as the city of Quertaro, the mechanical and hydraulic equilibrium in the subsoil is also affected by anthropogenic activities, such as overexploitation of groundwater (Holzer 1984; Rojas et
*

al. 2002; Carren-Freyre et al. 2005) and overloading of highly compressible ground. The rapid development of the urban infrastructure in the Valley of Quertaro has caused an increase in the demand for groundwater. Furthermore, the problem is increased because the near-surface clay-bearing sediments of this valley fracture easily when dry, and the lateral variations of the geological properties of sediments can influence the distribution and behaviour of the near-surface fractures that affect urban areas. The aim of this paper is to provide a non-destructive identification of the structure of volcanic-lacustrine sediments in order to correlate physical properties with changes in the fracture geometry. Detailed determinations of physical properties, i.e. water content, electrical conductivity, grain-size, and variation of compaction with depth, performed in two trenches excavated perpendicular to the trace of the fractures, allowed a correlation between the electromagnetic response and the physical-mechanical properties of clayey-sandy lacustrine deposits.

freyre@geociencias.unam.mx

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FIGURE 1 Simplified geological map showing the geometry of the fractures (black solid lines) and faults affecting the urban area (grey lines) in the Valley of Quertaro. Fractures are the continuation in the valley of NS-oriented regional faults. Seven GPR profiles obtained perpendicular to the trace of the Falla Central are discussed in the text. The location of the two geotechnical excavations is also shown (Zaragoza and Singer sites). The inset shows the location of the Valley of Quertaro within the Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE VALLEY OF QUERTARO AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE FALLA CENTRAL (FC) The Valley of Quertaro is a basin bounded by volcanoes and faults, located within the northern and central areas of the TMVB (Fig.1). The composite stratigraphic column of the Quertaro area consists of a Cretaceous regional basement covered by a Tertiary sequence of alternating layers of sedimentary and volcanic rocks (Alaniz-lvarez et al. 2001). Regional faulting affecting the area is characterized by two nearly orthogonal systems active since the Miocene, in directions NNWSSE and ENEWSW (Alaniz-lvarez et al. 2001). The Valley of Quertaro is a horizontal plain located between 1800 and 1810 m.a.s.l. The city of Quertaro is located on the eastern side of the valley and its urban infrastructure is affected by a NS-trending fracture-fault system known as the Falla Central (FC) as shown in Fig. 1 (Carren-Freyre and Cerca 2003). The FC has a lineal trace, joining two normal fault segments that cut basaltic rocks in the north and south margins of the valley. North of the Quertaro River, the FC intercepts and runs along one of the main roads of the city (Fig. 1). In this part, the FC has differential vertical displacements (from few decimetres to two metres), observed in the paved road and affected buildings. Towards the central part of the city, the fault trace bends to the west following an arc around the Cerro de las Campanas (Fig.1). In its southern part, the main fault trace has a slight change in direction to the south-west, and the fracturing divides into two parallel discontinuous traces forming a fan-like structure. The vertical displacements decrease and ultimately the traces disappear in the south part of the basin. Available geological sections (Carren-Freyre et al. 2005) suggest that the FC affects the sedimentary filling directly above a buried fault scarp in the basaltic rocks. The analysis of the stratigraphic descriptions obtained from water-extraction well logs in the Valley of Quertaro show that the stratigraphic record in the basin is continuous and normally

TABLE 1 GPR measurement parameters (Zond 12c) and characteristics of the radar wave obtained in the city of Quertaro

Centre frequency of antennae Impulse power Length of antennae (cm) Resolution (cm) Recording time window (ns) Battery power supply (V) Characteristics of the geological media estimated velocity of 10 cm/ns Main return frequency (MHz) Maximum depth of penetration (m) Recorded feature Width (m)

300 400 102 100 240 12

900 400 52 20 85 12

100 ~6.0 to 8.0 Fracturing and deformation 1.0 to 2.0

400 ~3.0 Changes in physical properties and stratigraphy 0.5 to 1.0

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graded from the formation of the basin in the Late MioceneEarly Pliocene (Carren-Freyre and Cerca 2003; Carren-Freyre et al. 2005). These authors mention that in the centre of the basin, the thickness of the upper clay-silt-bearing sequence reaches more than 150 m. METHODOLOGY FOR THE ANALYSIS OF FRACTURING USING GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR The GPR method has been applied extensively for prospecting of geological features in the last two decades. Fundamental works include those by Davis and Annan (1989) and van Overmeeren (1998) for stratigraphic features, and Grasmueck (1996) and Grandjean and Gourry (1996) for the identification of fractures in rocks. Recently, reported study cases of GPR fracture imaging have shown the advantages of the method for hazard assessment in urban areas (Snchal et al. 2000; Audru et al. 2001; Rashed et al. 2003; Slater and Niemi 2003). In order to identify the factors influencing the change in direction and vertical displacement of the fractures, we have obtained several vertical profiles using a GPR (Zond 12c), with two different prospecting frequencies, 900 and 300 MHz. Radargrams were collected in continuous mode on profiles along the trace of the FC, in an orientation perpendicular to the main fracture path (Fig. 1). Prospected sites included areas with paved roads. The processing of radar profiles consisted of background removal, topographic correction at sites with more than 20 cm vertical displacement, and a standard AGC amplitude correction to enhance stratigraphic-related records. No further processing was necessary, due to the high contrast of the electrical properties between clays and pyroclastic (silt-sand) materials and because the recorded stratigraphic reflectors are nearly horizontal in most cases. The GPR measurement parameters and the electromagnetic-wave characteristics in the prospected media are shown in Table 1. The GPR method has been shown to be a useful tool for characterization of lacustrine and volcanic sediments because of its sensitivity to water content, grain-size and variations in compaction (Freeland et al. 1998; Carren-Freyre et al. 2003; Rangel et al. 2003; Neal 2004). Detailed stratigraphic sections of 10 m length and up to 7.0 m depth were made in two excavations perpendicular and crossing the main trace of the FC (see Fig. 1 for location). In the two trenches, known as the Singer and Zaragoza sites, a physical characterization of the near-surface stratigraphy was performed on samples taken every ~20 cm in depth. Determination of physical properties was performed as described by Carren-Freyre et al. (2003). Variations with depth of the physical properties: gravimetric water content and plasticity, specific gravity, grain-size and conductivity, for the investigated sites are shown in Fig. 2. Detailed correlation of the radar reflectors with stratigraphic changes leads to an estimated bulk velocity of 10 cm/ns for the whole sequence (approximate permittivity of 9). Several GPR profiles were obtained parallel and perpendicular to the main fracture pattern. The locations of the seven representative GPR profiles discussed in this paper are shown in Fig. 1.

FIGURE 2 Measured physical properties of the near-surface sequence in the Valley of Quertaro at (a) the Singer and (b) the Zaragoza excavation sites. See Carren-Freyre et al. (2003) for further detailed explanation of the methodology.

According to Carren-Freyre et al. (2003), contrasts in the physical properties of the near-surface sedimentary sequence can be recorded on GPR profiles, thus enabling the conditions of its deformation to be studied. GPR profiles were compared in order to identify coherent reflectors related to the near-surface stratigraphy, and perturbations in the radar signature were used to infer the deformational features in the fracture zone. This analysis helped to identify changes in the geometry of the fractures. RESULTS The near-surface sequences in the Valley of Quertaro consist of partially saturated fluvio-lacustrine granular sediments with some layers of pyroclastic deposits (see the stratigraphic column in Fig. 2). In general in the urban area, the upper 1m is refill used for construction, referred to here as or anthropogenic refill. It consists of a mixture of silt and sand with some random lenses of clay. At the Zaragoza site (in the southern area of the city), the anthropogenic refill thickness reaches more than 3 m, whereas at the Singer site it is absent. Below this refill, there is a dark clay layer with high plasticity and medium-to-firm consistency, grading to medium plastic silt with desiccation cracks (TrejoMoedano 1989). This layer represents the last traces of a lacus-

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trine environment. The clay, sand and silt contents of the dark clay layer are variable and probably have an effect on the measurements of the specific gravity (Fig. 2). This layer was used as a guide reflector when comparing GPR profiles because of its contrasting physical properties (higher electrical conductivity and liquid limit). Below the dark clay and to a depth of 7.0 m, the sequence is characterized by silty and clayey layers with medium plasticity. Underlying this near-surface sequence, the sedimentary record consists of more than 20 m of alternating layers of clay, sand and gravel, with volcanic rock intercalations. Along the main FC trace, radar signatures of stratigraphic features and fracturing were recorded on seven GPR profiles (Figs 3 to 7). In the northern part of the trace, the dark clay layer is located near the surface and in some cases it is difficult to record information about the underlying sequence. Nevertheless, the fracture signature is narrow (perturbations are concentrated

near the fracture) and it is consistent with high vertical displacements of about 1 m at this site (Fig. 3, profile 1). In the southern part of the trace, a better record is obtained because of the lower water content of the anthropogenic refill (Figs 3b and 4), and the fracture signature shows a wider perturbation. Notably, in all the radargrams from the northern part of the FC, perturbations are concentrated near the fracture and vertical displacement is higher, whereas in the southern part, perturbations are distributed over a wider area on both sides of the FC. The analysis of the GPR profiles, together with a detailed description of the stratigraphy record in the trenches, enabled the stratigraphy changes and the variations in the deformation of layers along the FC to be identified. Comparisons of records obtained with the 900 and 300 MHz antennae enabled differences in the deformation of the asphalt cover and underlying sediments to be identified (Fig. 4, profile 7). Sediments in this proFIGURE 3 Examples of radar signatures of fractures, collected in the northern (Singer) and southern (Zaragoza) parts of the Falla Central. The stratigraphic columns are shown for reference. GPR profiles 1 and 5, perpendicular to the main FC trace, 300 MHz antenna.

FIGURE 4 Comparison of radar signatures obtained with two different frequencies: 900 and 300 MHz. GPR profile 7, Hacienda Lira Street.

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FIGURE 5 Comparison of radar signatures parallel and perpendicular to the main FC path. GPR profiles 3 and 4, Acosta and Septien Streets. 300 MHz antenna.

file are located below the anthropogenic refill at a depth of 1.5 m. Perturbations of the sediment structure are clearly visible below the topographic offset, marking the fracture area (Fig. 4, 900 MHz antenna). The best definition of the structure in these sequences was obtained with the 300 MHz antenna, mainly due to the partially saturated condition of this sequence, with water content lower than 50% (Fig. 4, 300 MHz antenna). In this profile, the reflectors between 2 m and 5 m depth in the hanging wall of the fault exhibit a different structure compared to those in the footwall. We interpret these reflections as differential deformation acquired by the sequence in the hanging wall. In this case, the variation in deformation can be explained in terms of differences in compressibility and changes in the applied load (i.e. heavy and constant vehicle traffic on the paved road). A comparison of GPR records obtained in perpendicular and oblique orientations with respect to the trace of the FC (profile 3 and profile 4, respectively) are shown in Fig. 5. In this case, we interpret the characteristic radar signature observed below the asphalt cover as corresponding to the anthropogenic refill. The difference in thickness of this layer of ~0.5 m between the footwall and the hanging wall is significantly smaller than the topographic relief (~1.2 m), suggesting that a fault scarp existed previously to the refilling for construction. Perturbations in the structure of sediments and refill are also observed in profiles obtained in an oblique orientation with respect to the trace of the fault (Fig. 5, profile 4). The GPR profiles obtained along paved main roads enabled to evaluate the influence of the asphalt cover on the propagation of fracturing (Fig. 6, profile 2). In this case, perturbations in radar signatures are enhanced by the asphalt wedge that is introduced into the fractures when roads are repaired. In contrast, perturbations in the signature of the reflectors recorded on GPR profile 6 (Fig. 6b) enable weak areas in the subsoil and perturbed sedimentary structure to be identified without loading and without an

observable vertical displacement of the surface. Discontinuities were recorded on GPR profiles obtained in areas with no vertical displacement along the trace of the FC, suggesting that fractures propagate from depth to surface. THE NEAR-SURFACE GEOMETRY OF THE FC AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES The main trace of the FC is aligned with a NS-orientated regional normal fault. This fault is exposed at the north and south margins of the valley, affecting basaltic rocks, and it has an esti-

FIGURE 6 GPR signatures showing the anthropogenic influence. (a) The presence of an asphalt wedge enhances the record of the fracture. GPR profile 2, Universidad Avenue. (b) Radar signature of a fractured non-loaded site; note that no vertical displacement is observed on the prospected surface. GPR profile 6, Prolongacin Zaragoza Street. 300 MHz antenna.

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FIGURE 7 Compressibility plots of three types of sediments in the near-surface sequence in the Valley of Quertaro (see stratigraphic column in Fig. 2). Note that a higher slope of the linear segment of the curve represents a more compressible material.

mated displacement of ~100 m (Alaniz-Alvarez et al. 2001). In accordance with this, a difference in elevation of the basalts is observed in the lithology of water-extraction wells on both sides of the FC (Carren-Freyre et al. 2005) and in geophysical data (Fig. 20 of Rojas et al. 2002), suggesting that this structure is influenced by the presence of a buried fault scarp. In the Valley of Quertaro, the presence of fractures and faults has been associated with intense groundwater extraction (TrejoMoedano and Baini 1991; Rojas et al. 2002). However, the patterns of groundwater withdrawal cannot be directly associated with the geometry of fractures (Carren-Freyre et al. 2005). Indeed, we propose that intense water extraction has increased the deformation rate of the fractures, but has little effect on the regional geometry of the main fracture trend. While is evident that the overall trace of the FC is controlled by the presence of a buried scarp, differences in its near-surface geometry can be related to contrasts in the physical properties of sediments. The correlation of GPR profiles and physical properties of the near-surface clayey sediments suggests that variations in the trace orientation and vertical displacement of the FC are controlled by the load-histories of the materials and the stratigraphic boundary between coarse and clayey sediments. Thus, the near-surface geometry of the fracturing depends upon the spatial relationship between regional faulting and the depositional conditions of sediments. The highly variable mechanical behaviour of layers within the near-surface sequence is one of the main factors that can affect propagation of the FC trace along the surface. Differences in the load-histories of sedimentary materials are illustrated in the compression plots obtained for three different layers at the Singer site (Fig. 7). These plots were determined by the one-dimensional

consolidation test (ASTM 1998). The yielding point of a curve indicates the previous load experienced by each material, and the slope of the second segment indicates its deformability. The compressibility of the material increases with a higher slope of the linear segment of the curve. For instance, the black clay has a medium compressibility but is more sensitive to small applied loads, whereas the brown sandy silt is highly compressible but its strength is also higher (Fig. 7). In conclusion, for the same applied load these materials will deform differently because of their different load-histories and strengths. In the southern area of the city, we infer that the presence of the anthropogenic refill and the asphalt cover may have an important influence on the deformation geometry. The anthropogenic refill is similar in grain-size to the brown sandy silt, but its mechanical behaviour has not yet been tested. However, it is expected to vary greatly, depending on the compaction method used to refill. Finally, the asphalt cover behaves as a rigid layer with a brittle behaviour. According to Rojas et al. (2002), the phenomenon of ground fissuring has been recognized in the Valley of Quertaro since the 1970s and the first faults had developed by the beginning of the 1980s. Differences in thickness of the anthropogenic refill on both sides of the FC (Fig. 5) are evidence that in some places a fault scarp existed prior to urban development. Furthermore, a profile obtained on a plane surface where the trace of the FC disappears (Fig. 6b) showed that the sedimentary structure is perturbed. These findings demonstrate the capability of radar surveying to forecast the growth and propagation of faults. CONCLUSIONS Analysis of fracturing at different scales carried out in the Valley of Quertaro leads us to propose that local variations in the fracture morphology are determined by the mechanical heterogeneity of the near-surface sequence. Regionally, the fracture is consistent with the tectonic fault system, suggesting that it is related to a buried fault scarp. The study of fractures in volcano-sedimentary sequences requires the integration of diverse field and laboratory tools in order to evaluate the factors influencing their generation and propagation. Geotechnical cartography requires detailed information from the surface as well as from the subsoil. We have evaluated heterogeneities in lacustrine sediments traditionally considered to be homogeneous. In particular, and contrary to previous interpretations, clay- and silt-bearing layers exhibit relevant heterogeneities in their physical and mechanical properties. Furthermore, useful geotechnical characterization for engineering purposes and urban planning cannot be achieved with a single scale measurement of fractures and/or analysis at one or two sites. Systematic studies should consider the vertical and lateral spatial variations of the geological properties that need to be related in order to forecast the distribution of fractures. In the Valley of Quertaro case, the GPR profiles enabled us to correlate vertical and lateral variations of the geological properties for a better understanding of fracture behaviour.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to Martn Hernndez and Ricardo Carrizosa for their collaboration in the laboratory and field analysis. This study was partially funded by project CONCYTEQ Ref. No. 49, by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT) and by the Aguascalientes State Government (grant to D.C.F.). The authors are also grateful to the Seismology and Geophysical Exploration group of the Centro de Geociencias for facilitating access to the excavation sites. REFERENCES
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