Material There are many different material types to choose from when undertaking a project.

For the purposes of our discussion, the materials are grouped roughly into two categories, these being "Non-metallic" and Metallic". In respect to metallic materials these are then subsequently grouped into two groups being ferrous and non-ferrous. Each of the materials has their own characteristics and requires different machining techniques. Careful consideration needs to be given to the correct material selection for its application. (Definition: Ferrous as in containing Iron, e.g. steel - Non-ferrous as in not containing Iron e.g. aluminum, copper) A simple test for ferrous/non-ferrous materials is to use magnet as a magnet will sick to ferrous materials due to its iron content. Carbon Steel (Lightweight about 7850 kg/m3 density) Typical carbon steel materials are JIS S45C and JIS SS400. They are very cheap, excelling in weld ability, and they can be subjected to various heat treatments. Since many machine tools are designed to cut mild steel material, it is very rare to encounter problems while machining. I hardly use mild steel apart from cases where welding is required as I mostly make experimental models as therefore issues such as low manufacturing costs are not a consideration in the work that I do. Generally, mild steel has a black surface and this surface is very hard, if possible, this surface should be left intact as it offers additional protection. Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram Example

Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram (clickable), Materials Science and Metallurgy, 4th ed., Pollack, Prentice-Hall, 1988

Figure shows the equilibrium diagram for combinations of carbon in a solid solution of iron. The diagram shows iron and carbons combined to form Fe-Fe3C at the 6.67%C end of the diagram. The left side of the diagram is pure iron combined with carbon, resulting in steel alloys. Three significant regions can be made relative to the steel portion of the diagram. They are the eutectoid E, the hypoeutectoid A, and the hypereutectoid B. The right side of the pure iron line is carbon in combination with various forms of iron called alpha iron (ferrite), gamma iron (austenite), and delta iron. The black dots mark clickable sections of the diagram. Allotropic changes take place when there is a change in crystal lattice structure. From 2802-2552F the delta iron has a body-centered cubic lattice structure. At 2552F, the lattice changes from a body-centered cubic to a facecentered cubic lattice type. At 1400F, the curve shows a plateau but this does not signify an allotropic change. It is called the Curie temperature, where the metal changes its magnetic properties. Two very important phase changes take place at 0.83%C and at 4.3% C. At 0.83%C, the transformation is eutectoid, called pearlite. Gamma (austenite) --> alpha + Fe3C (cementite) At 4.3% C and 2066F, the transformation is eutectic, called ledeburite. L (liquid) --> gamma (austenite) + Fe3C (cementite)

Aluminum Alloy There are many kinds of Alloys to choose from but often, Aluminium is chosen as it is lightweight (about 2700 kg/m3 density), it is comparatively soft and its process-ability is good. From a machining viewpoint pure aluminium (JIS A1000) greatly differs from Al-Cu alloy (JIS A2000) . Pure aluminium is easy to bend but it is difficult to process as it is too soft and easily clogs cutting tools. On the other hand, the Al-Cu alloy, such as A2011 or A2017 (called duralumin) is easy to handle and cut with several of the grades having strength similar to that of steel. However, one of the drawbacks of aluminium is that it is difficult to weld, solder and bend. It is very difficult to distinguish between the pure aluminum, the Al-Cu alloy and etc. When they are cutting with a machine, we may recognize the material. Stainless Steel (Lightweight about 7480-8000 kg/m3 density) Stainless steel is JIS SUS304. The benefits of stainless steel are that it has high strength, great heat-resistance, and it resists staining e.g rust. Due to its high resistance to heat it makes an ideal material for mechanical parts that are subjected to heating such as a heater of a Stirling engine. Also, due to the materials resistance to rusting, it is ideal for use where it is exposed to water. Other examples of its use is in drive shafts where both strength and corrosion resistance is needed. Stainless Steel tends to be a bit sticky in respect to cutting and machining and as it is a relatively hard material it tends to shorten the life of the cutting tools being used. Such cutting tools need to be sharpened often particularly in prolonged cutting operations. Stainless Steel can usually be identified by its glossy silver color.

Brass (Lightweight about 8400-8700 kg/m3 density) Brass is an alloy which is made from a combination of copper and zinc as the main ingredients. In compared with carbon steel or stainless steel, the machine-ability of brass is good, and it also has good soldering properties. Brass is very heavy due to its high density so it is ideal for heavy parts, such as a flywheel or balance weight for model engines. Brass is prized for the highly polished finish it can produce however, since brass surface will oxidize when exposed to the elements, it preferable to apply a clear lacquer protective coating. Brass is very expensive when compared to other materials so it is used very selectively. Copper (Lightweight about 8930 kg/m3 density) Copper is a reddish brown nonferrous mineral which has been used for thousands of years by many cultures. The metal is closely related with silver and gold, with many properties being shared among these metals. Modern life has a number of applications for copper, ranging from coins to pigments, and demand for copper remains high, especially in industrialized nations. Many consumers interact with copper in various forms on a daily basis. Archaeological evidence suggests that copper is among the earliest metals used by humans. Numerous digs all over the world indicate that copper was used to make utensils, jewelry, and weapons. The metal is highly ductile, meaning that it can be easily worked and pulled into wire. For cultures which had minimal or crude metalworking abilities, copper would have been easy to shape and work with. Copper is also easy to alloy, and many of the early metal alloys featured copper. Material Identification Usually, a billet (column) of material is sold in unit lengths of 1 to 2 meters (or more). These billets typically carry the material identification written on the end of the billet as seen in the photos on the right. As the billet is usually cut to provide the work piece, take care to cut from the end opposite the markings so as to leave the markings for subsequent identification. Common Shape Material is usually supplied as common shapes and these are (a) Billets (columns), (b) flat bar (boards), (c) Angle (L-shaped), (d) "C" channel (C-shaped) and (e) pipe. The correct selection of material assists in simplifying a project.

Common machining sizes of billets Common billet sizes are: 30mm, 40mm, 50mm, 60mm and 80mm (However many other sizes can be ordered). As the surface finish of many billets is not satisfactory for a finished project, they often have to be machined to suit

the project. Should you want a finished diameter of the above mentioned sizes, then it is necessary to commence with the next larger size in the range and machine this down to the desired diameter. The exception to this can be stainless steel with diameters of 10mm or less as the surface finish of these is quite high and sometimes suitable for the job in hand. How to Select Polymers and Plastic Materials Polymers and plastic materials are high molecular weight compounds comprised of two or more repeating organic or synthetic base molecules. Types of Polymers and Plastic Materials The Global Spec Search Database contains these types of polymer and plastic materials. Thermoplastics are polymers that turn to liquid when heated and turn solid when cooled. They can be repeatedly remelted and remolded, allowing parts and scraps to be reprocessed. In most cases they are also very recyclable. Elastomers and rubber materials are characterized by their high degree of flexibility and elasticity (high reversible elongation). They are based on a variety of different systems, including silicone, polyurethane, chloroprene, butyl, polybutadiene, neoprene, natural rubber or isoprene, and other synthetic rubber or compounds. Thermosets or thermosetting plastics are polymer materials that have been irreversibly cured. They are generally stronger than thermoplastics due to polymer cross-linking and are better suited for high-temperature applications (below their decomposition points). They tend to be more brittle than thermoplastics and many cannot be recycled due to irreversibility. Polymer and Plastic Material Properties Special consideration should be given to properties such use temperature, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and tensile strength. Use temperature is the allowable temperature range in which the compound can operate effectively which determines what environments the resin can be used in. The coefficient of thermal expansion is a measure of the tendency of the compound to change in volume in response to temperature, which could limit space restraints under certain operating temperatures. The thermal conductivity of the polymer is a measure of how well the material conducts heat or transfers heat, which is important for temperature conscious environments. Tensile strength is the maximum stress a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking deformation occurs. Material Types and Grades Material types for polymers and plastic materials include cross-linked materials and resins, and compounded raw materials such as pellets and liquids. Electrical and electronic materials, optical grade materials, and self-lubricated or bearing-grade plastics and plastic materials are also available. Cure Type and Components Cure type or cure technology is also an important consideration when selecting products. Choices include air setting or film drying, anaerobic, thermoplastic or hot melt, thermosetting or cross-linking, roomtemperature curing or vulcanizing, and pressure sensitive adhesive (PSA). Polymers and plastic materials that are cured with ultraviolet light (UV) are also available, as are reactive resins, single-component products, and two-component systems.