METALS

Chapter 6 - METALS
The use of metals and their production techniques are lost in the mists of time. Due to difficulties encountered in obtaining metals, they were initially restricted areas of use: ornaments, weapons, items related to carpentry etc.. Until the eighteenth century, when they devised the scientific basis of obtaining metals from ores, metals and construction have been used very little - bronze clasps to fasten the blocks of stone, door and window fittings, structures lead for stained glass, copper or lead sheets for roofing. With the development of metallurgy - production and processing industry, metal - metal entering the first technique for achieving greenhouse construction, bridge construction and then finally in civil engineering structures and industrial strength as protective materials and finish. Today it is commonly used in construction are 16 kinds of metals which are divided into two categories: ferrous metals (steel, cast iron) and ferrous metals (aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, etc.) especially in the form of alloys. 6.1. The technical characteristics of metals Metals are presented as homogeneous materials with polycrystalline structure - grainy, conductive of heat and electricity. By melting together of several metals or elements, after solidification, as a result of physical and chemical processes, alloys arise - they have different behavior in comparison with the main alloying element. The construction technique for metals interested in the following characteristics: Density metals - materials without pores, are characterized by absolute density, which varies from one metal to another.

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Hardness - currently estimated by the method Brinel - is a basic characteristic of metals. Mechanical resistance - is appreciated by the values obtained from conventional tensile stress ( = F/A0) where A0 is the initial section.

Fig. 6.1. Stress-strain curve for metals Deformations under load - metals are malleable and malleable material (the more deforming, breaking up), allowing a variety of modes of processing. 6.2. Ferrous Metals It is made from iron ore - the furnace - as the cast and of these converters, Siemens Martin furnace or electrical steels are produced. 6.2.1. Fonte Cast irons are alloys of iron with carbon (at least 3%) and other alloying elements (silicon, aluminum, manganese, chromium, etc.).. After the presentation of carbon and other alloying elements, cast iron can be: gray iron foundry or (have this color due to carbon in the form of graphite) and serve the development and construction materials of iron, white cast irons and special used for making steel. Irons are characterized by high compressive strength and destructive action of atmospheric agents, but are brittle, with low resistance to shock, hard-working. Cast-iron products for construction: Iron products for construction are obtained by casting and machining - cutting; crude products can be covered - protected. If passed, iron products were used to achieve structural elements (columns, arches, trusses, etc..) Decorations papers (balcony railing and stairs, fences, lamp poles, etc..) Iron products

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today They are used especially in construction work and machinery installation. Products cast iron plumbing: heating radiators - are manufactured in the form of elements that can be assembled themselves with paint; bath tubs, sinks and lavatories, toilet seats - covered by glazing comes face seen; Drainage pipes (combined with plug or flanged) straight or branches (Fig. 6.2.) And floor drains; street grates and caps for leaks frame for manholes in the work of the supply of water and sanitation; grills doors and tiled stoves, cookers plate. Fig. 6.2. Iron Pipes 6.2.2. Steels Steels are alloys of iron with carbon (max. 3%, typically up to 1.7%) and other alloying elements. Steels are made from cast iron (reducing alloying elements) and by recycling old steel. Compared to irons, steels have good tensile strength, are ductile (allow cold processing) and the alloying elements to improve certain characteristics - Nickel increases corrosion resistance (stainless steel), chromium and manganese steel gives wear resistance, vanadium increases hardness, etc.. Rolled Steel Products Rolled steel products is characterized by small thickness compared to the length and width can be: thin sheets (can be delivered in rolls or folded) and thick plates, may have smooth surfaces - unprotected (blackboard), protected (galvanized, copper, etc..) or have a surface intersecting ribs that form the diamond or oval shaped bumps - ribbed table. Thin boards are typically used for roofing work, insulation, piping, air transport, thick sheets of resistance within the structure of construction (tanks, construction elements, etc..) Striped sheets up surface circulation in birds. The table can be made and other cold bending or stamping. Strip of steel, broad, flat - rolled rectangular section 800 mm maximum width and thickness from 2 mm to 40 mm. It is used to

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make metal joinery, lightning and grounding the electrical, construction, etc. elements. Steel Square - laminate with square section and rounded edges, serves as a running track; Round steel - fully laminated circular section, serves to achieve high strength bolts and washers; Rolled (Fig. 6.3) - rolled in different shapes with rounded edges and bearing different names live production (equal or unequal angles winged, double-T profile, profiles, etc. u) which are used to carry out building elements (columns, beams lattice, etc..) stiffening elements, roof elements (purlins), etc.. Structural steel pipes - cylindrical bodies, black (unprotected) ring section cut at the ends by cutting, with or without longitudinal welds. It is used in the execution pipelines (joined by welding) and steel construction. Plumbing pipes - are produced from hot rolled strip by bending (rolling) and longitudinally welded (up to 100 mm diameter) or coil (diameter between 400 mm and 1600 mm). Longitudinal welded pipes can be black (unprotected) or protected (galvanized) with thread (joint with independent plug) or unthreaded (smooth). It is used for execution of water supply. Pressure tubes - are manufactured by rolling and serve to transport water pressure - headraces, heating etc.. Steel products produced by cold bending Black plates are made from cold forming and welding points possible (with the role of solidarity and not seal) realizing thin wall sections, closed or open. Corrugated sheets and corrugated sheets (Fig. 6.5) - are used for roofing works and external closures.

Fig. 6.5. Steel products produced by cold bending

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Profiles of Cold-formed steel sheet - rolled profiles similar (but with rounded edges) or as a square or rectangular pipes. Used to achieve lightweight steel construction (walls, roofs, sealing elements), carpentry, metal crash barriers etc.. Pressed steel products It is obtained by pressing in steel dies hard, cold or hot, soft sheet of paper or steel wire and round. Products for connections, continuity, solidarity - is done as: Nails (Fig. 6.6) with various uses of wood in construction of buildings for fixing flooring, roof, etc. Rabitz nets.

Fig. 6.6. Nails, wood screws. Wood screws - have a screw thread shaped portion and serve for fixing and assembling of wood products. Bolts - is presented with a partially or fully threaded rod with a fixed head - or flat hexagonal clamping nuts hexagon or square (Fig. 6.7). Used to achieve the bond removable metal or wood. Rivets - cylindrical bodies with a different head shape (Fig. 6.7) and used to achieve the bond fixed by the metal construction training through a second load of the head.

Fig. 6.7. Steel bolts and rivets Boats for plumbing - sinks, baths etc., are made of thin sheets of stainless steel or black sheet covered on all sides with glaze. Steel Reinforced Concrete Products

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Steel reinforced concrete products is achieved by drawing, extrusion and rolling bars or profiled face right soft or hard steel and comes in the following categories: Wires pulled and drawn wire products - this category includes products from mild steel concrete steel type (OB37) with diameters from 6 mm to 40 mm which is supplied in coils or bars independent, drawn wire plain concrete (STNB) with 3:10 mm in diameter that can be delivered independently or in bars, mostly in the form of meshes (Fig. 6.8). Drawn and welded wire meshes are used to achieve the ordinary concrete. Fig. 6.8. Welded Mesh Concrete, hot rolled steel (PC52, PC60) - are made of high strength steel profiled bars with diameters between 6 and 40 and serve to achieve the required strong Concrete and Prestressed Concrete (Fig. 6.9) . Fig. 6.9. Hot rolled steel concrete Steel wire and wire for prestressed concrete products - are made from high strength steels with low strain to failure and serve initially tensioned concrete realization (prestressed concrete) which allows use of high strength concrete to achieve flexible construction. The following different types of wire and wire products for prestressed concrete (Figure 6.10): Fig. 6.10. Wire and wire products for prestressed concrete wire for prestressed concrete (SBP) with diameters of 1.5 to 6 mm; indented wire for prestressed concrete (SBPA) seven strands of steel wire for prestressed concrete (TBP) 2 or 3 lite steel wire for prestressed concrete.

Steel products in the form of knitting - nets Nets are made of thin wire, black or galvanized, hexagonal mesh, trapezoidal or square (Fig. 6.11) and serve to achieve coatings on Rabitz, to reinforce precast plaster, the binding fiber mats for thermal insulation works to reinforce products glass, etc..

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Fig. 6.11. Wire Mesh 6.3. Ferrous metals Main ferrous metals used in construction are: Aluminium - white metal, light, pliable, resistant to atmospheric agents (the sticky coating of aluminum oxide) is obtained through a complex process bauxite-alumina-aluminum in electric furnaces with a high consumption of energy ( 25 000 kWh / tonne aluminum one). Use the form pure aluminum alloys because it has low mechanical strength and can thus be used in engineering. The most common alloying elements are manganese, silicon, copper, zinc. The best known is duraluminiul alloy (alloy magnesium) from which eobin profiles, plates, wire. Aluminum products are used for light construction of structures in metal joinery works as protective and finishing materials, electric wires, etc.. Copper - reddish metal, ductile and malleable (can be turned into sheets of thickness 2.6), melt (melting point 1083 C), good conductor of heat and electricity, corrosion resistant (cover by keeping air copper carbonate, with a green patina, large decorative effect). Copper is delivered in a wide range of bars with different sections, strip, plate, wire, etc.. Uses copper products, particularly in the electrical industry, electrical conductors, heat exchangers and finishing materials and coatings. More frequently, the construction technique is to be used with copper alloys: tin or aluminum - bronzes - which is processed by hardware and are used for plumbing (valves), friction materials (pads, bearings), materials and decorative finishing (handles Door, Olive, rods), zinc alloys - brass - may be processed by forging, rolling, pressing, etc.., the color yellow and is very resistant to atmospheric agents, is to be used as building boards (for finishing and decorations), screws, welding wire, copper-nickel-zinc alloy, known as alpaca - especially used in the manufacture of cutlery and decorations that material. Lead - very malleable metal with low hardness, very easy to melt (it melts at 327 C). Like aluminum, copper and zinc, lead is covered with a film of lead oxide, black, compact and adherent, forming a protective layer, but slightly sour solve water is warm.

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Lead Construction has the following uses: as thick plates or insulation pieces are made to the action of gamma rays and X, in the form of waterproof insulation boards up the structure, lead pipes obtained by extrusion, are used as connecting elements for work facilities (cold water), lead oxide (Pb3O4), known as the lead bronzes, is used as a pigment (red) and anti-corrosion protection material. Zinc - easily fusible metal (melts at 419 C), brittle at normal temperature, it becomes malleable at temperatures above 100 C). The main uses of zinc are: corrosion protection of steel products (plates, pipes, etc..) Brass and alloying element in solder alloys, paint pigments (zinc oxide and zinc sulfide white color), fungicide (to protect wood) as zinc chloride. Metal Corrosion and Protection Metals due to chemical and physical structure (crystalline grainy) are very sensitive to chemical destructive actions. Metal corrosion can occur in two ways: chemical corrosion - metal by chemical reaction in a gaseous or liquid and electrochemical corrosion - facilitated the formation of electric cells in a moist environment. Corrosion processes occur through the formation of reaction products, which reduce the metal section. The way that occurs, the corrosion of metals can be: superficial - occurs across the surface of metal product, local - includes some areas forming points, spots or depressions, intercrystalline, which takes place at the contact surfaces of crystal grains. The main measures of protection against corrosion are: Increasing the corrosion resistance by alloying with certain elements, in this way are obtained oxeluir stainless and corrosion inhibitors, effective but expensive. Metal coating, metal coating consisting of low resistance to corrosion with a layer of a corrosion resistant metal (zinc, lead, copper, aluminum, etc..) Coverage can be achieved by immersion in a bath of molten metal, by electrolytic deposition, spraying molten metal (metal) rolling pin and CALS protection of thin sheets. Chemical Protection - what is done by coperirea oieselor with a layer of metal salts or oxides resistant to corrosion (oxidation, anodising). Protection by paint and varnish - which creates thin waterproof and corrosive resistant. enamel and enamelling - is to cover the hot metal parts with a film chemically and mechanically resistant, waterproof, made from a mixture of silica and metal oxides.