M|cro rocessor]M|cro Contro||er

Slmpllfled CompuLer/Mlcro CompuLer

CompuLers have Lhree baslc secLlons
Cu CenLral rocesslng unlL lL ls used Lo recognlze and carry ouL program
lnsLrucLlon 1he lnsLrucLlons are known as opcode or machlne code lL ls Lruly Lhe
braln of Lhe compuLer
l/C lnLerfaces lnpuL CuLpuL lnLerfaces are used Lo handle communlcaLlons beLween
compuLer and Lhe ouLslde world
Memory lL ls used Lo hold Lhe program lnsLrucLlon and daLa

ulglLal slgnals move from one secLlon Lo anoLher along Lhe paLh called buses A slngle lC Cu
ls known as mlcroprocessor (Mu)
AdvanLages of Mlcroprocessor 8ased ConLrol
owlevel slgnal from sensors once converLed Lo dlglLal can be LransmlLLed long
dlsLances vlrLually errorfree
A mlcroprocessor can handle complex calculaLlons and conLrol sLraLegles
Changlng Lhe conLrol sLraLegy ls easy by loadlng ln a new program no hardware
changes are requlred
Mlcroprocessor based conLrollers can be easlly connecLed Lo compuLer neLworks
wlLhln an organlzaLlon 1hls allows Lhe deslgners Lo enLer program changes and read
currenL sLaLus from Lhelr desk Lermlnals
ongLerm memory ls avallable Lo keep Lrack of parameLers ln slow movlng sysLems


1ypes of rocesses performed by (Cu)
ead/WrlLe daLa from/Lo memory or from/Lo an l/C devlce
ead lnsLrucLlons from memory
erform lnLegral manlpulaLlon of daLa wlLhln Lhe processor
1he lnLernal sLorage of Lhe processor ls known as reglsLers


CenLral rocesslng unlL (Cu)
Cu conLalns loglc Lo sLep Lhrough a program
rograms are composed of many very slmple lndlvldual operaLlons called
lnsLrucLlons LhaL speclfy ln exacL deLall how Lhe Cu wlll carry ouL an
algorlLhm/program
ach unlque lnsLrucLlon ls represenLed as blnary value called an opcode Cu
advances Lhrough opcodes on each clock cycle
When an opcode ls feLched from memory lL ls decoded afLer whlch approprlaLe
acLlons are carrled ouL
rogram counLer (C) reglsLer malnLalns Lhe address of Lhe nexL lnsLrucLlon Lo be
feLched from program memory
AfLer execuLlng each lnsLrucLlon C ls lncremenLed and a new lnsLrucLlon ls feLched
from Lhe address lndlcaLed by C When branch lnsLrucLlons are encounLered SLack
olnLer (S) reglsLer ls used
ArlLhmaLlc oglc unlL (Au)
1hls ls responslble for performlng arlLhmeLlc and loglcal operaLlons lL also keeps Lrack of
sLaLus flags LhaL Lell sybsequenL lnsLrucLlons wheLher Lhe resulL was poslLlve negaLlve or
zero and wheLher an addlLlon or subsLracLlon operaLlon creaLed a carry or borrow
Memory
Mlcroprocessors requlre memory resources Lo sLore programs and daLa Memory can be
classlfled ln Lwo broad caLagorles
1) volaLlle oses lLs conLenLs when power ls Lurned off C AM
2) nonvolaLlle Can reLaln lLs conLenLs even lf power ls Lurned off C Puu
lollowlngs are Lypes of memory
1) ead Cnly Memory (CM)
a) rogrammable ead Cnly Memory (CM)
b) rasable rogrammable ead Cnly Memory (CM)
c) lecLrlcally rasable rogrammable ead Cnly Memory (CM)
2) andom Access Memory (AM)
a) uynamlc andom Access Memory (uAM)
b) SLaLlc andom Access Memory (SAM)
3) CLher lorms of Memory
a) Cache Memory
b) llash Memory
c) vldeo Memory (vAM)

ead Cnly Memory (CM)
1he CM also known as flrmware cannoL be wrlLLen on or erased uslng Lhe compuLer
CM chlps conLaln programs LhaL are seL ln aL Lhe facLory Lhese are speclal lnsLrucLlons for
compuLer operaLlons CM chlps do noL loose Lhelr conLenLs when power ls removed
CM 1hese can be programmed uslng speclal equlpmenL Cnce Lhe program ls
wrlLLen lL cannoL be erased/
CM 1hese are llke CM chlps excepL LhaL Lhe conLenLs can be erased and Lhe
new daLa can be wrlLLen rasure ls done wlLh a speclal devlce LhaL uses uv llghL
CM 1hese can be reprogrammed uslng speclal elecLrlcal lmpulses 1he
advanLages of CM chlps ls LhaL Lhey need noL Lo be removed from Lhe
compuLer Lo be changed
andom Access Memory (AM)
1he AM also known as lnLernal memory prlmary sLorage or slmply memory lL has Lhree
baslc Lasks
lL holds Lhe daLa for processlng
lL holds Lhe lnsLrucLlons (programs)
lL holds Lhe daLa afLer lL has processed walLlng Lo be senL Lo an ouLpuL sLorage
1he conLenLs of Lhe AM address locaLlons change conLlnually as compuLer execuLes a
program lL requlres fasL Au and Wl1 cycle Llmes so LhaL lL may noL slow Lhe compuLer
down A ma[or dlsadvanLage of AM ls LhaL Lhey are volaLlle and loose all Lhe sLored
lnformaLlon lf power ls lnLerrupLed
CLher Memorles
Cache Memory 1hese are usually bullL lnLo Lhe Mu chlp 1hese allows Lhe Cu Lo
run fasLer because lL does noL have Lo Lake Llme Lo swap lnsLrucLlons ln and ouL of
Lhe AM 1he mosL frequenLly used lnsLrucLlons are kepL ln Lhe cache memory so Lhe
Cu can look Lhere flrsL and fasL
llash Memory 1hese conslsLs of clrculLry on credlLcardslze cards LhaL can be
lnserLed lnLo sloLs connecLlng Lo Lhe C moLherboard 1hese are nonvolaLlle
memory 1hese are becomlng very popular ln mlcroprocessor/mlcroconLroller based
appllcaLlons
vldeo Memory 1hese chlps are used Lo sLore dlsplay lmages for Lhe monlLor 1he
amounL of vldeo memory deLermlnes how fasL lmages appear and how many colors
are avallable


lnpuL/CuLpuL unlLs
1he l/C operaLlon ls deflned as Lhe Lransfer of daLa beLween Lhe Mu and Lhe
exLernal world 1he Lerm perlpheral devlces ls used for Lhe pleces of equlpmenL LhaL
exchange daLa wlLh a Mu sysLem
ln lnpuL operaLlons Lhe lnpuL devlce places Lhe daLa ln Lhe daLa reglsLer of Lhe
lnLerface chlp Lo hold unLll lL ls read by Lhe Mu ln ouLpuL operaLlons Lhe Mu
places Lhe daLa ln Lhe reglsLer unLll lL ls read by Lhe perlpheral
As Lhe speeds and charecLerlsLlcs of perlpheral devlces can dlffer slgnlflcanLly from
Lhose of Lhe Mus Lhese are connecLed vla lnLerface chlps Lo synchronlze daLa
Lransfers beLween Mu and Lhe perlpheral devlces
8uses
1here are Lhree buses exLernal Lo Lhe Mu and Lwo buses wlLhln Mu 1he exLernal address
and daLa buses are Lhe exLenslon of Lhe same buses lnslde Lhe Mu
Address 8us 1hls ls a 16llne unldlrecLlonal bus LhaL carrles 16blL address codes
from Lhe Mu Lo Lhe memory unlLs Lo selecL Lhe memory locaLlon whlch Lhe Mu ls
accesslng for Au or Wl1 operaLlon
uaLa 8us 1hls ls a 8llne bldlrecLlonal bus over whlch 8blL words can be senL from
Lhe Mu Lo Lhe memory or from Lhe memory Lo Lhe Mu lL can carry
daLa/lnsLrucLlon codes
ConLrol 8us 1hls ls grouplng of all Lhe Llmlng and conLrol slgnals needed Lo
synchronlze Lhe operaLlon of Mu wlLh Lhe oLher unlLs of Lhe mlcrocompuLer
CompuLer Words
1he fundamenLal unlL of lnformaLlon ln a compuLer ls word AlLhough lL ls made up
of several blLs compuLer LreaLs each word as a slngle unlL and sLores each word ln a
speclflc memory locaLlon
1he words slze for Lhe ma[orlLy of Mus ls 8blLs ( 1 8yLe) buL 16blL an 32blL Mus
are becomlng lncreaslngly common
Words sLored ln a compuLers memory unlL can represenL several Lypes of
lnformaLlon
a) 8lnary numerlcal uaLa 1hey slmply represenL a numerlcal quanLlLy ln Lhe blnary
number sysLem g 01110011
2
113
10

b) Coded uaLa 8lnarycodeddeclmal (8Cu) code ls wldely used ln compuLers where
each group of 4 blLs can be represenLed by a slngle declmal dlglL 1hus an 8blL word
can represenL Lwo declmal deglLs a 16blL word can represenL four declmal dlglLs
c) uaLa Word uaLa words can be alphanumerlcs AlphabeLlc characLers and oLher
speclal characLers or symbols uslng codes such as Lhe 7blL ASCll code one exLra
parlLy blL ls added Lo each code word Lo produce onebyLe ASCll code
d) lnsLrucLlon Codes lor mosL compuLers Lhe lnsLrucLlon words LhaL make up a
program wlll convey Lwo Lypes of lnformaLlon
l) Lhe operaLlon Lo be performed an ll) Lhe address of Lhe operand
lnsLrucLlon Codes
A hypoLheLlcal 20blL lnsLrucLlon word

WlLh 4blLs used for operaLlon code Lhere are 2
4
16 dlfferenL op codes wlLh each
lndlcaLlng a dlfferenL lnsLrucLlon A more versaLlle compuLer would have a greaLer
number of lnsLrucLlons
WlLh 16blLs used for address code Lhere are 2
16
63336 dlfferenL posslble
addresses
CompleLe lnsLrucLlon words are expressed ln hexadeclmals
An example lf op code 0100 represenLs one of Lhe 16 posslble operaLlons leL lL ls asslgned
for addlLlon (Auu) lf Lhe address code ls 0101101001110010 Lhen

1he lnsLrucLlon Lells Lhe compuLer Lo do Lhe followlng
leLch Lhe daLa word sLored ln Lhe address locaLlon 3A72 send lL Lo Au and add lL Lo Lhe
number ln Lhe accumulaLor reglsLer 1he sum wlll be Lhen sLored ln Lhe accymulaLor and Lhe
prevlous conLenLs of Lhe accumulaLor wlll be losL
Mlcro ConLrollers
Mlcro conLrollers are Lhe lnLegraLlon of a mlcro processor wlLh memory and l/C
devlces and oLher perlpherals such as Llmers on a slngle chlp
1he general mlcro conLroller has plns for exLernal connecLlons on lnpuLs and
ouLpuLs power clock and conLrol slgnals 1he plns for Lhe lnpuLs and ouLpuLs are
grouped lnLo l/C porLs usually such porLs have elghL llnes Lo be able Lo Lransfer an
8blL word of daLa
MoLorola 68PC11 lnLel 8031 and lC16lxxx and lC18lxxx are examples of 8blL
mlcro conLroller
AdvanLages of Mlcro ConLrollers
lewer chlps are requlred slnce mosL funcLlons are already presenL on Lhe processor
chlp
ower cosL and smaller slze resulL from a slmpler deslgn
ower power requlremenLs
lew exLernal connecLlons are requlred because mosL are made onchlp and Lhe mosL
of Lhe chlp connecLlons can be used for l/C
Cverall rellablllLy are hlgher slnce Lhere are fewer componenLs and lnLerconnecLlons
Mlcroprocessors vs MlcroconLrollers
Mlcroprocessor MlcroconLroller
1) Mlcroprocessors are mosL flexlble
2) Mlcroprocessor based sysLems
usually have a von neuman
ArchlLecLure wlLh a slngle memory
for boLh programs and daLa Lo allow
maxlmum flexlblllLy ln allocaLlon of
memory
1) MlcroconLrollers are mosL compacL
2) MlcroconLroller chlps frequenLly
embody Lhe Parverd ArchlLechLure
whlch has separaLe memorles for
programs and daLa lL has Lhe
poLenLlal advanLage of Lhe separaLe
lnLerface allowlng Lwlce Lhe memory
Lransfer raLe by lnsLrucLlon feLches Lo
occur ln parallel wlLh daLa Lransfer