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Transformational Leadership
Benefits and Limitations of Transformational Leadership
Jan 17, 2008 Mitch McCrimmon Being a transformational leader means having the ability to really inspire and motivate employees to achieve new heights, but it is only one leadership style.

Transformational leadership is yet another attempt to define leadership in terms of style or personality rather than by function. Consider, for example, sales and marketing. These are organizational functions; we can define them in terms of the purpose they serve. Similarly, a functional definition of leadership states that it serves the purpose of moving a group in new directions. Transformational leadership is an exciting idea but it has its limitations. However, it can be useful if we think of it only as one among many leadership styles rather than as an attempt to state how the best leaders should behave. What Is Transformational Leadership? Developed initially for political leaders by James McGregor Burns in the late 1970s, it was eagerly adopted for business leadership. It has four components: Charisma or idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Being charismatic is like having sex appeal. It's having a dynamic, energetic and commanding presence. We idealize such people. Martin Luther King is a great example. Leaders who are inspirational motivators appeal to basic values with enthusiasm and an eloquent speaking style to offer a compelling vision. Intellectual stimulation means inspiring people to think differently or creatively by suggesting new ways of looking at things. Finally, showing individualized consideration means paying attention to people as individuals and helping them meet their needs. Burns and his followers contrasted transformational leadership with "transactional leadership" which is based on simple exchange, rewarding followers for a job well done. Limitations of Transformational Leadership There is a great deal of perfectly effective leadership that is not transformational. It is possible to lead by cite hard facts in a quiet, soft or even assertive manner. Also, too much emphasis is placed on style over substance. Today, substance has become extremely important, including integrity or character and content (as in "content is king"). There is a growing demand for "evidence based" decision making where, to show leadership, you need to cite hard evidence. Whether you can present your business case in an inspiring manner is not as important as having solid facts to back you up. You can have great sales skills to get people on board but if you do so for unethical purposes, this style of leadership can be dangerous. Cult leaders, for example, are often transformational. Secondly, without good content, leaders have nothing worth saying so it doesn't matter how powerfully they say it. Participative leadership means involving employees in making decisions. To be a participative leader, it isn't necessary to be an inspirational speaker. Transformational leaders make their mark primarily by promoting a vision in an inspiring mannner. We admire such leaders, but they aren't necessarily skilled at employee engagement. They are like skilled sales people or promoters so they want to sell you their vision. In today's knowledge intensive world, the participative leadership style is likely to be more engaging and motivating for knowledge workers.
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Another issue is the fact that transformational leadership has, for some people, become the very meaning of leadership while its transactional counterpart is identified with management. This is unfortunate. The beauty of a purely functional way of defining leadership and management (leadership promotes new directions; management executes them) is that you can leave the style question completely open. Now we can say that inspirational leaders move followers to change direction while inspirational managers motivate employees to work harder. That is, style pertains to how you influence people; it is not a way of defining leadership. Suppose you lead by example by just quietly being the first to try something new. There is no inspiring speech or vision offered here. Benefits of Transformational Leadership There is no doubt that being able to inspire people, stimulate them to think differently and pay attention to their needs are great ways for a leader to behave. If you have good content and integrity and can present a case for change with enough enthusiasm to inspire people, you are more likely to win them over than if your communication style is sleep-inducing. Being inspirational is most useful in situations where there is no evidence or the facts are unclear. This is especially true with clashes of values or standards of behavior. Martin Luther King appealed to a basic sense of fair play to move the U.S. Supreme Court to outlaw segregation on buses. The facts alone wouldn't have done it. The truth is, however, that different influencing styles work better with different audiences. Also, we live in a much more knowledge-driven world today where knowing what you are talking about has become just as important as how you say

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Transformational Leadership
Disciplines > Leadership > Leadership styles > Transformational Leadership Assumptions | Style | Discussion | See also

Assumptions
People will follow a person who inspires them. A person with vision and passion can achieve great things. The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.

Style
Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting experience. They put passion and energy into everything. They care about you and want you to succeed. Developing the vision Transformational Leadership starts with the development of a vision, a view of the future that will excite and convert potential followers. This vision may be developed by the leader, by the senior team or may emerge from a broad series of discussions. The important factor is the leader buys into it, hook, line and sinker.

Selling the vision The next step, which in fact never stops, is to constantly sell the vision. This takes energy and commitment, as few people will immediately buy into a radical vision, and some will join the show much more slowly than others. The Transformational Leader thus takes every opportunity and will use whatever works to convince others to climb on board the bandwagon. In order to create followers, the Transformational Leader has to be very careful in creating trust, and their personal integrity is a critical part of the package that they are selling. In effect, they are selling themselves as well as the vision. Finding the way forwards In parallel with the selling activity is seeking the way forward. Some Transformational Leaders know the way, and simply want others to follow them. Others do not have a ready strategy, but will happily lead the exploration of possible routes to the promised land. The route forwards may not be obvious and may not be plotted in details, but with a clear vision, the direction will always be known. Thus finding the way forward can be an ongoing process of course correction, and the Transformational Leader will accept that there will be failures and blind canyons along the way. As long as they feel progress is being made, they will be happy. Leading the charge The final stage is to remain up-front and central during the action. Transformational Leaders are always visible and will stand up to be counted rather than hide behind their troops. They show by their attitudes and actions how everyone else should behave. They also make continued efforts to motivate and rally their followers, constantly doing the rounds, listening, soothing and enthusing. It is their unswerving commitment as much as anything else that keeps people going, particularly through the darker times when some may question whether the vision can ever be achieved. If the people do not believe that they can succeed, then their efforts will flag. The Transformational Leader seeks to infect and reinfect their followers with a high level of commitment to the vision. One of the methods the Transformational Leader uses to sustain motivation is in the use of ceremonies, rituals and other cultural symbolism. Small changes get big hurrahs, pumping up their significance as indicators of real progress. Overall, they balance their attention between action that creates progress and the mental state of their followers. Perhaps more than other approaches, they are people-oriented and believe that success comes first and last through deep and sustained commitment.

Discussion
Whilst the Transformational Leader seeks overtly to transform the organization, there is also a tacit promise to followers that they also will be transformed in some way, perhaps to be more like this amazing leader. In some respects, then, the followers are the product of the transformation. Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but are not as narcissistic as pure Charismatic Leaders, who succeed through a belief in themselves rather than a belief in others. One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion and confidence can easily be mistaken for truth and reality. Whilst it is true that great things have been achieved through enthusiastic leadership, it is also true that many passionate people have led the charge right over the cliff and into a bottomless chasm. Just because someone believes they are right, it does not mean they are right. Paradoxically, the energy that gets people going can also cause them to give up. Transformational Leaders often have large amounts of enthusiasm which, if relentlessly applied, can wear out their followers. Transformational Leaders also tend to see the big picture, but not the details, where the devil often lurks. If they do not have people to take care of this level of information, then they are usually doomed to fail.

Finally, Transformational Leaders, by definition, seek to transform. When the organization does not need transforming and people are happy as they are, then such a leader will be frustrated. Like wartime leaders, however, given the right situation they come into their own and

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The influence of the transformational leader.

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This article focuses on how transformational leaders influence organizations. Transformational leaders provide chan power to inspire and motivate people to trust and follow their example. However, there are also potential dangers re provide new direction, new inspiration, and new behaviors for their organizations. **********

Transformational Leadership is a popular theory in the leadership arena. Various researchers and writers have establ transformational leadership theory: how transformational leaders influence organizations.

James MacGregor Burns' seminal study (1978) provided initial definitions of transformational leadership by drawin transformational leadership is a process that motivates people by appealing to higher ideals and moral values, defini

The difference between transformational and transactional leadership styles can be defined by denoting the transform the transactional style depends on existing structures (Mink, 1992). Whereas the transactional style uses the power a transactional leadership is at best a networking of power; however, transformational leadership appeals to higher mo management cannot produce.

Ackoff (1999) provided a helpful summary of the findings of three areas often associated with leaders. First, he defi means selected by the manager himself. And third, Ackoff specified that leadership consists of guiding, encouraging an inspiring vision, facilitates the vision, encourages short-term sacrifices, and makes pursuing the vision a fulfilling

Stephen Covey (1991) described transformational leadership as the 'parent' of transactional leadership. Transformati transformational qualities in their cultures while continuing effective transactional qualities. Therefore, transactiona Themes in Transformational Leadership

Tracey and Hinkin (1998), who correlated their findings with the work of Bass and Avolio (1990, 1994a), observed assumptions and promoting non-traditional thinking. Tracey and Hinkin compared this theme to the intellectual stim

The second theme that Tracey and Hinkin (1998) correlated with the work of Bass and Avolio (1990, 1994a) is a foc improve a worker's performance. The transformational leader wants followers to become leaders themselves. Bass a Transformational leaders engage the full person so that associates are developed into leaders" (p. 17). Characteristics of Transformational Leaders

Leader descriptions often focus on behaviors. As Finkelstein and Hambrick (1996) stated: "It is appropriate that our functioning and performance" (p. 71). However, external behavior reflects internal influences as well as relationship

The internal context of the individual's behavior is the foundation for transformational leadership (Herrington, Bone their inner selves (Herrington, Bonem, & Furr). The leader's own development provides internal changes that produ

Dixon (1998) discovered inner characteristics of transformational leaders that produce effective behaviors. He indic experiences with transformational behaviors (Avolio, 1994). This inner connection and resulting behavior lead to ex difference.

The leader's external and visible behavior has an impact on the organization (Avolio, 1994; Finkelstein & Hambriek (Bass, Waldman, Avolio, & Bebb, 1987). The leader's behavior motivates and creates an impression that the leader organization.

The relational context introduces two primary areas of the transformational leader's influence. According to Schuste the followers to act on their own behalf and for the needs of others. The leader relates to their developmental needs (

The transformational leader's internal, external, and relational context of behavior connects with the followers' own development, and shares power with them (Davidhizer & Shearer, 1997). Transformational leaders elevate the intere mission, and initiate new ways of thinking (Keller, 1995). The result is new influence on the culture of the organizat An Emphasis upon Organizational Change

According to Burns (1978), transformational leaders provide change and movement in an organization. They do so b the capacity to stand back from everyday activities and see the processes of change over the long term.

Transformational leaders emphasize new possibilities and promote a compelling vision of the future. A strong sense system. Transformational leaders manifest passionate inspiration (Hersey & Blanchard, 1996) and visibly model app leaders. The process of transformational leadership grows out of this sense of vision and energy. The Process of Change

Transformational leaders focus on change, progress, and development. Therefore, transformational leaders desire to facilitating comprehension of the need for growth. These methods reach into the areas about which humans truly car

Transformational leaders emphasize the need for understanding change as a process. A process mindset is the basis One of the key factors in the change process is for each person to become and remain a continual learner (Mink, 199

Two events can become catalysts for change: 1) a fresh look at trends and 2) feedback from front-line people (Herri also engage in a process that yields transformational change (Dess, Picken, & Lyon, 1998). The purpose is to define

Transformational leaders intend to influence unique human qualities. Covey (1991) noted that transformational lead leaders have an impact on the psychology and behavior of followers in order to shape their values (Brown, 1994). The Influence of Transformational Leaders on the Organization's Culture

Leaders must recognize the importance of considering and influencing the culture in their organizations (Bass & Av that they work to change the organization, whereas transactional managers work within the existing structure (Bass individual growth and organizational performance (Bass & Avolio, 1993).

The culture in transformational organizations inculcates a sense of purpose, long-term commitments, and mutual int three areas of the organizational culture: 1) the internal mindset of the people in the organization, 2) the culture amo Influencing the Internal Mindset of the People in the Organization

Transformational organizations operate from the inside out. Mink (1992) admonished leaders to 'get inside the peop where they can go.

Transformational leaders strongly engage followers' self-concepts (Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993; Bass & Avolio, to know what they can do within the entity. This in turn promotes an enhanced commitment to their jobs, their cowo within the organization.

The transformational paradigm optimizes an energy exchange between the leaders and followers for the benefit of th followers respond and new behaviors develop (Seltzer & Bass, 1990). As a result, the culture among the followers ta Influencing the Culture among the People in the Organization

Transformational leaders affect the culture among the people through teams, innovation, and productivity. Many yea Therefore, organizations benefit from having transformational leaders at all functional levels (King, 1994; Waldman people to greater effectiveness as they reach common goals for the organization and for themselves. Transformational innovation brings higher productivity (Bass & Avolio, 1997). Transformational leaders influence

Productivity and innovation improve when transformational leaders emphasize culture and values in an organization central focus in its culture. This is why Keller (1995) asserted that leaders must be chosen with leader skills and not Influencing the Culture of the People beyond the Organization

Transformational leaders not only influence the culture among their followers, but their influence also extends beyo which they understand situations in terms of organizations and people. This sensitivity progresses from the inner sel

As the world beyond the organization changes, transformational leaders help the existing organization adapt to the d organizations. Transformational leaders have the potential to influence the world in both positive and negative ways them rather than influencing those agendas for the benefit of the people and the organization. The Potential Dangers and Abuses of Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership carries the potential for abuse (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Conger & Kanungo, 1998). T power within organizations (Atwater & Wright, 1996). Problems can arise when leaders attempt to practice transfor

McIntosh and Rima (1997) defined the "dark side" of leadership as "inner urges, compulsions, motivations and dysf that causes us to search for a reason why" (p. 22). Leaders and organizations must know how to recognize the hiding

Keeley (1995) went so far as to question the validity of transformational leadership in leading organizations because ethical values, and 3) the morality of the processes of ethical choices. These pillars primarily affect the treatment of tramples upon those concerns" (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999, p. 186). Personal Factors in the Dangers and Abuses

A leader's use of power reflects integrity. A leader with a high level of integrity has an understanding of what it mea Covey (1991) categorized three types of leadership power that influence people: 1) coercive (people follow out of fe engage people in a positive power exchange rather than allowing the leader to become a "black hole" of power.

Power becomes a potential danger if leaders have their focus on themselves or on building resources alone rather tha people. McIntosh and Rima (1997) observed that the 'dark side' is present in all of us. Those who ignore it face majo

Two of the most obvious perils in leadership are pride and egotism (Sanders, 1994). These areas can press leaders in approval, 2) the narcissistic leader who tries to succeed in order to gain the admiration of others, 3) the paranoid lead angry, sad, and manipulative.

Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) pointed out that all leaders have some integration of positive and negative factors. The and working to develop positive attributes. Maintaining accountability keeps leaders from isolation and nurturing th characteristic of great leaders who make positive contributions to humankind (Covey, 1991). Organizational Factors in the Dangers and Abuses

In addition to personal factors, there can be organizational factors that lead to dangers in transformational leadership how people relate to one another (Folger, Poole, & Stutman, 1997). Leaders in abusive systems misuse power for th the sake of its own power. Ford (1991) asserted that power is not value neutral; it is value driven. Therefore, transfo

Leaders and organizations can recognize the hiding places of the dark forces that undermine genuine transformation leaders from abusing their positions or taking advantage of their followers (Hackman & Johnson, 1996).

The personal and organizational factors in these dangers will never be totally eliminated, but they can be managed f characterized by high moral and ethical standards.... At the same time it aims to develop the leader as a moral person ordering; by creating achievable, though challenging expectations and rewarding progress toward them rather than b Conclusion

Organizations need transformational leaders. Such leaders focus upon organizational change, which is imperative in to inspire people and motivate them to trust and follow their example.

Transformational leaders have a major influence upon organizational culture. In fact, their primary focus is upon cre However, there are also potential dangers resulting from the powerful influence of transformational leaders. Inauthe boundaries. The stability brought about by effective transactional managers who initiate and develop policy and pro organization.

Bernard Bass (1990) concluded that "transformational leadership can be learned, and it can--and should--be the subj 'born leader' will never amount to anything as a leader.... Our experience diverges from the conventional wisdom, ho

Aspiring individuals should seek to learn the skills necessary to become transformational leaders. Organizations thro inspiration, and new behaviors for their organizations. Therefore, they are essential ingredients in organizational dev References Ackoff, R. (1999). Transformational leadership. Strategy & Leadership, 27, 20-25.

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Bruce A. Tucker, Acworth, Georgia Robert F. Russell, Emory & Henry College, Emory, VA http://www.ipa.udel.edu/3tad/papers/workshop6/Liu.pdf

Transformational Leadership: Characteristics and Criticisms

Iain Hay School of Geography, Population and Environmental Management Flinders University

A prime function of a leader is to keep hope alive. (John W. Gardner) Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm. (Ralph Waldo Emerson) Setting an example is not the main means of influencing another, it is the only means. (Albert Einstein)

Collectively, these three short quotations capture some of the key characteristics of transformational leadership, a form of leadership argued by some (Simic, 1998) to match the Zeitgeist of the post-World War II era. Academic debate about the nature and effectiveness of transformational leadership has developed since key work on the topic emerged in the 1970s. This short paper sets out to provide summary answers to three main questions about transformational leadership. What is it? How is it applied? What are some of its key weaknesses? In the course of the discussion, the following pages also provide a brief background to the origins of transformational leadership theory and point quickly to a possible theoretical future for a transformed transformational leadership.
Transformational Leadership Theory

According to Cox (2001), there are two basic categories of leadership: transactional and transformational. The distinction between transactional and transformational leadership was first made by Downton (1973, as cited in Barnett, McCormick & Conners, 2001) but the idea gained little currency until James McGregor Burns (1978) work on political leaders was published. Burns distinguished between ordinary (transactional) leaders, who exchanged tangible rewards for the work and loyalty of followers, and extraordinary (transformational) leaders who engaged with followers, focused on higher order intrinsic needs, and raised consciousness about the significance of specific outcomes and new ways in which those outcomes might be achieved (Barnett, McCormick & Conners, 2001; Cox, 2001; Gellis, 2001; Griffin, 2003; Judge & Piccolo, 2004). The idea of transformational leadership was developed further by Bernard Bass, now Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Organizational Behavior, at the State University of New York (Binghampton), who disputed Burns conception of transactional and transformational leadership as opposites on a continuum. He suggested instead that they are separate concepts and that good leaders demonstrate characteristics of both (Judge & Piccolo, 2004, p. 755). Interest in transformational leadership over the past three decades is the result of two tendencies (Simic, 1998, p. 50). First, significant global economic changes from the early 1970s which followed on from about 25 years of post-World War 2 stability meant that many large western companies such as General Motors and AT&T had to consider radical changes in their ways of doing business. Factors such as rapid technological change, heightened levels of competition, a rising flow of products from newly industrialized countries, volatility in OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) pricing strategies, and changing demographic structures created a turbulent, unstable and competitive environment in which significant organizational change was imperative. Changes often included downsizing and the adoption of new forms of organizational arrangement. These amendments took their toll on worker satisfaction and empowerment and broke the old social contract of long-term employment in return for employee loyalty (Griffin, 2003, p. 1). Because companies needed to resolve the apparently contradictory challenge of finding new ways of affecting change while simultaneously building employee morale, new approaches to leadership were needed (Conger, 1999). Second, the theoretical base of work on leadership that prevailed in the 1970s was founded in explorations of traits, behaviours, and situations (contingency theories) and failed to account of some untypical qualities of leaders (Simic, 1998, p. 50). Transformational leadership is that which: facilitates a redefinition of a peoples mission and vision, a renewal of their commitment and the restructuring of their systems for goal accomplishment. It is a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents. Hence, transformational leadership must be grounded in moral foundations. (Leithwood, as cited in Cashin et al., 2000, p.1)

Transformational leadership fosters capacity development and brings higher levels of personal commitment amongst followers to organizational objectives. According to Bass (1990b, p. 21) transformational leadership occurs when leaders broaden and elevate the interests of their employees, when they generate awareness and acceptance of the purposes and mission of the group, and when they stir employees to look beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group. Together, heightened capacity and commitment are held to lead to additional effort and greater productivity (Barbuto, 2005; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000; Spreitzer, Perttula & Xin, 2005). Transformational leaders elevate people from low levels of need, focussed on survival (following Maslows hierarchy), to higher levels (Kelly, 2003; Yukl, 1989). They may also motivate followers to transcend their own interests for some other collective purpose (Feinberg, Ostroff & Burke, 2005, p. 471) but typically help followers satisfy as many of their individual human needs as possible, appealing notably to higher order needs (e.g. to love, to learn, and to leave a legacy). Transformational leaders are said to engender trust, admiration, loyalty and respect amongst their followers (Barbuto, 2005, p. 28). This form of leadership requires that leaders engage with followers as whole people, rather than simply as an employee for example. In effect, transformational leaders emphasize the actualization of followers (Rice, 1993). Transformational leadership is also based on self-reflective changing of values and beliefs by the leader and their followers. From this emerges a key characteristic of transformational leadership. It is said to involve leaders and followers raising one anothers achievements, morality and motivations to levels that might otherwise have been impossible (Barnett, 2003; Chekwa, 2001; Crawford, Gould & Scott, 2003; Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 2004).
Though an understanding of transformational leadership predicated on its outcomes appears to have been achieved, Leithwood and Jantzi (2000) observe that despite (or perhaps as a result of) over four decades of work in the field (see, for example, Bennis, 1959), the literature in educational leadership offers no single conception of the processes that constitute transformational leadership. For instance, Gronn (1996) remarks on the close relationship between charismatic and transformational leadership while pointing out the absence of notions of charisma in some work transformational leadership. And most authors in the field propose that four factors make up transformational leadership whereas Leithwood (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000) suggests six[1]. These are set out in Table 1 below. The Four Common Is

Leithwoods Six 1. Building vision and goals. 2. Providing intellectual stimulation. Sources: Barbuto (2005); Hall, Johnson, Wysocki & Kepner (2002); Judge & Piccolo, 3. Offering 2004; Kelly (2003); Simic (1998). individualized support. 4. Symbolizi ng professional practices and values. 5. Demonstra ting high performance expectations. 6. Developin g structures to foster participation in 1. Idealized influence . Charismatic vision and behaviour that inspires others to follow. 2. Inspirational motivation. Capacity to motivate others to commit to the vision. 3. Intellectual stimulation. Encouraging innovation and creativity. 4. Individualized consideration. Coaching to the specific needs of followers.
[2]

decisions.

Source: Leithwood & Jantzi (2000). Table 1. Dimensions of Transformational Leadership. Nevertheless, it is clear that general understandings of transformational leadership are dominated by acceptance of the four dimensions set out in the left-hand column of Table 1 (see, for example, Stone, Russell & Patterson (2003)). These factors have been confirmed by empirical work in the area (Bass, Avolio, Jung & Berson, 2003, p. 208). In 1985 Bernard Bass devised the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), an instrument intended to measure transformational and transactional leader behaviours. Over the past two decades, and following application in scores of research studies involving military, educational, and commercial organizations (see, for example, Gellis, 2001), the MLQ has emerged as the primary means of quantitatively assessing transformational leadership (Bryant, 2003; Griffin, 2003). An outcome of this work is the isolation of four factors now accepted as being exhibited by effective transformational leaders. Their additive effect is summarized in Figure 1. Idealized influence (attributes and behaviours) + Individualized consideration + Inspirational motivation + Intellectual stimulation = Performance Beyond Expectations Source: Hall, Johnson, Wysocki and Kepner (2002, p. 2). Figure 1. The Additive Effect of Transformational Leadership.
Idealized influence is about building confidence and trust and providing a role model that followers seek to emulate (Bono & Judge, 2004, p. 901; Simic, 1998, p. 52; Stone, Russell & Patterson, 2003, p. 3). Leaders are admired, respected, and trusted (Bass, Avolio, Jung & Berson, 2003, p. 208). Confidence in the leader provides a foundation for accepting (radical) organizational change. That is, followers who are sure of the virtues of their leader will be less likely to resist proposals for change from her/him. Clearly, idealized influence is linked to charisma (Gellis, 2001, p. 18). Charismatic leadership is a characteristic of transformational leadership and depends on leaders as well as followers for its expression (Kelly, 2003). The link between charismatic and transformational leadership is clearest during times of crisis within an organization such as when Lee Iacocca took over and resurrected the ailing Chrysler Corporation in the 1970s and 1980s (Kelly, 2003).

Inspirational motivation is related to idealized influence but whereas charisma is held to motivate individuals, inspirational leadership is about motivating the entire organization to, for example, follow a new idea. Transformational leaders make clear an appealing view of the future, offer followers the opportunity to see meaning in their work, and challenge them with high standards. They encourage followers to become part of the overall organizational culture and environment (Kelly, 2003; Stone, Russell & Patterson, 2003, p. 3). This might be achieved through motivational speeches and conversations and other public displays of optimism and enthusiasm, highlighting positive outcomes, and stimulating teamwork (Simic, 1998, p. 52). Martin Luther Kings I have a dream speech and US President John F. Kennedys vision of putting a man on the moon by 1970 stand out as exceptional

examples of this characteristic (Yukl, 1989, p. 221). Through these sorts of means, transformational leaders encourage their followers to imagine and contribute to the development of attractive, alternative futures (Bass, Avolio, Jung & Berson, 2003, p. 208). Intellectual stimulation involves arousing and changing followers awareness of problems and their capacity to solve those problems (Bono & Judge, 2004; Kelly, 2003). Transformational leaders question assumptions and beliefs and encourage followers to be innovative and creative, approaching old problems in new ways (Barbuto, 2005). They empower followers by persuading them to propose new and controversial ideas without fear of punishment or ridicule (Stone, Russell & Patterson, 2003, p. 3). They impose their own ideas judiciously and certainly not at any cost (Simic, 2003, p. 52). Individualized consideration involves responding to the specific, unique needs of followers to ensure they are included in the transformation process of the organization (Simic, 1998, p. 52). People are treated individually and differently on the basis of their talents and knowledge (Shin & Zhou, 2003, p. 704) and with the intention of allowing them to reach higher levels of achievement than might otherwise have been achieved (Chekwa, 2001, p. 5; Stone, Russell & Patterson, 2003, p. 3). This might take expression, for example, through expressing words of thanks or praise, fair workload distributions, and individualized career counseling, mentoring and professional development activities. Clearly then, besides having an overarching view of the organization and its trajectory, the transformational leader must also comprehend those things that motivate followers individually (Simic, 2003, p. 52). Together, the four main dimensions of transformational leadership are interdependent; they must coexist; and they are held to have an additive effect that yields performance beyond expectations(Gellis, 2001; Hall, Johnson, Wysocki & Kepner, 2002; Kelly, 2003).

 clear sense of purpose, expressed simply (e.g. metaphors, anecdotes) value driven (e.g. have core values and congruent behaviour) strong role model high expectations persistent self-knowing perpetual desire for learning love work life-long learners identify themselves as change agents enthusiastic able to attract and inspire others strategic effective communicator

emotionally mature emotionally mature courageous risk-taking risk-sharing visionary unwilling to believe in failure sense of public need. considerate of the personal needs of employees listens to all viewpoints to develop spirit of cooperation mentoring able to deal with complexity, uncertainty and ambiguity

courageous risk-taking risk-sharing visionary unwilling to believe in failure sense of public need. considerate of the personal needs of employees listens to all viewpoints to develop spirit of cooperation mentoring able to deal with complexity, uncertainty and ambiguity

Sources: Bass (1990a); Cox (2001); Epitropaki (undated); Hall, Johnson, Wysocki & Kepner (2002); Lussier & Achua (2004); Stone, Russell & Patterson (2003); Tichy & Devanna (1986); and University of Regina (undated).

S o u r c e s

: B a s s ( 1 9 9 0 a ) ; C o x ( 2 0 0 1 ) ; E p i t r o p a k i ( u n d a t e d ) ;

H a l l , J o h n s o n , W y s o c k i & K e p n e r ( 2 0 0 2 ) ; L u s s i e r

& A c h u a ( 2 0 0 4 ) ; S t o n e , R u s s e l l & P a t t e r s o n ( 2 0 0 3 )

; T i c h y & D e v a n n a ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; a n d U n i v e r s i t y o f R e g i n

a ( u n d a t e d ) .

Table 2. Characteristics of Transformational Leaders. Table 2 summarizes the characteristics that, according to the extant literature, accompany the four foundational attributes of a transformational leader. Collectively, they do suggest a human being of remarkable capabilities! Nevertheless, on foundations provided by the four dimensions of transformational leadership (Table 1 and Figure 1) and the various associated characteristics (Table 2), transformational leaders are people who can create significant change in both followers and the organization with which they are associated (Griffin, 2003). They lead changes in mission, strategy, structure and culture, in part through a focus on intangible qualities like vision, shared values and ideas, and relationship building. They are able to give significance to diverse activities, illustrating, for example, the ways in which different people and groups might be working towards larger organizational objectives. Transformational leaders also find common ground that allows them to enlist followers in processes of change.

Following Carlson and Perrewe (1995), ERIC (1992), Lussier and Achua (2004), and Yukl (1989) there are four stages of organizational change under transformational leadership. First, it is necessary to make a compelling case for change. The transformational leader helps to bring about change by making a convincing case for it. This characteristically involves heightening followers sensitivity to environmental changes and challenges and questioning the status quo. For instance, the case for change within a school or some other educational environment might be made by inviting government department spokespeople to the school to present an overview of policy and related contexts or by highlighting levels of performance relative to other, similar organizations. Second, it is important to inspire a shared vision, seeking broad input, and encouraging everyone to think of a new and better future. This needs to be cast in ideological rather than just economic terms. This might be achieved by involving all staff in the shaping and reshaping of the school/departments strategic plan on a regular basis. Staff might be surveyed to establish their wants and needs. For example, in an educational context, a school principal or department head could also visit classrooms regularly (and encourage others to do the same) to better gauge collective requirements (ERIC, 1992). Inspiring a shared vision will also be achieved through coaching and conscious role modeling strategies. Third, change needs to be led. A sense of urgency must be instilled. Collaboration has to be encouraged and the self-confidence of followers must be increased. In effect, it is vital to create an environment conducive to the creation and sharing of knowledge (Bryant, 2003, p. 37). Public recognition of achievements and successful (shared) initiatives might help serve these ends. Private notes of congratulation to successful followers can also help foster self-confidence (ERIC, 1992). It is also necessary at this stage, to deal with the emotional resistance that typically accompanies change and this may be achieved through careful recognition of the individuals needs of staff or followers. Finally, change needs to be embedded. This is achieved by, for example, monitoring progress, changing appraisal and reward systems, and hiring staff with a commitment to collaboration. Together these should also empower followers to help achieve the organizations objectives. What leaders pay attention to, what they measure and how they measure it, and what they control (Carlson & Perrewe, 1995) are critical factors in transforming an organizations culture and embedding new ways of thinking and acting. In summary: the transformational leader articulates the vision in a clear and appealing manner, explains how to attain the visions, acts confidently and optimistically, expresses confidence in the followers, emphasizes values with symbolic actions, leads by example, and empowers followers to achieve the vision (Stone, Russell & Patterson, 2003, p. 4). That transformational leadership is successful has been demonstrated by studies in a diverse range of professional and cultural settings, including military, schools and corporations (Bryant, 2003, p. 36). However, in their recent study of traditionality in Taiwan and the United States, Spreitzer, Perttula & Xin (2005) make it clear that while transformational leadership is effective regardless of culture, the level of effectiveness depends to some extent on cultural values. People with traditional cultural values see weaker links between transformational leadership and leader effectiveness than those with less traditional values. Transformational leadership has also been demonstrated to result in a high level of follower motivation and commitment and well-above-average organizational performance, especially under conditions of crisis or uncertainty (Bryant, 2003, p. 36). As Carlson and Perrewe (1995, p. 834) observe, major changes in the organizations mission, strategies and level of follower commitment are likely to emerge as a result of transformational leadership. On the basis of their analysis of several legal cases, Odom and Green (2003) argue that principles of transformational leadership (i.e., intellectual stimulation, idealized influence) applied to ethical dilemmas faced by managers offers the prospect of

less litigation and better ethical outcomes than the more common transactional approach to ethics. Within educational environments teachers are more likely to collaborate and are held to be more likely to have positive attitudes to school improvement and to new forms of instructional behaviour as a result of transformational leadership (ERIC, 1992). Successful Transformational Leaders Although the idea of transformational leadership is relatively recent, people who have demonstrated the characteristics of this form of leadership have existed for many years. For instance, Yates (2002) argues that Genghis Khan was a transformational leader who, during the late 12 and early 13 centuries, united fiercely independent Mongol tribes to ultimately create one of the largest land empires ever seen. Another transformational leader is Lou Gerstner retired Chairman and CEO of IBM. He turned IBM around from $8.1 billion loss in 1993 after identifying part of the companys problem as success syndrome. That is, having been one of the greatest commercial institutions on Earth from the 1960s-1980s, IBM had become insular and rigid (Sheppard, 2002). Gerstner completely transformed the culture of the organization through, for example, modeling desired behaviour and abolishing IBMs notorious dress code to reflect better the attire of their customers (Sheppard, 2002). Lee Iacocca is a transformational leader who is credited with saving the Chrysler Corporation. He took over Chrysler when it was on the brink of bankruptcy and set about transforming the ideals of his closest subordinates. In turn, that began to reshape the corporations culture. Because a transformational leader encourages others to becomes transformational leaders, soon the entire organization was filled with effective leaders (Kelly, 2003). One high profile transformational leader from educational environments is Dr Ruth Simmons, the first African-American to be appointed President of an Ivy League university (Brown) in the USA. Earlier, as President of Smith College Simmons had started an engineering program - the first ever at a womens university in the USA. Simmons was a transformational leader who herself attributed her own successes to her kindergarten teacher, Ms Ida Mae Henderson, who had advised her she could do anything in her heart she set out to achieve (Chekwa, 2001). Within military and government contexts, General Colin Powell overcame entrenched racism (particularly in the US military) and low institutional expectations of African Americans to become chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1989. He went further, becoming in 1991 the first African American to become US Secretary of State, a position some said he filled with vision and the qualities of a transformational leader (Chekwa, 2001). Other transformational leaders include Christine Nixon, the current Police Chief Commissioner in the Australian state of Victoria, who is popularly understood to have transformed the culture of that police force for the good, and Sir Richard Branson, responsible for international Virgin enterprises (Lussier & Achua, 2004). These are positive examples of transformational leaders but as critics (e.g., Yukl, 1989) point out, transformational leadership is not without its dark side and other flaws. Criticisms of Transformational Leadership The morality of transformational leadership has been questioned, especially by libertarians and organizational development consultants (Griffin, 2003). A key criticism is that within it transformational leadership has potential for the abuse of power (Hall, Johnson, Wysocki & Kepner, 2002). Transformational leaders motivate followers by appealing to strong emotions regardless of the ultimate effects on followers and do not necessarily attend to positive moral values. As Stone, Russell and Patterson (2003, p. 4) observe, transformational leaders can exert a very powerful influence over followers, who offer them trust and respect. Some leaders may have narcissistic tendencies, thriving on power and manipulation. Moreover, some followers may have dependent characters and form strong and unfortunate bonds with their leaders (Stone, Russell and Patterson, 2003, p. 4). Further, as Bass (1997) notes, transformational leadership lacks the checks and balances of countervailing interests,
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influences and power that might help to avoid dictatorship and oppression of a minority by a majority. In the absence of moral rectitude it is self-evident then that transformational leadership might be applied for less-than-desirable social ends. Yukl (1989, p. 226) describes this as the dark side of charisma and goes on to note (p. 227) that for every example of a positive transformational leader demonstrating charismatic qualities (e.g., Mohandas [Mahatma] Ghandi), there is an equally negative example (e.g., Charles Manson). The Rev Jim Jones, who led the massive Jonestown suicide, is an example of a transformational leader from the dark side (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 2004). These criticisms about the morality of transformational leadership have been addressed by the argument that to be truly transformational, leadership must have moral foundations (Griffin, 2003). Thus: To bring about change, authentic transformational leadership fosters the modal values of honesty, loyalty, and fairness, as well as the end values of justice, equality, and human rights.(Griffin, 2003, p. 8. Emphasis added). There is an argument that transformational leadership is facilitative of change because it contributes to organizational improvement, effectiveness and institutional culture (Barnett, McCormick & Conners, 2001). As such, it is appropriate in environments of turbulence and change such as those that prevail in many organizations in the mid-2000s. However, this view is contested by Barnett, McCormick and Conners (2001) whose study of twelve secondary schools in New South Wales, Australia revealed that teachers may in fact be distracted from concentrating on learning-and-teaching by, for example, taking time away from students to be involved in the corporate school initiatives an inspirational, transformational principal expects of them. Leithwood and Jantzi (2000) conclude that transactional leaders more commonly apply teleological ethics whereas transformational leaders deploy deontological ethics. In short, these two approaches to leadership stand on different moral foundations. As some recent work in ethics suggests (Israel & Hay, 2006), ethical decision-making is best founded on both approaches. Bass (1997) usefully summarizes some of the other criticisms of transformational leadership. It lends itself to amoral self promotion by leaders since it makes use of impression management. He suggests it is anthithetical to organization learning and development involving shared leadership, equality, consensus and participative decision-making. It encourages followers to go beyond their own selfinterests for the good of the organization and may emotionally engage followers in pursuit of evil ends. This point is supported by Carlson and Perrewe (1995) who remind us that an organizations culture socializes individuals into that culture. While acceptable behaviour might be supported in this way, so too might socially unacceptable behaviour. Finally, Bass notes that transformational leadership can see followers manipulated in ways that may see them lose more than they gain.
[3]

The Future of Transformational Leadership

And so what is the future of transformational leadership? There seems to be an emerging orthodoxy in the literature favoring a blend of transactional and transformational leadership (e.g., Bryant, 2003; Gellis, 2001; Hoyt & Blascovich, 2003). However, Sanders, Hopkins and Geroy (2003) propose an extension to both through what they call transcendental leadership. Their model suggests three structural levels of leadership accomplishment, these being transactional, transformational, and transcendental, and they suggest that a leaders development along three dimensions of spirituality consciousness (mind), moral character (heart) and faith (soul) is associated with these levels of leadership accomplishment. They argue for the need to society and organizations to recognize the need for and embrace spirituality. Traditional leadership theories are said to concentrate on external manifestations of leadership but the model proposed by Sanders, Hopkins and Geroy (2003) indicates that leadership is best understood by adding consideration of the leaders internal components. While their very new theory is yet to be tested empirically, their intent is to help bring spirituality out of the closet (p. 29) and to weave it coherently into new understandings of leadership.

Conclusion Through charisma, individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation, transformational leaders have great potential to promote performance beyond expectations and to effect enormous changes within individuals and organizations. It appears to a be a form of leadership wellsuited to these current times characterized by uncertainty, global turbulence and organizational instability. However, as we have seen from examples such as the horrors of Jonestown, there are some risks associated with this form of leadership, particularly with respect to idealized influence. The capacity for individual and organizational transformation must be accompanied by moral responsibility, for transformational leaders shape powerful social and institutional cultures which may either be liberating oroppressive.

References Barbuto, J.E. (Jnr) (2005). Motivation and transactional, charismatic, and transformational leadership: a test of antecedents. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 11(4), 2640. Barnett, A. (2003, November). The impact of transformational leadership style of the school principal on school learning environments and selected teacher outcomes: a preliminary report. Paper presented at NZARE AARE, Auckland, New Zealand. Manuscript available from the author. Barnett, K., McCormick, J. & Conners, R. (2001). Transformational leadership in schools panacea, placebo or problem? Journal of Educational Administration, 39(1), pp. 24-46. Bass, B.M. (1990a). Bass & Stodgills Handbook of Leadership. Theory, Research and Managerial Applications (3 ed.). New York, NY: The Free Press. Bass, B.M. (1990b). From transactional to transformational leadership: learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, 13, pp. 26-40. Bass, B.M. (1997). The ethics of transformational leadership. KLSP: Transformational Leadership, Working Papers. Retrieved August 3, 2006, fromhttp://www.academy.umd.edu/publications/klspdocs/bbass_pl.htm Bass, B.M., Avolio, B.J., Jung, D.I., & Berson, Y. (2003). Predicting unit performance by assessing transformational and transactional leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(2), pp. 207-218. Bennis, W.G. (1959). Leadership theory and administrative behavior: the problem of authority. Administrative Science Quarterly, 4, pp. 259-260. Bono, J.E. & Judge, T.A. (2004). Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), pp. 901-910. Bryant, S.E. (2003). The role of transformational and transactional leadership in creating, sharing and exploiting organizational knowledge. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 9(4), pp. 32-44. Burns, J. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Carlson, D.S. & Perrewe, P.L. (1995). Institutionalization of organizational ethics through transformational leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 14(10), pp. 829-839. Cashin, J., Crewe, P., Desai, J., Desrosiers, L., Prince, J., Shallow, G. & Slaney, S. (2000). Transformational Leadership. Retrieved August 3, 2006 fromhttp://www.mun.ca/educ/ed4361/virtual_academy/campus_a/aleaders.html
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Chekwa, E. (2001, July 12-14). Searching for African American transformational leaders. Academy of Business and Administrative Sciences 4 International Conference, Quebec City, Canada. Manuscript available from the author. Conger, J.A. (1999). Charismatic and transformational leadership in organizations: an insiders perspective on these developing streams of research. The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), pp. 145170. Cox, P.L. (2001). Transformational leadership: a success story at Cornell University. Proceedings of the ATEM/aappa 2001 conference. Retrieved March 17, 2004, from http://www.anu.edu.au/facilities/atem-aappaa/full_papers/Coxkeynote.html Crawford, C.B., Gould, L.V., & Scott, R.F. (2003). Transformational leader as champion and techie: implications for leadership educators. Journal of Leadership Education, 2(1), pp. 1-12. Epitropaki, O. (undated). What is transformational leadership? Institute of Work Pyschology, University of Sheffield, England. ERIC. (1992). Transformational leadership. ERIC Digest, Number 72. Retrieved March 8, 2004, from http://www.ericfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed347636.html Feinberg, B.J., Ostroff, & Burke, W.W. (2005). The role of within-group agreement in understanding transformational leadership. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 471-488. Gellis, Z.D. (2001). Social work perceptions of transformational and transactional leadership in health care. Social Work Research, 25(1), pp. 17-25. Gronn, P. (1996). From transactions to transformations: a new world order in the study of leadership. Educational Management and Administration, 24(1), pp. 7-30. Hall, J., Johnson, S., Wysocki, A. & Kepner, K. (2002). Transformational leadership: the transformation of managers and associates. Retrieved August 3, 2006, from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu Hoyt, C.L. & Blascovich, J. (2003). Transformational and transactional leadership in virtual and physical environments. Small Group Research, 34(6), pp. 678-715. Israel, M. & Hay. I. (2006). Research Ethics for Social Scientists: between ethical conduct and regulatory compliance. London: Sage. Judge, T.A. & Piccolo, R.F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: a metaanalytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89/5, pp. 755-768. Kelly, M.L. (2003, January 1). Academic advisers as transformational leaders. The Mentor. Retrieved jan10, 2010, from http://www.psu.edu/dus/mentor/030101mk.htm Leithwood, K. & Jantzi, D. (2000). The effects of transformational leadership on organizational conditions and student engagement with school. Journal of Educational Administration, 38(2), p. 112. Lussier, R.N. & Achua, C.F. (2004). Leadership: theory, application, skill development (2nd ed.). Eagan, MN: Thomson-West. Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps. (undated). Leadership and management: Transactional and transformational leadership. Retrieved March 29, 2004 from http://nrotc.wisc.edu/battalioncourses/naval Odom, L. & Green, M.T. (2003). Law and the ethics of transformational leadership. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 24(1/2), pp. 62-69. Rice, J.B. (1993). Transactional and transformational leadership: an analysis of male and female leadership styles in Delaware public schools. Abstract of EdD dissertation completed at Widener University, Pennsylvania. Retrieved August 3, 2006 from http://muse.widener.edu/~egr0001/Dissertations/RiceW.html Sanders, J.E.(3 ), Hopkins, W.E. & Geroy, G.D. (2003). From transactional to transcendental: toward an integrated theory of leadership. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 9(4), pp. 21-31.
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Sheppard, P. (2002). Leading the turnaround: Lou Gerstner of IBM. Wharton Leadership Digest. Retrieved August 3, 2006, from http://leadership.wharton.upenn.edu/digest/02-03.shtml Shin, S.J. & Zhou, J. (2003). Transformational leadership, conservation, and creativity: evidence from Korea. Academy of Management Journal, 46(6), pp. 703-714. Simic, I. (1998). Transformational leadership - the key to successful management of transformational organizational changes. Facta Universitas, 1(6), pp. 49-55. Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. (2004). Transformational Leadership. Retrieved August 3, 2006 from http://www.sedl.org/change/leadership/history.html Spreitzer, G.M., Perttula, K.H. & Xin, K. (2005). Traditionality matters: an examination of the effectiveness of transformational leadership in the United States and Taiwan. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 205-227. Stone, A.G., Russell, R.F., & Patterson, K. (2003). Transformational versus servant leadership a difference in leader focus. Servant Leadership Roundtable October 2003. Retrieved August 3, 2006 from http://www.regent.edu/acad/cls/2003servantleadershiproundtable/stone.pdf Tichy, N.M. & Devanna, M.A. (1986). The Transformational Leader. New York, NY: John Wiley. Yates, M. (2002) Genghis Khan. LeaderValues. Retrieved August 3, 2006 from http://www.leadervalues.com/historicalleaders/

Yukl, G.A. (1989). Leadership in Organizations (2 ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
nd

Reduced to five in the 1995 work of Hipp and Bredeson (as cited in Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000). In some works, idealized influence is divided into two groups. In idealized influence (attributes), followers identify with and emulate leaders seen to have attainable vision. Idealized influence (behaviour) refers to that behaviour that results in people wishing to follow leaders (Barnett, McCormick & Conners, 2001). [3] Teleological ethics are those based on scrutiny of the consequences of actions. Deontological ethics give greatest consideration to upholding promises and maintaining universal values or principles (see Israel and Hay 2006 for a full discussion).
[1] [2]

Strengths of Transformational Leadership

Well Researched: Transformational leadership is most researched leadership model and there is substantial evidence of its effectiveness. Most Popular: Transformational leadership is most intuitive and easily recognized by people; it fits the popular notion of a leader. Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Adolf Hitler, Obama are all examples of transformational leaders.

Criticism of Transformational Leadership

Potential to be abused: Transformational leaderships high effectiveness in leaders vision makes it undemocratic; the leaders purpose is largely unchallenged, thus liable to be misused by the leader. There is plenty of historical evidence supporting its misuse, Adolf Hitler being one of the most prominent one. Too Complicated: Transformational leadership is an amalgamation of various leadership theories, making it unreasonable to be trained or taught.

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