Module B1a Human Biology

What does the nervous system enable humans to do? React to their surroundings and coordinate their behaviour.

What do receptors do?

Detect stimuli which include light, sound, changes in position, chemicals, touch, pressure and pain, temperature.

Where does information from the receptors go and why?

Information from receptors passes along cells (neurones) in nerves to the brain. The brain coordinates the response.

What are reflex actions like?

They are automatic and rapid. What types of neurones do reflex actions involve?
They often involve sensory, relay and motor neurones.

What internal conditions must be controlled in the human body? (4 factors) The water content of the body The ion content of the body Temperature

Blood sugar levels

What are hormones?

They are chemical substances

What are the roles of hormones? 1. They co-ordinate many processes within the body

2. They regulate the functions of many organs and cells.

Where are hormones secreted from? They are secreted by glands. How do they travel in the body? In the bloodstream.

In a woman, which processes in the menstrual cycle are controlled by hormones? The monthly release of an egg from a womans ovaries . The changes in the thickness of the lining of her womb.

What are the names of the hormones in a woman that are involved in promoting the release of an egg and where are they secreted from? (3 hormones) FSH - secreted by the pituitary gland Oestrogen - secreted by the ovaries.
LH secreted by the pituitary gland.

What are the roles of FSH and oestrogen? FSH - causes eggs to mature in the ovaries and stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen. Oestrogen - inhibits production of FSH and stimulates the pituitary gland to produce LH.

How can hormones be used to control fertility?

Giving oral contraceptives which contain hormones to inhibit FSH production so that no eggs mature.

Giving FSH as a fertility drug to a woman to stimulate eggs to mature.

What is a healthy diet?

A diet that contains the right balance of the different foods you need and the right amount of energy.

What does malnourished mean and what problems can it cause? A person is malnourished if their diet is not balanced. What problems can it cause? This may lead to a person being too fat or too thin. It may also lead to deficiency diseases.

What is the metabolic rate? The rate at which all the chemical reactions in the cells of the body are carried out.

Why does it vary between individuals?

It varies with the amount of activity you do and the proportion of muscle to fat in your body. It may be affected by inherited factors.

At what times do you need less food? (2 points)

When you exercise less. When it is warmer.

What effect does regular exercise have on people? People who exercise regularly are usually fitter than people who take little exercise. Your metabolic rate stays high for some time after you have finished exercise.

What problems is too much food and too little exercise causing in the developed world? (4 conditions)
High levels of obesity, which is thought to cause: Arthritis (worn joints) Diabetes (high blood sugar) High blood pressure Heart disease

What health problems are linked to a lack of food in the developing world? (2 problems) Reduced resistance to infection Irregular periods in women

Where is cholesterol made? Cholesterol is a substance made by the liver and found in the blood.

Why do levels in the blood vary between individuals? The amount produced depends on a combination of diet and inherited factors.

What problems are thought to be caused by a high level of cholesterol in the blood? (2 problems)

Increases the risk of disease of the heart and blood vessels.

How is cholesterol carried around the body?

By two types of lipoproteins. Lowdensity lipoproteins (LDLs) High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)

What are the differences between low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)? LDLs are bad cholesterol and can cause heart disease. HDLs are good cholesterol.
Why are they both important? The balance of these is very important to good heart health.

What effects do saturated fats, mono-unsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats have on the body?
Saturated fats increase blood cholesterol levels. Mono-saturated and polyunsaturated fats may help both to reduce blood cholesterol levels and to improve the balance between LDLs and HDLs.

What problem can be caused by too much salt in the diet?

Increased blood pressure, but this is only true for about 30% of the population.

Processed food often contains high proportions of which food types?

Fat and / or salt

Where are many drugs derived from? Many drugs are derived from natural substances. Who originally used them? They have been known to indigenous people for many years.

What has to happen to new medical drugs when they are devised, before they can be used and why? They must be extensively trialled and tested. Drugs are trialled in a laboratory to find if they are toxic. They are then trialled on human volunteers to discover any side effects.

How was thalidomide developed to be used? It was developed as a sleeping pill.

How else did people use it? It was used to relieve morning sickness in pregnant women.
Had it been tested for this use in pregnancy? It had not been tested for this use.

What problems did thalidomide cause?

Many babies born to mothers who took the drug were born with severe limb abnormalities. The drug was then banned. Why is thalidomide being used again now? It is being used successfully to treat leprosy.

Other than for medical purposes, how else do some people use drugs? Some people use drugs recreationally. Some of these are more harmful than others. Some of these are legal, some illegal.

Do legal or illegal drugs have the greatest overall impact on health and why?

Legal drugs, because far more people use them.

How do people become addicted to drugs? Drugs change the chemical processes in peoples bodies so that they may become dependent or addicted to them.
What happens when they are without the drugs? They suffer withdrawal symptoms without them.

Can you name two very addictive drugs?

Heroin and cocaine.

What substances does tobacco smoke contain and what effects do they each have on the body? Nicotine the addictive substance

Carcinogens cause cancer

Carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood

What problems can smoking cause in pregnant women?

Carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke can deprive a fetus of oxygen and lead to a low birth mass.

How does alcohol affect the body?

It affects the nervous system by slowing down reactions.

What are the pros and cons of drinking alcohol?

Pros It helps people relax. Cons Too much may lead to a lack of self-control, unconsciousness or even coma, eventually damaging the liver and brain.

What are pathogens?

Microorganisms that cause infectious disease.

What do bacteria and viruses do inside the body to make us feel ill?
Bacteria and viruses reproduce rapidly inside the body and may produce poisons (toxins) which make us feel ill. Viruses damage cells in which they reproduce.

How do white blood cells help to defend against pathogens? - Ingest pathogens

- Produce antibodies which destroy particular bacteria or viruses

- Produce antitoxins which counteract the toxins (poisons) released by pathogens

Other than killing pathogens, what do some medicines do?

Some medicines, including painkillers, help to relieve the symptoms of infectious disease, but do not kill the pathogens.

What are antibiotics and how can they help us? They are medicines that help to cure bacterial disease by killing infective bacteria inside the body. Can you give an example of an antibiotic? Penicillin

Why is it harder to cure a viral infection?

Antibiotics cannot be used to kill viral pathogens, which live and reproduce inside cells. It is difficult to develop drugs which kill viruses without also damaging the bodys tissues.

Why is it that many strains of bacteria cannot be killed by antibiotics? Many strains of bacteria including MRSA, have developed resistance to antibiotics. How has this happened? This has happened as a result of natural selection.

Why must we avoid over-use of antibiotics?

To prevent further resistance to antibiotics arising.

How can people be immunised against a disease?

By introducing small quantities of dead or inactive forms of the pathogen into the body (vaccination).

How do vaccines work? They stimulate the white blood cells to produce antibodies that destroy the pathogens.If the body is later infected by the same microorganism, it can respond rapidly making the correct antibody, so the person does not fall ill.

Can you give an example of a vaccine and why it is used?

MMR vaccine. Used to protect children against measles, mumps and rubella.