LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION

Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

Chapter 49

Nervous Systems

Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick

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Overview: Command and Control Center

The human brain contains about 100 billion neurons, organized into circuits more complex than the most powerful supercomputers A recent advance in brain exploration involves a method for expressing combinations of colored proteins in brain cells, a technique called brainbow This may allow researchers to develop detailed maps of information transfer between regions of the brain
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Concept 49.1: Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells
Each single-celled organism can respond to stimuli in its environment Animals are multicellular and most groups respond to stimuli using systems of neurons The simplest animals with nervous systems, the cnidarians, have neurons arranged in nerve nets A nerve net is a series of interconnected nerve cells More complex animals have nerves
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 Nerves are bundles that consist of axons of multiple nerve cells

Sea stars have a nerve net in each arm connected by radial nerves to a central nerve ring Bilaterally symmetrical animals exhibit cephalization, the clustering of sensory organs at the front end of the body Relatively simple cephalized animals, such as flatworms, have a central nervous system (CNS) The CNS consists of a brain and longitudinal nerve cords Annelids & arthropods have segmentally arranged clusters of neurons called ganglia Nervous system organization usually correlates with lifestyle Sessile molluscs (for example, clams and chitons) have simple systems, whereas more complex molluscs (for example, octopuses and squids) have more sophisticated systems

In vertebrates
The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of nerves & ganglia

Figure 49.2

Radial nerve Nerve net Nerve ring

Eyespot Brain Nerve cords Transverse nerve

Brain Ventral nerve cord Segmental ganglia

(a) Hydra (cnidarian)

(b) Sea star (echinoderm)

(c) Planarian (flatworm)

(d) Leech (annelid)

Brain Brain Ventral nerve cord Segmental ganglia Ganglia Anterior nerve ring Longitudinal nerve cords Brain Ganglia Spinal cord (dorsal nerve cord) Sensory ganglia

(e) Insect (arthropod)

(f) Chiton (mollusc)

(g) Squid (mollusc)

(h) Salamander (vertebrate)

Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The spinal cord conveys information from and to the brain The spinal cord also produces reflexes independently of the brain A reflex is the bodys automatic response to a stimulus
For example, a doctor uses a mallet to trigger a knee-jerk reflex

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Figure 49.3

Quadriceps muscle

Cell body of sensory neuron in dorsal root ganglion

Gray matter

White matter

Hamstring muscle Spinal cord (cross section) Sensory neuron Motor neuron Interneuron

 Invertebrates usually have a ventral nerve cord while vertebrates have a dorsal spinal cord The spinal cord and brain develop from the embryonic nerve cord The nerve cord gives rise to the central canal and ventricles of the brain

Central nervous system (CNS) Brain Spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Cranial nerves

Ganglia outside CNS Spinal nerves

Figure 49.5

Gray matter

White matter

Ventricles

 The central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain are hollow and filled with cerebrospinal fluid The cerebrospinal fluid is filtered from blood and functions to cushion the brain and spinal cord as well as to provide nutrients and remove wastes

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 The brain and spinal cord contain

Gray matter, which consists of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons White matter, which consists of bundles of myelinated axons

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Glia
Glia have numerous functions to nourish, support, and regulate neurons
Embryonic radial glia form tracks along which newly formed neurons migrate Astrocytes induce cells lining capilaries in the CNS to form tight junctions, resulting in a blood-brain barrier and restricting the entry of most substances into the brain

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Figure 49.6

CNS VENTRICLE Cilia Neuron Astrocyte

PNS

Oligodendrocyte

Schwann cell Microglial cell Capillary Ependymal cell

50 m

LM

The Peripheral Nervous System

The PNS transmits information to and from the CNS and regulates movement and the internal environment In the PNS, afferent neurons transmit information to the CNS and efferent neurons transmit information away from the CNS The PNS has two efferent components: the motor system and the autonomic nervous system The motor system carries signals to skeletal muscles and is voluntary The autonomic nervous system regulates smooth and cardiac muscles and is generally involuntary
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Figure 49.7

Central Nervous System (information processing) Peripheral Nervous System Efferent neurons Afferent neurons

Sensory receptors

Autonomic nervous system

Motor system Control of skeletal muscle

Internal and external stimuli

Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric division division division Control of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, glands

 The autonomic nervous system has sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions The sympathetic regulates arousal and energy generation (fight-or-flight response) The parasympathetic system has antagonistic effects on target organs and promotes calming and a return to rest and digest functions The enteric division controls activity of the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder
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Figure 49.8

Parasympathetic division Action on target organs: Constricts pupil of eye Stimulates salivary gland secretion Constricts bronchi in lungs Slows heart Stimulates activity of stomach and intestines Stimulates activity of pancreas Stimulates gallbladder Lumbar Cervical
Sympathetic ganglia

Sympathetic division Action on target organs: Dilates pupil of eye Inhibits salivary gland secretion Relaxes bronchi in lungs Accelerates heart Inhibits activity of stomach and intestines Thoracic Inhibits activity of pancreas Stimulates glucose release from liver; inhibits gallbladder Stimulates adrenal medulla

Promotes emptying of bladder Promotes erection of genitalia Sacral Synapse

Inhibits emptying of bladder Promotes ejaculation and vaginal contractions

Concept 49.2: The vertebrate brain is regionally specialized

Specific brain structures are particularly specialized for diverse functions These structures arise during embryonic development

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Figure 49.9b

Embryonic brain regions

Brain structures in child and adult Cerebrum (includes cerebral cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus) Midbrain (part of brainstem) Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem) Cerebrum Diencephalon Midbrain

Telencephalon Forebrain Diencephalon Midbrain Mesencephalon Metencephalon Hindbrain Myelencephalon Mesencephalon Midbrain Hindbrain Metencephalon Diencephalon

Myelencephalon

Forebrain

Spinal cord Telencephalon

Pons Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Spinal cord Child

Embryo at 1 month

Embryo at 5 weeks

Figure 49.9c

Left cerebral hemisphere

Right cerebral hemisphere Cerebral cortex Corpus callosum

Cerebrum

Basal nuclei

Cerebellum Adult brain viewed from the rear

Figure 49.9d

Diencephalon Thalamus Pineal gland Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Pons Medulla oblongata Spinal cord Brainstem Midbrain

Arousal and Sleep

The brainstem and cerebrum control arousal and sleep The core of the brainstem has a diffuse network of neurons called the reticular formation This regulates the amount and type of information that reaches the cerebral cortex and affects alertness The hormone melatonin is released by the pineal gland and plays a role in bird and mammal sleep cycles

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Figure 49.10

Eye Reticular formation Input from touch, pain, and temperature receptors

Input from nerves of ears

Biological Clock Regulation

Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are examples of circardian rhythms, daily cycles of biological activity Mammalian circadian rhythms rely on a biological clock, molecular mechanism that directs periodic gene expression Biological clocks are typically synchronized to light and dark cycles

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 In mammals, circadian rhythms are coordinated by a group of neurons in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) The SCN acts as a pacemaker, synchronizing the biological clock

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Emotions
Generation and experience of emotions involves many brain structures including the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus These structures are grouped as the limbic system The limbic system also functions in motivation, olfaction, behavior, and memory

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Figure 49.13

Thalamus Hypothalamus

Olfactory bulb Amygdala Hippocampus

 Generation and experience of emotion also require interaction between the limbic system and sensory areas of the cerebrum The structure most important to the storage of emotion in the memory is the amygdala, a mass of nuclei near the base of the cerebrum

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Figure 49.14

Nucleus accumbens

Amygdala

Happy music

Sad music

Concept 49.3: The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions
The cerebrum, the largest structure in the human brain, is essential for awareness, language, cognition, memory, and consciousness Four regions, or lobes (frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal) are landmarks for particular functions

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Figure 49.15

Frontal lobe Prefrontal cortex (decision making, planning)

Motor cortex (control of skeletal muscles)

Somatosensory cortex (sense of touch) Parietal lobe Sensory association cortex (integration of sensory information)

Brocas area (forming speech) Temporal lobe Auditory cortex (hearing) Cerebellum Wernickes area (comprehending language)

Visual association cortex (combining images and object recognition) Occipital lobe Visual cortex (processing visual stimuli and pattern recognition)

Language and Speech

Studies of brain activity have mapped areas responsible for language and speech Brocas area in the frontal lobe is active when speech is generated Wernickes area in the temporal lobe is active when speech is heard These areas belong to a larger network of regions involved in language

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Figure 49.16

Max

Hearing words

Seeing words

Min Speaking words Generating words

Lateralization of Cortical Function

The 2 hemispheres make distinct contributions to brain function
Left hemisphere - more adept at language, math, logic, and processing of serial sequences Right hemisphere is stronger at pattern recognition, nonverbal thinking, and emotional processing

The differences in hemisphere function are called lateralization Lateralization is partly linked to handedness The two hemispheres work together by communicating through the fibers of the corpus callosum 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Information Processing
The cerebral cortex receives input from sensory organs and somatosensory receptors Somatosensory receptors provide information about touch, pain, pressure, temperature, and the position of muscles and limbs The thalamus directs different types of input to distinct locations

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 Adjacent areas process features in the sensory input and integrate information from different sensory areas Integrated sensory information passes to the prefrontal cortex, which helps plan actions and movements In the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex, neurons are arranged according to the part of the body that generates input or receives commands
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Figure 49.17

Frontal lobe

Parietal lobe

Leg Hip Trunk Neck

Head

Knee Hip Toes

Genitalia

Jaw Tongue Primary motor cortex

Tongue Pharynx Abdominal organs Primary somatosensory cortex

Concept 49.4 Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning

Two processes dominate embryonic development of the nervous system
Neurons compete for growth-supporting factors in order to survive Only half the synapses that form during embryo development survive into adulthood

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Neural Plasticity
Neural plasticity describes the ability of the nervous system to be modified after birth Changes can strengthen or weaken signaling at a synapse

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Figure 49.19

N1

N1

N2

N2

(a) Synapses are strengthened or weakened in response to activity.

(b) If two synapses are often active at the same time, the strength of the postsynaptic response may increase at both synapses.

Memory and Learning

The formation of memories is an example of neural plasticity Short-term memory is accessed via the hippocampus The hippocampus also plays a role in forming long-term memory, which is stored in the cerebral cortex Some consolidation of memory is thought to occur during sleep

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Long-Term Potentiation
In the vertebrate brain, a form of learning called long-term potentiation (LTP) involves an increase in the strength of synaptic transmission LTP involves glutamate receptors If the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are stimulated at the same time, the set of receptors present on the postsynaptic membranes changes

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Figure 49.20

PRESYNAPTIC NEURON

Ca2+ Na+

Glutamate NMDA receptor (open) POSTSYNAPTIC NEURON

Mg2+ NMDA receptor (closed)

Stored AMPA receptor

(a) Synapse prior to long-term potentiation (LTP)

1 2

(b) Establishing LTP

1 2

3 4

Depolarization (c) Synapse exhibiting LTP

Action potential

Stem Cells in the Brain

The adult human brain contains neural stem cells In mice, stem cells in the brain can give rise to neurons that mature and become incorporated into the adult nervous system Such neurons play an essential role in learning and memory

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Concept 49.5: Nervous system disorders can be explained in molecular terms

Disorders of the nervous system include schizophrenia, depression, drug addiction, Alzheimers disease, and Parkinsons disease Genetic and environmental factors contribute to diseases of the nervous system

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Figure 49.22

50 Risk of developing schizophrenia (%)

Genes shared with relatives of person with schizophrenia 12.5% (3rd-degree relative) 25% (2nd-degree relative) 50% (1st-degree relative) 100%

40

30

20

10

Full sibling

Individual, general population First cousin

Relationship to person with schizophrenia

Half sibling

Uncle/aunt Nephew/ niece Grandchild

Child Fraternal twin Identical twin

Parent

Schizophrenia
About 1% of the worlds population suffers from schizophrenia Schizophrenia is characterized by hallucinations, delusions, and other symptoms Available treatments focus on brain pathways that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter

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Depression
Two broad forms of depressive illness are known: major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder In major depressive disorder, patients have a persistent lack of interest or pleasure in most activities Bipolar disorder is characterized by manic (high-mood) and depressive (low-mood) phases Treatments for these types of depression include drugs such as Prozac
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Drug Addiction & the Brains Reward System

Some drugs are addictive because they increase activity of the brains reward system
cocaine, amphetamine, heroin, alcohol, and tobacco

Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive consumption and an inability to control intake Addictive drugs enhance the activity of the dopamine pathway Drug addiction leads to long-lasting changes in the reward circuitry that cause craving for the drug
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Figure 49.23

Nicotine stimulates dopaminereleasing VTA neuron.

Inhibitory neuron

Dopaminereleasing VTA neuron

Opium and heroin decrease activity of inhibitory neuron. Cocaine and amphetamines block removal of dopamine from synaptic cleft.

Cerebral neuron of reward pathway

Reward system response

Alzheimers Disease
Alzheimers disease is a mental deterioration characterized by confusion and memory loss Alzheimers disease is caused by the formation of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques in the brain There is no cure for this disease though some drugs are effective at relieving symptoms
Amyloid plaque Neurofibrillary tangle 20 m

Parkinsons Disease
Parkinsons disease is a motor disorder caused by death of dopamine-secreting neurons in the midbrain It is characterized by muscle tremors, flexed posture, and a shuffling gait There is no cure, although drugs and various other approaches are used to manage symptoms

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