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Ans:
Fix k different coordinates. We first compute the probability that an error has occurred in this fixed set of
coordinates. The probability of an error occurring in a particular one of these k coordinates is q; the probability
that an error will not occur in any of the remaining n-k coordinates is p. The probability of each of these n
independent events is q
k
p
n-k
.
The number of possible error patterns with exactly k errors occurring is equal to
, the number of combinations of n things taken k at a time. Each of these error patterns
has probability q
k
p
n-k
of occurring; hence the probability of all these error patterns is .
6. Prove that a non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and only if
a)
H ab H b a e e ,
b)
H a H a e e
1
Ans:
Suppose that H is a subgroup of G
H itself is a group under the product in G.
Therefore (a), (b) holds.
Converse: Suppose H satisfies (a) and (b). By (a), H satisfies the closure property.
For any a, b, c H, we have that a, b, c G implies that a(bc) = (ab)c.
Therefore (H, .) is a subgroup of (G, .).