RESIDUAL STRESS ON COMPONENTS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS

V.PIRANESH* V.SUBHAN**

.* Student 2nd year, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Erode. piraneshhh@gmail.com (9597848518) .** Student 2nd year, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Erode. subhanzalam@gmail.com (9790099442)

ABSTRACT
Any manufacturing process that changes the shape of a solid, or where severe temperature gradient exists during the process, causes residual stresses. By their very nature, process that change the shape of a solid cause non uniform plastic deformation in the solid, which leads to residual stress. Also, process that produce high thermal gradients in a solid often lead to residual stress. Furthermore, process that induces localized phase changes produce residual stresses. The residual stresses caused by manufacturing process usually show very steep residual stress to distance gradients. Compressive residual stress has a beneficial effect on fatigue life, crack propagation and stress corrosion of materials. This thesis work is to study the residual stresses on components of manufacturing (bending and welding) processes.

INTRODUCTION
A state of stress that may exist in the bulk of the material without application of an external load (including gravity) or other sources of stress, such as thermal gradient, is called a residual or internal stress. Residual stresses can be classified into three kinds

according to the distance or range over which they can be observed. The first type of residual stress, termed macroscopic, is long-range in nature, extending over at least several grains of the materials, and many more. The second kind of residual stress, often called structural micro stress, covers a distance of one grain or a part of a grain. It can occur between different phases and have different physical characteristics, or between embedded particles, such as inclusions, and the matrix. The third kind of residual stress ranges over several atomic distances within the grain, and is equilibrated over a small part of the grain.

Figure1:Macrostresses ( 1),Mesostresses( 11), Microstresses( 111). Residual stresses are a consequence of interactions among time, temperature, deformation, and microstructure. Material or material-related characteristics that influence the development of residual stress include Thermal conductivity, Elastic modulus, Poissons ratio, Plasticity, Thermodynamics and kinematics of transformations, Mechanisms of transformations, and Transformation plasticity. Residual stresses can be developed in materials and engineering components during manufacturing by different processes. Some of these processes are Plastic deformation or forming, including rolling, drawing, bending, forging, pressing, spinning, shot-penning, laser shock, welding, brazing sprayed coating, cladding, electro deposition, machining, grinding and during thermo chemical heat treatment including quenching, laser and plasma heat treatment, carburizing, case hardening, ion platting and a combination of these treatments. Casting and during cooling of a multiphase materials such as metal matrix composite. Compressive residual stress has a benificial effect on fatigue life, crack propagation and stress corrosion of materials; where as tensile residual stress can reduce their performance capacity. The difference between macro and micro stresses is shown in figure

Figure 2. Descriptions of Macro and Micro Stresses There are three types of methods/procedures of Residual-Stress Measurement The destructive procedures of residual-stress measurement --These procedures all are based on sectioning or removal of material to cause a redistribution of residual stress. This is measured as a strain change. The semi destructive methods of residual stress measurement -- These methods are based on the same principle as the destructive based on the same principle as the destructive methods or the perturbation of the residual-stress field by other means. The non destructive methods of residual --Stress measurement: these methods do not permanently disturb the residual-stress field, but directly measure the atomic lattice strain caused by the stress or measure some physical property perturbed by the lattice strain.

NEED FOR RESIDUAL-STRESS MEASUREMENTS

The major reasons that residual stresses are of concern are: Failures that are suspected as being caused by fatigue, stress corrosion, corrosion fatigue, or hydrogen embrittlement. Assessment for the continued serviceability of a component, for example, life assessment; this is usually focused on a concern for insevice failure. Distortion occurring during processing of a component. Distortion of components during service. Manufacturing processing or repair procedures induces most cases of suspected harmful residual-stress fields, although sometimes abusive service conditions or an accident may have caused them. When manufacturing process or sometimes repair procedures are judged the most likely source of the residual stresses. it is often possible to predict the magnitude and distribution of the residual stresses.

NATURE OF RESIDUAL STRESSES:

Residual stresses are the inevitable consequence of thermo mechanical processing of steel. The resulting stress fields usually are nonuniform and show high stress gradients. For example fig. 2 illustrates the residual-stress magnitudes and distributions typical of steel with 650 Mpa yield strength. Because of the high stress gradients, tens to hundreds of residual stress measurements with resolution on the order of 1mm may be required to identify precisely the maximum stress and its location. The characteristically nonuniform, high stress gradient nature of residual stresses require that either the induced stress field is well understood and predictable, or many residual-stress measurements must be performed on one or more components in order to reveal the nature of the stress fields.

STRESS MEASUREMENT:
A number of procedures and methods have been applied to determine the residual stresses extant in a metallic component, usually as a result of manufacturing processing. However stress is never the quantity measured because a stress is a quantity that is applied to a metal and can only be measured to determine residual stress is elastic straineither the elastic strain resulting directly from the existing residual stress in the metal or the elastic strain change resulting from relief of some portion, or all,of the existing residual stress. The stress that is causing, or has caused. The strain is then calculated using the applicable elastic constants for the metal.

STRAIN MEASUREMENT METHODS

All residual-stress determination methods measure elastic strain, not stress, and the residual stress is calculated from the strain values. Several methods for the measurement of strain have been applied in residual-stress studies, these methods include Mechanical gages Electrical-resistance gages Optical gages Birefringent methods Diffraction methods (X-ray & Neutron) Ultrasonic methods Magnetic methods

DESTRUCTIVE MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES

Destructive methods of residual-stress measurement are fundamentally stressrelaxation procedures; that are the information is obtained by relaxing the residual stress in some finite-volume element of the component and measuring the resulting strain change. The strain change is then used, along with applicable assumptions about the nature of the stress field, to reconstruct the original stress field. Assumptions about the nature of the stress field include the magnitudes and gradients in the stress field and whether it is

sufficient to assume that the gradients are one-, two-, and three-dimensional. In particular, the gradients that exist will dictate the size of the element that is to be isolated and made stress-free; that is, the higher the stress gradient is, the higher the stress gradient is , the smaller the finite element must be in the direction of that gradient. It must be emphasized that the larger the element and the higher the stress gradient, the less quantitive and more qualitative are the measurement results. Electrical-resistance straingage technologies are emphasized as the dominant method of strain measurement due to their economic, procedural, and procession advantages over other methods. However, modern XRD equipment when available has all of these advantages as well can be used to measure the stresses existing before and after sectioning.

SEMI DESTRUCTIVE PROCEDURES

Nondestructive methods of residual-stress measurement are characterized as a method that is no way affect the serviceability or reduce the mechanical strength or other properties of the component in which stresses are measured. Between the nondestructive and destructive methods, which have a severe effect on the serviceability, strength, and properties, are the semidestructive methods. These are methods that have a small to negligible effect on the components in which stresses are measured, or methods in which the components may be repaired after the measurement. These methods that are considered semidestructive are those that require small holes to be drilled or rings to be trepanned in the component or indentations to be made in the surface. The first two methods provide quantitative data and the third only qualitative data. These methods include Blind hole Drilling and Ring coring Indentation methods Spot annealing

NONDESTRUCTIVE PROCEDURES
In Strain Measurement Methods all measure the change in some direction (strain) of the component produced by the removal of a finite volume of stressed metal from that component. Thus, they measure the strain induced by removing material so as to perturb the residual-stress field. On the other hand, nondestructive procedures measure a dimension in the crystal lattice of the metal or some physical parameter affected by the crystal lattice dimension. Whenever a mechanical force, resulting in stress that is less than the yield strength, is placed on a solid metal component, that component distorts and strains elastically. That elastic strain results in a change in the atomic lattice dimension, and this dimension, or change, is measured by the nondestructive stressmeasurement procedures. For example, the diffraction methods (X-ray & Neutron) measure an actual crystal dimension, and this dimension can be related to the magnitude and direction of the stress that the metal is subjected to, whether that stress is residual or applied. Some of these methods include X-ray diffraction Neutron diffraction Ultrasonic velocity Magnetic Barkhausen noise

RESIDUAL STRESSES RELATED TO WELDING:

Welding is the most common cause of significant residual stresses. The cooler parent metal restrains contractions of the weld metal up on cooling, leading inevitably large residual stresses. Moreover, phase and volumetric changes at the microscopic level also contribute to the residual stress phenomenon during welding. Being able to predict and model residual stresses in different weldment configuration is important in accessing the possibility of failure. Modeling of residual stresses is not a simple task; there are many variables involved; weld geometry, temperature, time, thickness, joint restraint, welding process, heat input, and deposition

Figure 3: (a) schematic representations of a single run butt weld and associated (b) temperature and (c) stress changes (ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983) -area and there is an abundance of non-uniform temperature profiles (ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983).

In describing Figure 3(a) the weld is shown by the shaded area. The molten weld pool region (current position of the arc) is shown by the origin, 0. Figure 3(b) shows the temperature profiles along different sections with Section B-B bisecting the melted region and Section C-C being at a close distance from the weld pool in the solid weld metal. As expected the greatest temperature gradient is at the weld pool as shown in Section B-B. Figure-3(c)shows the residual stresses as a result of welding. Section A-A ahead of the weld bead on the parent metal shows no residual stresses. In the melted region (Section B-B) there are thermal stresses present but they are close to zero because the molten metal cannot support any loads. In regions away from the arc (transverse to

the direction of welding) where cooling is occurring, the stresses are larger due to the lower temperature and restrained contraction. The maximum magnitudes of compressive stresses and tensile stresses occur at Section D-D where the tensile stresses peak in the cooled weld metal and compressive stresses peak in the surrounding parent metal. This is more clearly shown in Figure-4, where the distribution of stresses in a but-welded joint can be seen. Note that in the middle of the weld the residual tensile stresses present are very close to the yield point of the parent material (Gourd , 1991).

Figure 4: Distribution of stresses in a single pass butt weld (Gourd , 1991). Since residual stresses exist without external forces, the resultant force and resultant moment produced by the residual stresses must disappear:

On any plane section where dA is area Where dM is resultant moment (ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983) The residual stress pattern as indicated in Figure 4 occurs in materials of moderately low thicknesses. According to Lancaster (1980), in thick plate there is a contraction stress at right angles to the plate surface and consequently the stress field may intensify progressively as the joint is built up with weld runs. Figure shows residual stresses measured before a short (15 minutes) and long (40 hours) PWHT, measured by remanent magnetisation, along the centre line of a submerged arc weld in a 165 mm thick plate of Mn-Mo steel (650 mm in length). The curves in Figure 2.5 represent residual stresses in three directions that is, stress in the longitudinal direction, transverse direction and the short transverse direction (perpendicular to the root face). The figure shows that residual stresses can either be compressive or tensile along the thickness of the plate, and that long PWHT times result in the redistribution of residual stresses. If it is assumed the three residual stresses measured represent principal stresses, the effective residual stress is:

Where T is transverse, L is longitudinal, and ST is short transverse (perpendicular to the root face) A correlation between the toughness of a weldment and the presence of residual stresses has been found experimentally and this is discussed in Section Fracture toughness. From a micro structural perspective, if austenite transforms to martensite at low temperatures the volume increase will be substantial because of the difference with falling temperature in thermal contraction curves of the face centered cubic and body centered cubic phases. This will lead to a reduction of localized residual stresses in the weldment if the weld metal (WM) transforms to martensite. However, this effect is unlikely because the low carbon WM transforms at higher temperatures to acicular ferrite, and may only be relevant to the heat affected zone (HAZ) of welds, which is a relatively small volume of the weldment.

Figure 5: Distribution of residual stresses along centre-line of narrow gap single vee submerged arc weld in 165 mm thick Mn-Mo steel plate (a) after 15 minutes of PWHT at 600C and (b) after 40 hours of PWHT at 600 C (Suzuki et al, 1978, pp 87-112).

STRESS RELIEVING TO REDUCE RESIDUAL STRESS

The most common method of stress relief is by heat treatment. Other methods of stress relief are typically mechanical. These include peening, vibrational techniques and manipulation of hydrostatic testing (overloading methods). Another alternate technique that can be used is temper beading. Temper beading manipulates bead placement and size

to reduce residual stresses and it is mainly used in the United States of America, but it is gradually becoming more frequently used in Australia.

HEAT TREATMENT AS A FORM OF STRESS RELIEF

Thermal stress relieving involves heating a component to a temperature at which the material yield stress has fallen, allowing creep to take effect (Lloyd, 2000). Large residual stresses are no longer supported and, if temperatures are high enough, the stress distribution will become more uniform across the component. Such heat treatment may lead to tempering or ageing effects and alterations to the microstructure depending on the material and combination of temperature and time. In C-Mn steels stress relief heat treatment is beneficial in improving fracture toughness of the HAZ, allowing service at lower temperature. In but welds of plate the general rule for satisfactory relief of residual stresses is that uniform stress relief heat treatment must be applied over a bandwidth that is twice the length of the weld (see Figure 6) (Papazoglou, 1981). Figure also shows the heat bandwidth for circumferential but welds.

Figure 6: Bandwidths for local stress relieving heat treatments in butt-welded (a) plate and (b) pipe. In heat treatment it is important to be able to achieve the correct temperature and temperature control within specified limits. Uniform heating and cooling rate must be obtained through the heaviest section to be treated, especially where the geometry is complex and the thickness is variable. Stress relieving heat treatments are generally avoided unless stipulated as mandatory by Codes and Standards, due to the costs involved and potential consequences of incorrect PWHT procedure.

MECHANICAL METHODS OF STRESS RELIEF (OVERLOADING, VIBRATIONAL AND PEENING)

Residual stresses can also be reduced by mechanical treatment without the need for heat treatment. Mechanical methods do not refine the metallurgical microstructure of the

weldment but instead work on the principle of causing localized yielding with the combination of applied and residual stresses.

OVERLOADING
Overloading techniques involve the relaxation of stresses by permanent yielding via the hydrostatic test or the warm pressure test. Overloading techniques combine loading generated by external pressure together with the presence of residual stresses. A single overloading above the yield stress results in a decrease of any residual stresses. The overloading technique generates compressive residual stresses around existing defects, with a beneficial effect upon brittle fracture (Nichols, 1968; Okamata et al, 1990, pp199203). During the increase of pressure, external loads are added to the existing residual stresses causing localized plastic deformations. As the pressure is released, the elastic retention produces residual stresses that play the favorable role of prestressing (International Institute of Welding, 1987). The hydrostatic test is a mandatory test for pressure vessels conforming to AS1210 or AS4458. Limitations to the suitability of the process for stress relief include: The question of compensating pads and attachments receiving adequate stress relief. Reaching the required stress levels for conservatively designed road tankers. (Epselis, 1996)

VIBRATIONAL TECHNIQUES:
Vibrational methods of stress relief involve inducing one or more resonant or subresonant states in a welded structure using suitable force exciters, resulting in elastic straining of the treated surface (International Institute of Welding, 1987; Epselis, 1996). The success of vibratory stress relief depends on the type, size and complexity of the structure, where a balanced stress state is more important than the reduction of residual stresses. Disadvantages of vibrational stress relief include (Epselis, 1996): Softening of the hardened HAZ does not occur. It is not recommended where brittle fractures a serious risk. No favorable metallurgical changes take place as it a mechanical process. It offers no advantages over overloading techniques such as hydrostatic testing.

SHOT PEENING
Shot peening is a surface cold working process that is used to minimize the potential for fatigue, stress corrosion cracking and other modes of failure. Peening works on the principle of introducing residual compressive stress in the surface layer by bombarding it with small high velocity spherical media called shot (Diepart, 1992, pp 517-530). It is well known that cracks will not initiate or propagate in compressively stressed zones. Since numerous failures are initiated at the surface of components, compressive stresses

induced by shot peening can considerably enhance the life of a component. Diepart (1992, pp 517-530) concludes that shot peening has made considerable advancements over the years but further work is needed in the area of shot media, shot velocity measurements, engineering models and non-destructive tests to measure residual stress profiles to avoid such pitfalls as irrelevant applications and inappropriate and incorrect peening methods.

TEMPER BEADING AS A METHOD OF STRESS RELIEF

Temper beading is another technique that can be used as a form of stress relief. In effect, the strategic sequencing and placement of the weld beads provides localized PWHT of preceding passes, thus achieving substantial tempering of the total weldment. Preheating and/or maintenance of interpass temperature during multi-pass welding also provide a form of dynamic or auto-PWHT.

METHODS STRESSES

FOR

MEASURING

RESIDUAL

A number of different techniques can be used to measure residual stresses in metals and weldments. The American Welding Institute classifies these techniques into three groups as shown in Table 2.2. The techniques for measuring residual stresses are classified into stress relaxation, x-ray diffraction/neutron scattering and cracking categories (AWS, 2000).

Table1: Classification techniques for measuring residual stresses (AWS, 2000)

STRESS RELAXATION TECHNIQUES

In stress relaxation techniques residual stresses are measured by measuring the elastic strain release with the use of electric or mechanical strain gauges. The residual stresses are released by cutting the specimen into pieces or by removing a section from the material and hence the strain gauge is used for measuring the strain release. This technique can be successfully used on plates, cylinders or tubes (AWS, 2000). Additionally, strain release during stress relaxation can be measured using a grid system, brittle coating or photo elastic coatings. These techniques are used for measuring surface residual stresses in weldments as they provide reliable quantitative data. These techniques are based on the fact that strains taking place during unloading are elastic even though the material has undergone plastic deformation. Therefore it is possible to determine residual stresses without knowledge of the history of the material. A common technique for measuring residual stresses by stress relaxation is the hole drilling technique (AWS, 2000; Lloyd, 2000). This method was first proposed by Mathar and further developed by Soete (1949, pp354-364). In this technique, a small circular hole is drilled in a plate (which may or may not be a weldment) containing residual stresses. Those stresses in areas outside the hole are partially relaxed by drilling of the hole. It is possible to determine residual stresses that exist outside the drill hole (Soete, 1949, pp354-364). Figure-7shows that a common way to measure residual stresses is to place strain gauges at 120 from each other and drill a hole in the centre. The magnitude and direction of the principal stresses are determined by calculating the strain changes at the three gauges.

Figure-7: Hole drilling technique (AWS, 2000) Limitations of the Hole drilling method include (Ruud, 1981, pp35-40): destructive method of measuring residual stresses; holes must be at least eight times the diameter apart; accessibility to drill holes; thickness of the specimen has to be at least four times the hole diameter; and

areas where stress exceed 0.3 times the yield stress may give erroneous results due to local plastic strain during metal removal (drilling).

X-RAY DIFFRACTION SCATTERING TECHNIQUES

AND

NEUTRON

Diffraction techniques rely on measuring the elastic strains in metals through lattice parameter variations. As the lattice parameter of a metal in the unstressed state is known, elastic strain in the metal/component can be determined. The technique is based on movement of the detector (x-ray or neutron) over a range of angles to measure the angles of diffraction, ( ) which satisfy the Bragg condition of constructive interference. When the Bragg condition is satisfied, sharp increases in the scattered intensity are observed (Lloyd, 2000). The precise determination of ( ) yields d (interplanar spacing) directly. In the presence of residual stresses the measured interplanar spacing will be changed by an amount, . This change provides an internal strain gauge and hence the strains can be related to residual stresses using the elastic constant (Lloyd, 2000).

OBSERVING CRACKS TO MEASURE RESIDUAL STRESSES

Cracks induced by hydrogen or stress corrosion may provide qualitative data on residual stresses in complex structural components that have complicated residual stress distributions. The crack pattern in Figure shows there are major tensile residual stresses present in that weld.

Figure-8: Crack pattern implying the presence of tensile residual stresses (AWS, 2000).

CONCLUSION

These techniques are used for measuring surface residual stresses in weldments as they provide reliable quantitative data. These techniques are based on the fact that strains taking place during unloading are elastic even though the material has undergone plastic deformation. Therefore it is possible to determine residual stresses without knowledge of the history of the material. A common technique for measuring residual stresses by stress relaxation is the hole drilling technique. This method was first proposed by Mathar and further developed by Soete. In this technique, a small circular hole is drilled in a plate (which may or may not be a weldment) containing residual stresses. Those stresses in areas outside the hole are partially relaxed by drilling of the hole.