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Clandestine Drug Laboratories

M

JEFFEREY L. BURGESS DAVID CHANDLER

Abandoned wine cellar used as clandestine drug laboratory. (Courtesy of Getty Images.)

llegal or clandestine drug laboratories synthesize illicit drugs using a variety of techniques. The

majority of clandestine labs in the United States are involved in the production of methamphetamine, but a number of other drugs may also be synthesized, including phencyclidine (PCP), methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), methcathinone (CAT), amphetamine, and other controlled substances (Table 661). Illicit methamphetamine laboratories have spread across the United States, after having been found in significant numbers in California, Oregon, Washington, and Texas. They are also found throughout the world. No data are available on the total number of drug laboratories seized to date in the United States, but the U.S. Department of Justices Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and certain state and local jurisdictions keep statistics on clandestine laboratory investigations in which they have participated (Table 662). Clandestine drug laboratories have been discovered in houses, apartments, hotel rooms, trailers, vans, storage units, mines, buried cargo containers, and a variety of other structures. They are often found in rural or remote areas, where greater privacy is available. Often these facilities are 746

moved frequently to prevent detection. Because of the flammable and reactive hazards of chemicals used in clandestine drug synthesis, many labs are discovered only after explosions or fires. Health risks in clandestine labs also include exposures to poisonous chemicals and encounters with potentially armed and dangerous individuals involved in illicit drug synthesis. Adverse health effects have been reported for residents of the drug labs, their families, law enforcement personnel involved in the investigation of laboratories, and subsequent inhabitants of the buildings when adequate clean-up was not performed.

Chemical Hazards
The specific chemical hazards of a clandestine laboratory vary from laboratory to laboratory, depending on the status of the laboratory the illicit drug or drugs being synthesized, and the mechanism of synthesis. LABORATORY STATUS Clandestine laboratories can be classified as active, in which an active chemical process or synthesis is in

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TABLE 661 M Clandestine Drug Laboratory Statistics Parameter Examined Illicit Drug Synthesized Methamphetamine PCP MDA/MDMA LSD Other Unknown Methamphetamine Synthetic Process Ephedrinered phosphorus P2Pmethylamine Ephedrinethionyl chloride Other Unknown Laboratory Status In-transit (boxed) Active Set-up Former Other % 81.1 6.5 1.5 0.4 8.1 2.4 64.6 27.6 3.8 2.4 1.6 42.5 26.2 16.5 13.0 1.8

out-of-control reactions. Set-up and boxed laboratories tend to be somewhat less problematic, although exposures may still occur from opening containers of volatile chemicals, contaminated glassware or apparatus, or spills. Former laboratories do not usually present a fire or explosion hazard but have been reported to cause illnesses in subsequent inhabitants of the involved dwellings. SYNTHETIC PROCESSES The specific methods used to synthesize illicit drugs have changed over time as legal restrictions on the sale of precursor and reagent chemicals are enacted. The greatest adaptation to these restrictions has occurred in the synthesis of methamphetamine. The types and classes of chemicals used in illicit laboratories can be broken down into three general classes, precursors, reagents, and solvents. Precursor chemicals are chemicals that donate all or a portion of their structure or moiety to the structure of an intermediate or target compound. Reagents are chemicals that facilitate the reaction of the precursors but do not contribute to the final structures of the target compound. Solvents are used to dissolve, isolate, or manipulate precursors, reagents, or final products. Generally, illicit drugs are made by following recipes gleamed from the open chemical literature, which may be passed from person to person, sold as a commodity, obtained from underground sources or counterculture publications, or downloaded from the Internet. The persons manufacturing illicit drugs seldom are trained chemists and may have limited education. These clandestine chemists literally cook the ingredients and are therefore called cooks. In addition to creating the target compound of the syntheses, other chemical by-products are produced that may be harmful to the investigator or the end user. The chemistry and methods used to produce illicit drugs are very similar to those skills and methods found in any organic chemistry course. These methods include the following chemical techniques: Reflux: Reflux is the process of boiling one or more organic chemicals in a round-bottomed reaction flask. The flask sits in a heating mantle and is topped off with a water-cooled condenser. The importance of a properly setup and functioning condenser cannot be overemphasized. If a reaction, such as the hydriodic acid reduction of ephedrine, were to lose the liquid out of the reaction flask, poisonous phosphine gas would form and the red phosphorus would likely convert to yellow phosphorus. Yellow phosphorus burns on contact with air. Distillation: Distillation is similar to reflux, but the condenser is now placed at an angle down and away from the reaction flask. Instead of being returned to the flask, the condensed liquid is collected in another vessel. In this manner the liquid is isolated from the original solution. Extraction: Extraction is the process of isolating a chemical with a solvent. The simplest type of extraction is known as a dry extraction, in which a pow-

Questionnaire data collected from 46 law enforcement chemists involved in 2255 drug laboratory investigations.4

progress; set-up, in which chemical apparatus may be set up for ongoing chemical processes or reactions but a process is not immediately in progress; in-transit or boxed, in which chemicals and apparatus are boxed or otherwise stored for transit or future use; and former or historical, where all or most chemicals and apparatus have been removed from the site, but chemical residues indicating manufacturing still exist. Active laboratories present a much greater risk than other categories of laboratories because of the increased potential for exposure to precursor and reagent chemicals and their by-products. Increased exposure to chemicals may also occur from incidents such as fires, explosions, or

TABLE 662 M Clandestine Drug Laboratory Seizures San BernardinoCounty 215 312 501

Year 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
*Drug All

DEA* 220 185 266 412 653 629 652 429 315 332 270 306 362

California 100 100 235 305 486 377 426 304 383 474 415 554 559

Laboratories

Enforcement Agency (DEA) national statistics. reporting California agencies, including the DEA. reported by the San Bernardino Sheriff's Crime Laboratory, Calif. Statistics courtesy of the Western States Intelligence Network.27

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der is washed with a solvent that will dissolve either the desired or undesired component. Another type of extraction commonly encountered in illicit laboratories is called a liquid-liquid extraction. In this extraction, the compound of interest is partitioned between an aqueous phase and an immiscible organic phase using a piece of glassware called a separatory funnel. Usually, this requires the pH of the aqueous phase to be either strongly acidic or basic. Common organic solvents used for liquid-liquid extractions include diethyl ether, benzene, petroleum ether, hexane, chloroform, methylene chloride, charcoal lighter fluid, freon (11, 12, 113, 142b etc.), or any other water-immiscible solvent. Reductions: Reductions are processes in which atomic hydrogen is added to a molecule. This usually requires some type of metallic catalyst, a hydrogen source, and a suitable vessel. Reductions for illicitly produced drugs generally fall into three categories: dissolving metal reductions, metal hydride reductions, and catalytic reductions. A dissolving metal reduction involves the use of an appropriate solvent to dissolve a metal such as sodium, lithium, potassium, zinc, or aluminum to produce a reducing medium. Aluminum also requires the use of mercuric chloride, a watersoluble mercury salt, to temper the reducing media and produce an amalgam. These media tend to be very reactive, especially toward moisture. A metal hydride reduction uses metal hydrides such as lithium aluminum hydride, sodium borohydride, sodium cyanoborohydride, or calcium hydride in an organic solvent such as diethyl ether or tetrahydrofuran. Metal hydrides, too, are very reactive to water and may cause a fire or explosion. Finally, catalytic reductions use metal catalysts on support media, such as palladium on carbon, palladium on barium sulfate, platinum chloride, Raney nickel, or ruthenium oxide. Catalytic reductions are typically performed in a device called a hydrogenator. A hydrogenator is a vessel made from stainless steel or glass capable of holding pressures ranging from 2 to several hundred atmospheres of pressure. The intermediate or precursor compound is dissolved in a solvent, such as alcohol, and added to the hydrogenator. The metal catalyst is added and the hydrogenator is sealed. The vessel is charged with hydrogen gas from a tank and shaken. Charged hydrogenators can be especially dangerous to disassemble. Makeshift hydrogenators have been constructed from polypropylene garden sprayers. Acid salt formation: This process is called powdering out. Nearly all controlled substances are nitrogenous bases that form acid salts when reacted with a suitable mineral or organic acid. The formation of a water-soluble salt is important if the drug is to be absorbed by the body. The most common example of this process is the bubbling of hydrogen chloride gas, either anhydrous from a tank or synthesized using rock salt and sulfuric acid, through a nonpolar

solvent as freon, diethyl ethyl, or hexane containing the base drug. The drug forms the water-soluble salt of the drug, which precipitates from the solution and is collected by filtration. This process can also be performed by adding a small portion of the mineral acid to a co-solvent such as acetone, which is added to the drug solution. Other types of acids used in this process include sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, and citric acid. Filtration: Filtration is the act of removing the solids in a solution by pouring the solution into a filter paper. The filtration process can either retain the finished product (as in powdering out) or remove the undesirable solids (such as red phosphorus) from the solution. Actual chemical filtration equipment such as Buchner funnels, filter flasks, and filter paper may be used. Equipment may also be improvised from such items as coffee filters and caddies, bed sheets, trash cans, and other devices. CHEMICAL TOXICITY Because of the large number of chemicals potentially present in a clandestine drug laboratory, it is impossible to predict the exact hazards of any individual laboratory. However, the chemicals present can generally be categorized by type of toxicity as corrosives, solvents, pharmacologically active agents, and other systemic toxins. Corrosives include strong acids and bases, including hydrochloric acid, hydriodic acid, sulfuric acid, and sodium hydroxide. Solvents include ethyl and diethyl ether, acetone, toluene, xylene, benzene, chloroform, denatured alcohol, freon, hexane, isopropanol, methanol, petroleum ether, and more recently Coleman fuel. Pharmacologically active agents include methamphetamine, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and other drugs found in nonmethamphetamine laboratories. Other systemic toxins include metals, primarily mercury and lead but also chromium and others, and gases such as phosphine. Explosives and cyanide/acid mixtures can be used to boobytrap the laboratories. A description of selected chemicals is provided in Table 663. Examples of synthetic processes are listed in Tables 664 through 6613. These tables have been adapted from the Washington State Department of Health (http://www. doh.wa.gov/ehp/ts/CDL/guide1ns.doc). The list of chemicals in each table is meant to be representative and not exhaustive for the synthetic process described. For more complete information, readers should contact a local forensic chemist familiar with clandestine drug laboratories.

Methamphetamine Synthesis
Illicit methamphetamine laboratories constitute the majority of clandestine laboratory seizures in the United States, Canada, and Australia. For methamphetamine, two synthetic methods dominate. The first method uses the precursor chemical phenylacetone (phenyl-2-propanone, or P2P) and was the predominant synthetic method in the
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TABLE 663 M Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals In the following list, vapor pressure is given at 20C (68F) unless otherwise specified. All odor thresholds are from the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA)2 unless otherwise indicated. PEL = OSHA permissible exposure level, TLV = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) threshold limit value, TWA = time-weighted average, STEL = short-term (15-minute) exposure limit, C = ceiling limit (instantaneous level not to be exceeded), IDLH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) immediately dangerous to life and health concentration. For the following table, vapor pressure is given at 20C (68F) unless otherwise specified. All odor thresholds are from the AIHA unless otherwise indicated. PEL = Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Permissible Exposure Level; TLV = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Value, TWA = Time Weighted Average, STEL = Short-Term (15 minute) Exposure Limit, C = Ceiling Limit (level not to be exceeded); IDLH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health concentration. Acetic acid (glacial) (CAS 64-19-7) Form: Coloress liquid, solid below 62F; sour, vinegar-like odor Use: Reagent used in the manufacture of phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) for methamphetamine and amphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 118C (244F), vapor density 2.1, vapor pressure 11 mm Hg Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 10 ppm, STEL 15 ppm, IDLH 50 ppm Hazards: Corrosive and strong irritant. Vapors cause eye irritation. Exposure to high concentration may cause inflammation of the airway, accumulation of fluid in the lungs, severe burns, blurred vision, ulcers of the eyes, and permanent eye damage. Chronic exposure may cause irritation of the nose, throat, and airway, irritation of the eyes, and reproductive problems. Flammable when moderately heated. Potential risks: Acetic acid, which is used in the manufacture of both amphetamine and methamphetamine, is a health risk to all exposed individuals, especially children. Hazards result from skin or eye contact with this acid, inhalation of vapors, or fire due to its flammability. Acetic anhydride (CAS 108-24-7) Form: Liquid, colorless, strong vinegar-like odor Use: Reagent in P2P synthesis Physical properties: Boiling point 139C (282F), vapor pressure 4 mm Hg, vapor density 3.5, odor threshold 0.4 ppm Exposure limits: PEL 5 ppm, IDLH 200 ppm Hazards: Corrosive and irritant. Vapors are irritating to eyes, mucous membranes, and skin. Exposure to high concentration can lead to ulcerations of the nasal mucosa and in some cases bronchospasm. The liquid and vapor can severely damage the eye. This is characterized by immediate burning, followed by corneal and conjunctival edema several hours later and, in severe cases, corneal opacification with loss of vision. Skin contact may cause skin to redden and subsequently turn white and wrinkled, with moderate pain. The appearance of skin burns may be delayed. Potential risks: This reagent, used in the synthesis of P2P, is a corrosive, causing skin burns. Its vapors can lead to eye damage, making it a health risk to individuals exposed during the manufacturing process and cleanup. Acetone (CAS 67-64-1) Form: Colorless liquid; sweet fragrant odor Use: Solvent used in methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point 56C (133F), vapor pressure 180 mm Hg, vapor density not given Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 500 ppm, IDLH 2500 ppm Hazards: Irritating to the eyes and skin. Vapors may be irritating, causing irritation of the throat, airways, and lung. Prolonged exposure to high concentrations may lead to coughing, blurred vision, fatigue, tremors, convulsions, stupor, bizarre behavior, coma, and death. Alcohol and other chemicals may increase toxic effects. Flammable or explosive when mixed with air at room temperature. May explode when exposed to heat or fire. Potential risks: This solvent, which is used in the production of methamphetamine, is dangerous primarily because of its flammability and its potential to explode when exposed to heat. At high concentrations it is toxic and potentially lethal. It is a health risk to all individuals exposed during the manufacturing process and those responding to a laboratory fire. Ammonia (CAS 7664-41-7) Form: Gas (liquid under pressure), colorless, pungent odor Use: Reagent in methamphetamine synthesis, "Nazi" method. Used as liquid for reaction since sodium metal is water-reactive. Physical properties: Boiling point 33.4C (28.1F), vapor density 0.6, odor threshold 17 ppm Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 25 ppm, STEL 35 ppm, IDLH 300 ppm Hazards: Corrosive and irritant. Reacts with moisture in the mucosal surfaces (eyes, skin, and respiratory tract) to produce ammonium hydroxide. Exposure to vapors at high concentrations can result in burns to eyes, nose, pharynx, and larynx. Eye exposure may result in conjunctivitis, lacrimation, corneal irritation, and temporary or permanent blindness. Respiratory exposure may result in bronchospasm, laryngitis, tracheitis, wheezing, dyspnea, and chest pain. Exposure may also result in pulmonary edema and chemical pneumonitis. Skin exposure to concentrated vapors or liquid can lead to deep, penetrating burns. Potential risks: Ammonia is a gas used in methamphetamine synthesis. Its vapors are a health risk to all individuals in the vicinity during the manufacturing process. Benzaldehyde (CAS 100-52-7) Form: Liquid, colorless; bitter almond odor Use: Precursor for amphetamine or P2P synthesis, with nitroethane. Physical properties: Boiling point 176C (354F), vapor pressure 1 mm Hg at 26.2C (79.2F), vapor density 3.7, odor threshold 0.04 ppm Exposure limits: None Hazards: Mild irritant to the lungs; a narcotic at moderate doses and a convulsant at higher doses. It may cause contact dermatitis. It may cause skin sensitization and allergic contact dermatitis. Vapors are irritating to eyes. May be absorbed through the skin.

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TABLE 663 M Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued) Potential risks: This liquid is a health risk, especially in high concentrations. It is a precursor in the production of amphetamines, making it a hazard to those exposed during the manufacturing process. Benzyl chloride (CAS 100-44-7) Form: Liquid, colorless to slightly yellow, pungent aromatic odor Use: Used in methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point 179C (355F), vapor density 4.4, vapor pressure 1 mm Hg, odor threshold 0.04 ppm Exposure limits: PEL 1 ppm, IDLH 10 ppm Hazards: Severe irritant to the eyes, mucous membranes, and skin. It will produce lacrimation at low concentrations and also weakness, irritability, and persistent headache. At sufficient concentration, inhalation may produce pulmonary edema. Liquid in the eye can produce severe irritation and corneal injury. Skin contact may produce dermatitis and skin sensitization. Potential risks: This liquid, which is used in methamphetamine production, is a severe irritant to the eyes and can have other harmful effects to individuals present during the manufacturing process. Benzene (CAS 71-43-2) Form: Colorless to lightyellow liquid; aromatic odor Use: Solvent used in methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point 80C (176F), vapor pressure 74.6 mm Hg, vapor density not determined Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 1 ppm, STEL 5 ppm, IDLH 500 ppm Hazards: Vapor in high concentration may affect the nervous system, causing headache, dizziness, breathing difficulties, coughing, fluid in the lungs, coma, lung, liver, or kidney damage, or death. Prolonged inhalation may lead to anemia or leukemia. Chronic exposure can irritate the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs and may affect the central nervous system, bone marrow, and respiratory tract. Symptoms include allergies, confusion, headache, short-term memory loss, coma, or death. Benzene is extremely flammable, and vapor may cause a flash fire. Potential risks: Benzene is used in methamphetamine production. It is extremely flammable, and inhalation of the vapors is very hazardous to exposed individuals present during the manufacture, cleanup, and response to fire. Chronic exposure, especially in young children, can cause severe health problems. Coleman fuel (light hydrotreated distillate) (CAS 68410-97-9) Form: Liquid Use: Solvent used to extract d-methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 38C (100F), vapor pressure 518 mm Hg, vapor density 3 Exposure limits: TWA 400 ppm Hazards: Vapor may cause delayed lung injury, nervous system depression, convulsions, and loss of consciousness. Irritant to skin and eyes. Can form flammable mixture with air at room temperature. Potential risks: Coleman fuel is a solvent used in the extraction of d-methamphetamine. It is hazardous due to its flammability when mixed with air. Vapors are a health hazard to individuals during the manufacturing phase. Ephedrine (CAS 299-42-3) Form: White crystal; odorless Use: Precusor in manufacture of methamphetamines. Physical properties: Not available Exposure limits: None Hazards: Irritant to eyes, skin, and respiratory system. Ingestion may lead to headache, rapid pulse, high blood pressure and stroke. Potential risks: Ephedrine is a precusor used in the manufacture of methamphetamines. In addition to being an irritant, ingestion of excessive amounts can have serious effects. Ethanol (CAS 64-17-5) Form: Clear, colorless liquid Use: Used in the production of methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 79C (173F), vapor pressure 5.8 mm Hg, vapor density 1.6 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 1000 ppm, IDLH 3300 ppm Hazards: Inhalation may irritate the nose and throat, causing headache, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, or confusion. Ingestion can lead to burning sensation, confusion, dizziness, seizures, blurred vision, blindness, unconsciousness, or death. Chronic exposure may lead to headache, lack of coordination, fatigue, and damage to the nervous system, liver, stomach, and heart. Vapor and liquid are extremely flammable. Potential risks: Ethanol and its vapors are extremely flammable, making it a health risk to all present. Ingestion is common and in large amounts can lead to severe health effects in children. Ethyl ether (CAS 60-29-7) Form: Colorless liquid; sweet pungent odor Use: Solvent used in the manufacture of methamphetamine and amphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 35C (94F), vapor pressure 58.6 mm Hg, vapor density 2.6 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 400 ppm, STEL 500 ppm, IDLH 1900 ppm Hazards: Inhalation or ingestion causes headache, drunkenness, and vomiting. Flammable and highly volatile. In the presence of oxygen or sunlight, unstable peroxides may form, which explode spontaneously or when heated. Potential Risks: This solvent is used in the manufacture of both amphetamine and methamphetamine. Inhalation can lead to toxic nervous system effects. It is highly volatile and flammable, making it a risk to all those in the vicinity and to individuals responding to a fire. Table continued on following page

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TABLE 663 M Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued) Formic acid (CAS 64-18-6) Form: Colorless liquid; pungent odor Use: Used in the manufacturing process. Physical properties: Boiling point 101C (224F), vapor pressure 4.6 mm Hg, vapor density 1.6 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 5 ppm, STEL 10 ppm, IDLH 30 ppm Hazards: Corrosive to eyes, skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. It is readily absorbed into the skin, causing piercing pain, reddening, burns, and severe toxic effects. Vapor may cause severe irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat. Severe inhalation leads to accumulation of fluid in the lungs, shock, and death. Ingestion can produce severe burns, bloody diarrhea, and agonizing pain. Nonflammable, but may explode violently on contact with oxidizing agents. Potential risks: This acid is corrosive to the skin and also can cause severe toxic effects from absorption into the skin. Inhalation may cause accumulation of fluid in the lungs and even death. It can explode violently when in contact with oxidizing reagents. It is a hazard to all individuals present during manufacturing and cleanup. Hexane (other isomers) Form: Colorless liquid; mild characteristic odor Use: Solvent used in the production of methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 69C (156F), vapor pressure 16 mm Hg, vapor density 3.0 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 500 ppm, STEL 1000, IDLH 1100 ppm Hazards: Prolonged exposure can lead to permanent brain and nerve damage with coughing, bizarre behavior, unconsciousness, coma, or death. Extremely flammable. Potential risks: Hexane is an extremely flammable solvent used in the production of methamphetamine, making it a risk to all individuals in the area or responding to a fire. Its heath effects from chronic exposure make it harmful to laboratory residents, especially children. Hydrochloric acid (Muriatic acid) (CAS 7647-01-0) Form: Colorless liquid; pungent odor (muriatic acid refers to an industrial grade of hydrochloric acid) Use: Reagent used in the manufacture of methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 53C (127F), vapor pressure 190 mm Hg, vapor densityno information found Exposure limits: PEL-C 5 ppm, IDLH 50 ppm (as hydrogen chloride gas) Hazards: Very corrosive. Causes severe pain and burns on the skin. Inhalation may destroy the lining in the airways, throat, and lungs. Can lead to permanent lung damage. Prolonged exposure may cause tooth decay and skin allergies. Heating can lead to release of toxic, flammable, and explosive gas. Potential risks: This acid is a reagent used in the production of methamphetamine. It is very corrosive, causing severe burns on contact and lung damage if inhaled. Gases released during heating are toxic and also flammable and explosive, making it a hazard to inhabitants of the laboratory, those involved in cleanup, and first responders. Hydrogen chloride (CAS 7647-01) Form: Colorless gas Use: Used in the manufacture of methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 85C (121F), vapor density 1.3 Exposure limits: TLV-C 5 ppm, IDLH 50 ppm Hazards: High concentrations are very corrosive and may cause severe burns. Inhalation may cause mild to severe irritation of the nose and throat with possible fluid in the lungs. Potential risks: This gas, used in the manufacture of methamphetamine, is very corrosive, causing severe burns. It is a heath hazard to individuals present in the laboratory and those involved in cleanup. Hydrogen iodide (gas), Hydriodic acid (liquid) (CAS 10034-85-2) Form: Gas (soluble in water), colorless Use: Reagent in methamphetamine synthesis, with red phosphorus. Physical properties: Boiling point 35.1C (31.2F), vapor density 4.4, odor threshold not available Exposure limits: None Hazards: Corrosive and irritant. Exposure can occur to both liquid and gas. Inhalation causes irritation of the throat and upper respiratory tract, and, at higher concentrations, dyspnea, chest pain, bronchospasm, and pneumonitis. Severe exposures result in pulmonary and laryngeal edema. Will cause severe irritation to the eyes. Skin contact at high concentrations may lead to burns. Potential risks: This substance may be in gas or liquid form and is used in the red phosphorus method of methamphetamine synthesis. It is corrosive and an irritant. It is a health risk to both inhabitants of the laboratory and first responders. Hypophosphorus acid (CAS 6303-21-5) Form: Colorless liquid Use: Used instead of red phosphorus as a reagent in methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point not found, vapor pressure less than 17 mm Hg Exposure limits: None Hazards: Corrosive. Causes burns if inhaled or on contact with skin. Extremely destructive to mucous membranes. Potential risks: This acid is corrosive, causing burns to those inhaling its vapors and those in direct contact with it. Iodine (CAS 7553-56-2) Form: Solid, purple crystals or flakes; sharp odor Use: Reagent in synthesis of hydriodic acid. Physical properties: Melting point 113C (236F), boiling point 184C (364F), vapor pressure 0.3 mm Hg at 25C (77F), vapor density 4.93, odor threshold 0.85 ppm (9.0 mg/m3), irritating concentration 2.0 mg/m3 (0.19 ppm)

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TABLE 663 M Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued) Exposure limits: TLV-C 0.1 ppm, IDLH 2 ppm Hazards: Corrosive. Ingestion of iodine will cause vomiting, delirium, headache, low blood pressure, and circulatory collapse. Inhalation of iodine vapors is very irritating to the mucous membranes and at high concentrations may lead to pulmonary edema. Skin contact may cause redness and swelling. Potential risks: Iodine is used in the manufacture of hydriodic acid for methamphetamine synthesis. It is corrosive and can cause serious health problems if ingested or inhaled in high concentrations. It can be a risk for those present in the laboratory and for individuals involved in cleanup. Iodine, Prill (CAS 7553-56-2) See Iodine Form: Round beads of iodine Iodine, tincture Form: Dark red solution with a medicinal odor Use: Reagent used in the synthesis of hydriodic acid. Physical properties: Boiling point 82C (180F), vapor pressure 10 mm Hg, vapor density > 1 Exposure limits: TLV-C 0.1 ppm, IDLH 2 ppm Hazards: Harmful if inhaled or swallowed. May cause intoxication and severe irritation. Flammable. Potential risks: This reagent, used in hydriodic acid synthesis, is flammable, making it a hazard to all present individuals and those responding to fire. It is harmful if inhaled and can cause intoxication if swallowed. Lead acetate (CAS 301-04-2) Form: Solid, white crystals or, for commercial grades, brown or gray lumps; odorless Use: Reagent used in P2P synthesis. Physical properties: Melting point 280C (536F) Exposure limits (for lead): TLV-TWA 0.05 mg/m3, IDLH 100mg/m3 Hazards: Mostly a chronic exposure hazard by ingestion or inhalation of dust. Will form fumes at high temperatures. Poisoning symptoms include abdominal cramping, nausea, anorexia, vomiting, constipation, diarrhea, and difficulty concentrating. Children are more susceptible to exposure due to increased absorption and greater effects on the developing nervous system. Potential risks: This crystalline material is used in P2P synthesis. The health hazard is mainly from chronic exposure, especially in children. Lithium aluminum hydride (CAS 1302-30-3) Form: Solid, white to gray powder; odorless Use: Used for hydrogenation in multiple processes. Physical properties: Decomposes at 125C (257F) to form lithium hydride, aluminum metal, and hydrogen. Exposure limits: None Hazards: Corrosive. Extremely water-reactive, will generate hydrogen gas and explode. It is severely irritating to the eyes, nose, skin, mucous memebranes, and lungs. Eye exposure can result in scarring and inflammation. Potential risks: This solid is used in the hydrogenation process during methamphetamine production. It is corrosive and reacts with water to form explosive hydrogen gas, making it a risk to inhabitants and first responders. Mercuric chloride (CAS 7487-94-7) Form: Solid, white crystals, odorless Use: Reagent used in methamphetamine synthesis, P2P method. Physical properties: Melting point 276C (529F), boiling point 302C (576F) Exposure limits (for mercury compounds): TLV-TWA 0.025 mg/m3, IDLH 10 mg/m3 Hazards: Corrosive. Ingestion results in intense epigastric and abdominal pain and emesis, which may be bloody, and later renal failure. Inhalation of dust can cause respiratory irritation, major destruction of lungs and airways, kidney failure, shock, and bizarre behavior. Eye exposure can lead to corrosive injury. Chronic exposure may lead to build-up in the brain, liver, and kidneys. Releases toxic fumes when heated. Potential risks: This solid reagent, used to manufacture methamphetamine and P2P, is a corrosive chemical. Inhalation as well as ingestion can cause severe health hazards. Long-term exposure may lead to brain, liver, and kidney damage, making this chemical hazardous to those living in the laboratory and those involved in cleanup. Toxic fumes released on heating make it a potential hazard to first responders as well. Methyl alcohol (HEET) (CAS 67-56-1) Form: Clear colorless liquid, characteristic odor Use: Used in the production of methamphetamine Physical properties: Boiling point 64.5C (147F), vapor pressure 97 mm Hg, vapor density 1.1 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 200 ppm, STEL 250 ppm, IDLH 6000 ppm Hazards: Vapors may cause irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. Ingestion may lead to headache, nausea, abdominal pain, loss of consciousness, coma, blindness, and brain, pancreas, or kidney damage. Flammable. Potential risks: Methyl alcohol is used in the synthesis of methamphetamine. Its vapors are irritants, and acute ingestion can lead to blindness and other organ damage, making it a danger to inhabitants of the laboratory, especially children. It is flammable and therefore a risk to first responders. Methylamine (CAS 74-89-5) Form: Gas or liquid, colorless; strong fish/ammonia odor (usually encountered as 40% weight/volume in water) Use: Precursor for methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point 6.3C (20.6F), vapor density 1.07, odor threshold 4.7 ppm Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 10 ppm, STEL 15 ppm, IDLH 100 ppm Table continued on following page

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TABLE 663 M Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued) Hazards: Severe irritant to the eyes, mucous membranes, and skin. It has been reported to be linked to the generation of allergic or chemical bronchitis. Exposure to this compound can lead to olfactory fatigue. Exposure to the eye can cause conjunctival hemorrhage, superficial corneal opacities, and edema. On the skin, a 40% solution caused tissue destruction. Potential risks: This chemical, found as either a gas or liquid, is a precursor in methamphetamine production. It is a severe irritant and can cause chemical bronchitis. It is a hazard to individuals in the laboratory during the manufacturing process and those involved in cleanup. Muriatic acid (see Hydrochloric acid) Naphtha (CAS 8002-05-9) Form: Reddish-brown liquid; aromatic odor Use: A petroleum distillate solvent used in the manufacture of methamphetamine Physical properties: Boiling point 104C (220F), vapor pressure 22 mm Hg, vapor density 3.4 Exposure limits: PEL 500 ppm, IDLH 1100 ppm Hazards: May cause irritation or burns to skin and eyes. Inhalation may lead to central nervous system depression, headache, nausea, dizziness, confusion, and unconsciousness. Potential risks: Naphtha is an aliphatic petroleum solvent used in the manufacture of methamphetamine. Inhalation can have serious effects, making it a health hazard to individuals present during the manufacturing process. Nitroethane (CAS 79-24-3) Form: Liquid, oily, colorless; mild fruity smell. Use: Precursor for P2P synthesis. Physical properties: Boiling point 114C (237F), vapor pressure 21 mm Hg at 25C (77F), vapor density 2.58, odor threshold 163 ppm Exposure limits: PEL 100 ppm, IDLH 1000 ppm Hazards: Skin, eye and mucous membrane irritant. It may cause anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In animals it has resulted in renal and liver toxicity, and is a central nervous system depressant. It produces weakness, ataxia, and convulsions. Its vapors cause irritation to the respiratory tract, coughing, or difficulty breathing. Skin exposure may produce erythema and swelling with pain. Eye exposure may cause irritation. Potential risks: Nitroethane is used as a precursor for P2P synthesis. It is an irritant and may be harmful to those present during the manufacturing process. Phenylacetic acid (CAS 103-82-2) Form: Solid, white shiny crystals; floral odor. Use: Precursor for the synthesis of P2P. Physical properties: Melting point 76.5C (170F), boiling point 265C (510F), vapor pressure 0.004 mm Hg, vapor density 1.09, odor threshold not available Exposure limits: None Hazards: Irritant. Oral toxicity of this compound is low. It is slightly irritating to the skin. It is a possible teratogen. Eye exposure may result in mild irritation. Inhalation of the compound may lead to headache, nausea, and dizziness. Potential risks: This precursor of P2P is an irritant and a possible teratogen. It is most hazardous to those present during the synthesis of P2P. Phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) (CAS 103-79-7) Form: Liquid Use: Precursor for methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point 215C (419F), vapor density 1.003 Exposure limits: None Hazards: Oral toxicity of this compound is low. It is slightly irritating to the skin. Eye exposure would result in mild irritation. Inhalation of the compound may lead to headache, nausea, and dizziness. These symptoms may be due to the organic nature of the compound or to the odor. Potential risks: This precursor of methamphetamine is an irritant to the skin. Inhalation may cause symptoms. It is a health risk to those inhabiting the laboratory. Phosphine (CAS 7803-51-2) Form: Colorless gas; fish-or garlic-like odor Use: Product of methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point 87.7C (125.9F), vapor density 1.18 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 0.3 ppm, STEL 1.0 ppm, IDLH 50 ppm Hazards: Extremely flammable, reacts explosively with air. Inhalation may cause dizziness, dullness, tremors, vomiting, shortness of breath, delayed lung damage, and convulsions. Potential risks: Because of its explosive reaction with air, phosphine gas is a hazard to those present in the laboratory during the manufacturing process and first responders. It has been linked to several deaths in clandestine laboratories. Phosphoric acid (CAS 7664-38-2) Form: Hygroscopic, colorless crystals Use: Precursor in the production of methamphetamine and amphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 213C (415F), vapor pressure 4 mm Hg, vapor density 3.4 Exposure limits: TVL-TWA 1 mg/m3, STEL 3 mg/m3, IDLH 1000 mg/m3

Clandestine Drug Laboratories / 66 755

TABLE 663 M Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued) Hazards: Eye irritant causing irritation, tearing, blinking, and burns. Vapor can irritate nose and throat. Skin exposure results in irritation, redness, itching, swelling, and burns. Chronic exposure may cause allergies and damage to lungs, liver, bloodstream, and bone marrow. Contact with metal can cause release of poisonous and explosive phosphine gas. Potential risks: A precursor used in methamphetamine and amphetamine, this acid is an irritant to the eyes, nose, and throat. Longterm exposure may be damaging to the lungs, liver, and bone marrow, making it harmful for individuals living in the laboratory, especially children. Pseudoephedrine (CAS 321-97-1) Form: White crystalline powder Use: Precusor used in the production of methamphetamines. Physical properties: Not available Exposure limits: None Hazards: Irritant to the eyes, skin, and respiratory system. Ingestion may lead to headache, rapid pulse, high blood pressure, and stroke. Potential risks: Ephedrine is a precursor used in the manufacture of methamphetamines. In addition to being an irritant, ingestion of excessive amounts can have serious effects. Pyridine (CAS 110-86-1) Form: Liquid, colorless to yellow; nauseating fish-like odor Use: Reagent in the synthesis of P2P from phenylacetic acid in the presence of acetic anhydride. Physical properties: Boiling point 115C (240F), vapor pressure 16 mm Hg, vapor density 2.73, odor threshold 0.74 ppm Exposure limits: PEL 5 ppm, IDLH 1000 ppm Hazards: Irritant and central nervous system depressant. On ingestion it may cause liver and kidney damage. Exposure to vapor may cause headaches, vertigo, nervousness, sleeplessness, nausea, and vomiting. Lower back pain may develop with no evidence of kidney damage. Skin irritation may result from prolonged or repeated contact. Potential risks: This reagent, used to produce P2P, can cause central nervous system depression. Vapor can cause symptoms in individuals present during the manufacturing process. Red phosphorus (CAS 7723-14-0) Form: Solid, red to violet; odorless Use: Catalyst in methamphetamine synthesis. Physical properties: Burns when heated in air to 260C (500F) with formation of pentoxide fumes Exposure limits: None Hazards: Red phosphorus is considered relatively nontoxic. If heated it can either produce toxic fumes or convert to yellow phosphorus, which will burn on contact with air and cause severe burns. If heated in the presence of acid, it can form phosphine gas. Potential risks: This catalyst in methamphetamine production is mainly a serious hazard because of its ability to form phosphine gas in the presence of acid. It is also explosive, making it a possible hazard to individuals involved in cleaning laboratories and dump sites, in addition to those present in the laboratory during the manufacturing process. Ronsonol (lighter fluid) Form: Reddish brown liquid; aromatic odor Use: A petroleum distillate solvent consisting of two solvent naphtha fractions, light aliphatic 95% (CAS 64742-89-8) and medium 5% (CAS 64742-88-7); and Shell Sol RB 100%. Physical properties: Similar to naphtha. Exposure limits: See Naphtha. Potential risks: See Naphtha. Sodium (CAS 7440-23-5) Form: Solid, silvery white metal or crystals; odorless Use: Used for hydrogenation in methamphetamine synthesis. Physical properties: Melting point 97.8C (208F), boiling point 883C (1621F) Exposure limits: None available Hazards: Corrosive. Extremely water-reactive, producing hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide. Metallic sodium can react with water on skin to cause thermal and chemical burns. It is severely irritating to the eyes, nose, skin, mucous membranes, and lungs. Eye exposure can result in scarring and inflammation. Potential risks: Sodium metal is corrosive and extremely water-reactive, producing explosive hydrogen gas. It reacts with water on the skin to cause burns. It is a heath risk to individual present during manufacturing, and to first responders. Sodium hydroxide (lye) (CAS 1310-73-2) Form: White pellets or flakes; odorless Use: Reagent used in methamphetamine manufacture. Physical properties: Boiling point 1390C (2534F), vapor pressure negligible, vapor density 1.0 Exposure limits: TLV-C 2 mg/m3, IDLH 10 mg/m3 Hazards: Very corrosive. Contact of the eyes with vapor or powder can cause severe eye burns with permanent damage. Contact with skin causes severe irritation and burns. Inhalation of vapors and dust can lead to burns of the lungs and air passages. Carcinogen if ingested. Contact with metals or fire may produce deadly and explosive hydrogen gas. Potential risks: This reagent, used in the manufacture of methamphetamine, is very corrosive. It can cause severe burns of the eyes, skin, and the lungs. In the presence of metals or fire, explosive gas may result, making it a hazard to those present in the laboratory, and to first responders. Table continued on following page

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TABLE 663 M Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued) Sulfuric acid (CAS 7664-93-9) Form: Colorless to yellow viscous liquid, odorless Use: Reagent used in the manufacture of amphetamine, methamphetamine, and P2P. Physical properties: Boiling point 290C (554F), vapor pressure 7 mm Hg Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 1 mg/m3, STEL 3 mg/m3, IDLH 15 mg/m3 Hazards: Contact with eyes causes severe burns, pain, tearing, swelling, permanent damage, or blindness. Corrosive to the skin, causing severe deep burns, blistering, swelling, and scarring. Harmful or fatal if inhaled, causing possible lung damage, cough, difficulty breathing, and subsequent respiratory failure. Chronic exposure may lead to lung damage, skin allergies, and kidney and liver damage. Reacts violently with water to produce toxic and corrosive fumes. Carcinogen. Potential risks: This reagent is used in the manufacture of amphetamine and methamphetamine. It may cause severe burns on contact and may be harmful or fatal if inhaled. Chronic exposure may lead to damage of the liver, lungs and kidneys. It reacts violently with water to produce corrosive fumes. It presents health risks to those present during manufacturing, Thionyl chloride (CAS 7719-09-7) Form: Liquid, colorless, pale yellow, or reddish; suffocating pungent odor Use: Reagent used in methamphetamine synthesis. Physical properties: Boiling point 76C (169F), decomposes at 140C (284F) to form Cl2, SO2, and S2Cl2, vapor pressure 100 mm Hg at 21C (70F), vapor density 4.1, odor threshold not available Exposure limits: TLV-C 1 ppm, IDLH not determined Hazards: Strongly irritating or caustic to the eyes, lungs, skin, and mucous membranes. Severe acute exposure may result in pulmonary edema, pneumonia, and death. Skin exposure may cause irritation, burning, and dermatitis. Eye exposure may produce burns, conjunctivitis and corneal damage. Potential risks: This reagent, used in the manufacture of methamphetamine, can cause irritation of the eyes, lungs, and skin. Overexposure may lead to pulmonary edema or even death. Individuals most at risk are those present during the manufacturing process. Thorium oxide (CAS 1314-20-1) Form: Solid, white crystals (sand-like); odorless Use: Catalyst for P2P synthesis Physical properties: Melting point 3390C (6134F), boiling point 4400C (7952F) Exposure limits: None available other than general standards for radioactive materials Hazards: Thorium is a radioactive alpha-emitter. It is toxic if ingested or inhaled. Carcinogen. Potential risks: A catalyst for P2P synthesis, thorium oxide is a radioactive material and is toxic if ingested or inhaled. It is most harmful to those having chronic exposure, such as children and others inhabiting the laboratory. Toluene (CAS 108-88-3) Form: Clear, colorless liquid; benzene-like aroma Use: Solvent used in the manufacture of P2P and methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 111C (232F), vapor pressure 22 mm Hg, vapor density 3.14 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 50 ppm, IDLH 500 ppm Hazards: Inhalation may cause irritation of the skin, nose, throat, and lungs, as well as nausea, weakness, drunkenness, confusion, and loss of consciouness. Highly flammable. Potential risks: It is an irritant to the skin and respiratory system and has significant effects on the nervous system. It is highly flammable, making it a hazard for first responders as well as those present during the manufacturing process. 1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane (Freon) (CAS 76-13-1) Form: Clear, colorless liquid; slight ethereal odor Use: Solvent used to extract d-methamphetamine Physical properties: Boiling point 47C (117F), vapor pressure 284 mm Hg, vapor density 6.5 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 1000 ppm, STEL 1250 ppm, IDLH 2000 ppm Hazards: Vapor can cause eye irritation, burning, and damage. Inhalation can cause sudden cardiac death. Freon interferes with the heart's rhythm. Symptoms may include slurring, vomiting, drunkenness, coma, and death. Potential risks: Freon is used as a solvent to extract d-methamphetamine. The vapor can cause eye irritation and damage. Inhalation can be deadly. This solvent is a serious health hazard to individuals present during the manufacturing process.

United States until about 1989. The second method uses the precursor ephedrine or its diastereomer, pseudoephedrine, and has become the most popular synthetic method in the United States, Canada, and Australia. As an optically active or chiral compound, methamphetamine has two forms. The dextrorotatory (d) isomer is a physiologically active CNS stimulant; the levorotatory (l) methamphetamine isomer is not active as a CNS stimulant. When synthesized through a nonchiral intermediate such as P2P, the resulting methamphetamine will have equal amounts of active and inactive isomers. Synthetic

processes using optically pure isomers of l-ephedrine or d-pseudoephedrine produce essentially pure active d-methamphetamine. PHENYLACETONE (P2P) METHODS Historically, P2P was converted to methamphetamine using a process called reductive amination (Table 664). In this process, P2P is reacted with methylamine in alcohol in the presence of an aluminum amalgam, usually in a roundbottomed flask with a water-cooled condensing column.

Clandestine Drug Laboratories / 66 757

TABLE 664 M Methamphetamine Synthesis: Phenyl-2-

Propanone Amalgam Method

TABLE 665 M Precursor Synthesis: Phenyl-2-

Propanone

Phenyl-2-propanone + methylamine Methamphetamine Reagents/catalysts Aluminum (foil, wire, pellets) Mercuric chloride Hydrochloric acid Solvents Methanol Ethanol Isopropyl alcohol Diethyl ether Petroleum ether

Phenylacetic acid + acetic anhydride Phenyl-2-propanone Phenylacetic acid + lead acetate Phenyl-2-propanone Phenylacetic acid + acetic acid Phenyl-2-propanone Reagents/catalysts Pyridine Sodium acetate Potassium acetate Thorium nitrate or oxide Pumice Solvents None required

Heat is not necessary for this reaction, as it is exothermic, but many laboratories have been found in which a heating mantle was used. Mercuric chloride is added in small amounts to form the aluminum amalgam. The reaction is allowed to react overnight. At the completion of the reaction time, the methamphetamine is isolated from the filtered reaction solution by titrating with hydrochloric acid, by liquid-liquid extraction using acid-base partitioning from water and a suitable organic solvent, or by distillation. Another reductive amination process using P2P is called a Leuckart reaction. This reaction uses N-methylformamide and formic acid in the place of methylamine. This type of reaction has been more popular in Canada, the Great Lakes region, and the Texas-Oklahoma region. A variation of the Leuckart reaction using formamide instead of methylformamide is used to synthesize amphetamine both legally and illicitly. PRECURSOR SYNTHESIS: P2P Laws passed to limit the sale of precursor chemicals used in the synthesis of illegal drugs have significantly altered the synthetic processes and have also forced the cooks to synthesize previously available precursor drugs from chemicals that are still commercially available. However, the existence and extent of precursor laws vary from state to state and from country to country. Before 1980, P2P could be purchased legally from nearly all chemical retailers without any restrictions. In 1980, the U.S. federal government added P2P to Schedule II of its Controlled Substances Act (21 CFR 1308.12, Schedule II, 8501). Thus, to legally purchase or possess P2P, a person had to be registered with the DEA and had to have a valid DEA license. Passage of this law had a tremendous impact on the commercial sale and diversion of P2P for illicit amphetamine and methamphetamine synthesis. After 1980, a clandestine methamphetamine cook had to independently synthesize P2P using other precursor materials. The most popular method of synthesizing P2P has been the base-catalyzed condensation of phenylacetic acid and acetic anhydride (Table 665). The process requires refluxing phenylacetic acid and acetic anhydride in the presence of a base such as sodium acetate or pyridine for about 18 hours. This process is particularly malodorous, as the phenylacetic acid has a pungent, lingering odor often compared to stale urine.

Several other synthetic methods have been encountered for the conversion of phenylacetic acid to PCP. Of particular note are two methods using the following hazardous precursors: 1 Lead (II) acetate: This method was traced to a reference found in the Japanese journal Crime and Science Detective22 and appears to have surfaced in the Salem, Oregon, area. The lead acetate was drydistilled with the phenylacetic acid. The P2P was collected in another vessel, and the remnants of the reaction mixture hardened into a cookie of lead salts. The round-bottom flasks used in these reactions were generally only used once, as the cookie was difficult to remove without breaking the flask. The contents of these flasks and other broken flasks were often found at laboratory sites. There were several reports of methamphetamine users having elevated levels of lead in their blood1,6; however, the source of the lead may have been from lead (II) acetate used as a cutting agent in the final powder. 2 Thorium oxide: This process uses a tube furnace packed with pumice that has been treated with a thorium oxide catalyst. Thorium is a radioactive alpha emitter and is potentially carcinogenic if inhaled or ingested. The U.S. Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act (CDTA) of 1987 placed numerous restrictions on the purchase and sale of many precursor and reagent chemicals, especially phenylacetic acid. In response to this restriction, violators began to synthesize their own phenylacetic acid from other chemicals, such as benzyl cyanide and benzyl chloride. Despite its name, benzyl cyanide (phenylacetonitrile) is actually an organic nitrile and not capable of producing toxic hydrogen cyanide gas when reacted with an acidic solution. Another well-documented P2P synthetic method in the chemical literature, using benzaldehyde and nitroethane, began to be seen in the central Oregon area first, then spread to surrounding states. This process forms a yellow-orange crystalline powder that is stable and pleasantsmelling as well as a very strong mucous membrane irritant. EPHEDRINE METHODS l-Ephedrine and its diastereomer, d-pseudoephedrine, are naturally occurring substances found in the plant species

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Ephedra. The ephedrines are produced in nature as optically pure compounds. Pseudoephedrine is a legitimate over-the-counter medication used for nasal decongestion and in cold remedies such as Sudafed and Actifed. The ephedrines are structurally very similar to methamphetamine. Ephedrine differs from methamphetamine by a single hydroxyl group. Replacing the hydroxyl group with hydrogen is achieved using one of the reduction processes previously described.

EphedrineThionyl Chloride
Prior to about 1982, the reduction of ephedrine to methamphetamine was not very common. When it was encountered, it followed a process that required reacting the ephedrine with a chlorinating agent such as thionyl chloride, phosphorus pentachloride, or phosphorus trichloride (Table 666).12,13 This synthesis produced an intermediate compound known as chloropseudoephedrine by chemically substituting the hydroxyl group with a chlorine atom. This intermediate was subjected to a catalytic reduction using a metal catalyst, hydrogen gas, and some type of pressurecontaining vessel. The chlorinating reagents suggested in the literature are very reactive and dangerous materials. Thionyl chloride vapors are extremely corrosive and form hydrogen chloride gas and sulfur dioxide in the presence of moisture. Although thionyl chloride is one of the chemicals on the CDTA list, it is still occasionally encountered in a clandestine laboratory. Most of the catalysts used in these reductions do not cause much concern to the investigator except as a nuisance dust because of the nature of the fine powder. However, Raney nickel catalyst is a volatile catalyst that is pyrophoricthat is, it will burn in contact with air and water. The catalytic reduction method has not been a very popular reaction except in limited areas of California.

EphedrineHydriodic Acid
The most popular method of reducing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine has been using hydriodic acid (HI) and red phosphorus (Table 667).21 This method is a straightforward, one-pot synthesis completed in 12 to 72 hours. Ephedrine powder is dissolved in 57% HI and a quantity of amorphous red phosphorus. HI is available commericially at a strength of 47% or 57% w/v, stabilized with hypophosphorus acid. The reaction solution is refluxed, cooled, and processed to isolate the
TABLE 666 M Methamphetamine Synthesis: Ephedrine

methamphetamine. During the reflux, vapors of HI are volitilized from the solution. Unfortunately, the condenser columns used on the reaction flasks are not capable of trapping and returning these vapors to the reaction flask. Thus, a large quantity of HI fumes are expelled from the reaction into the air and often stain the ceilings and walls of rooms where the synthesis is performed. The cooks are aware of the dangers of the HI fumes and often have some form of respiratory protection in the laboratory. However, these respirators are often old military surplus gas masks or cartridge respirators meant for protection from particulate matter. HI fumes are known to induce chemical pneumonia and other respiratory problems. One agent who was standing 50 feet from a laboratory site was exposed to HI fumes and later suffered pneumonia, chemical bronchitis, and a collapsed lung.23 Deaths have been associated with inhalation of HI fumes.17 Amorphous red phosphorus is used in the reaction as a catalyst to regenerate the iodine formed from the reduction of the ephedrine back to iodide. The red phosphorus is not appreciably changed in the reaction. Red phosphorus is considered safe and unreactive. However, two major hazards may arise from the use of red phosphorus. First, if it is heated dry, the red phosphorus will change to yellow phosphorus and will spontaneously ignite on contact with air. There have been reports from investigators of samples of red phosphorus autoigniting during the sampling process9,19,24 and a report of a reaction mixture igniting on a stove top.14 Suppression of red phosphorus fires requires the use of a class D fire extinguisher. Second, when red phosphorus is heated in the presence of HI, one of the by-product chemicals that may be produced is phosphine, a poisonous gas with a strong fishy odor. Several deaths are suspected to have been caused by phosphine exposure in clandestine laboratories.17,19 Laboratories using the HI red phosphorus method usually run reactions on a large scale. Reaction flasks ranging in size from 22 liters to 72 liters have been found. In addition, it is not uncommon to encounter laboratories using several 22-liter flasks. The large quantity of hazardous chemicals increases the risk of exposure to the cook and the investigators. In the isolation of the finished methamphetamine from the reaction solution, the cooks must neutralize the very strong HI mineral acid with sodium or calcium hydroxide. This process generates copious quantities of heat and may produce spattering. When the pH of the reaction mixture is basic, the methamphetamine is ready to be extracted for further processing.
TABLE 667 M Methamphetamine Synthesis: Ephedrine

Thionyl Chloride Method

Hydriodic Acid Red Phosphorus Method

Ephedrine + thionyl chloride Methamphetamine Ephedrine + phosphorus pentachloride Methamphetamine Ephedrine + phosphorus trichloride Methamphetamine Reagents/catalysts Raney nickel, palladium on carbon, palladium on barium sulfate, platinum chloride, calcium hydride Solvents Methanol Ethanol Diethyl ether Chloroform

Ephedrine + hydriodic acid + red phosphorus Methamphetamine Reagents/catalysts Hydrochloric acid Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride Sodium thiosulfate Sulfuric acid Solvents Diethyl ether Freon Methanol Acetone

Clandestine Drug Laboratories / 66 759

This extraction process has traditionally used one or more of the chlorinated-fluorocarbon solvents and refrigerants known as Freons. In the middle and late 1980s, the solvent of choice was the refrigerant Freon 11. More recently, Freon 113 and 142b have been encountered Freon is nonflammable and has a low boiling point, allowing rapid evaporation. One important hazard of Freon is its ability to displace air in enclosed spaces. Freon vapors are heavier than air and will seek the lower regions of a space. With enough Freon and under the right conditions, an oxygen-deficient environment will be created.

material. The solution is filtered to remove the solids and the ephedrine-containing water is separated and evaporated using a propane burner to recover the powder for use in a reaction. In the summer of 1995, many of the cooks switched from using water to alcohol. However, no precautions were taken in changing their heat source. Thus, in the last half of 1995, numerous laboratories were discovered because of fires caused by the ignition of the alcohol solvent.5,16 PRECURSOR SYNTHESIS: HI In response to regulations on the commercial sale of HI, many cooks have begun to synthesize their own HI. Many of these syntheses use hazardous materials such as iodine crystals, hyphophosphoric acid, and hydrogen sulfide (Table 669). In addition, a few HI-manufacturing laboratories in the Central Valley of California have been found using acetylene or hydrogen gas purges in the atmospheres above the reaction.18 These gases do nothing to enhance or detract from the reaction; however, they increase the likelihood of a catastrophic accident.

Ephedrine: The Nazi Method

In the early to mid-1990s, the federal government and many states began to regulate the sale of HI in an attempt to stop its diversion to methamphetamine laboratories. With restrictions on the sale of HI, many cooks began to look for alternative methods of reducing ephedrine to methamphetamine. A novel dissolving metal reduction using lithium metal and condensed anhydrous ammonia gas was found in a clandestine laboratory in Vacaville, California.11 The method created some interest in the illicit synthesis world but was encountered only occasionally over the next 5 years. However, around 1992 a similar method using sodium metal was found in Missouri (Table 668). In a related seizure in Arkansas in 1995, a suspect in the investigation indicated the sodium-ammonia procedure being used was from a patent issued to Nazi Germany during the war,10 although by personal communication, subsequent investigation of the chemical literature failed to support this claim. Thus, the reaction was called the Nazi method by investigators. Sodium and lithium metals are very reactive to water. These metals are generally stored in a mineral oil bath. Both are available commercially as chemical reagents; however, many cooks process common materials to obtain these metals. Sodium may be produced by the electrolytic deposition of sodium hydroxide (lye) using a hot plate, cast iron skillet, and a car battery. Lithium metal foil has been harvested from lithium batteries. The reduction method is extremely dangerous due to the use of gaseous anhydrous ammonia. Ammonia is a strong base and is a respiratory irritant.

Synthesis of Other Illicit Drugs

Although the illicit synthesis of methamphetamine is more commonly encountered, many other dangerous drugs are illicitly synthesized, extracted, and processed. These processes are briefly described as follows. PHENCYCLIDINE Phencyclidine (PCP) is synthesized from bromobenzene, piperidine, cyclohexanone, and a cyanide salt (Table 6610). There are two specific hazards associated with this synthesis. First, the cooks must create the organometallic reagent phenylmagnesium bromide (Grignard reagent). The Grignard reagent is water-sensitive, creating an exothermic (heat-producing) reaction which may cause a fire. The reagent must be made using diethyl ether as the organic solvent. Although phenylmagnesium bromide is available commercially, many PCP cooks prefer to make their own. Another hazard comes from the decomposition of the intermediate compound using a strong mineral acid, usually hydrochloric acid. The intermediate compound contains a cyanide group that, on addition of the strong acid, evolves as hydrogen cyanide gas. Thus, the decomposition of the intermediate in a small, confined, minimally ventilated space may produce lethal levels of cyanide gas.
TABLE 669 M Precursor Synthesis: Hydriodic Acid Iodine Hydriodic acid Reagents/catalysts Red phosphorus Hypophosphoric acid Hydrogen sulfide Hydrochloric acid Phosphoric acid Iron wool or filings Solvents Water

Ephedrine Extraction
When regulations and laws made obtaining ephedrine powder more difficult, cooks began to extract mail-order tablets with water to remove the ephedrine from the tablet binding

TABLE 668 M Methamphetamine Synthesis: Birch

Reduction (a k a "Nazi" Method)

Ephedrine Methamphetamine Reagents/catalysts Sodium or lithium metal Anhydrous ammonia gas Hydrogen chloride gas Solvents Diethyl ether Tetrahydrofuran Ethanol Methanol

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TABLE 6610 M Phencyclidine (PCP) Synthesis Precursors Bromobenzene Piperidine Cyclohexanone Phenylmagnesium bromide Magnesium metal Cyanide salts Reagents/catalysts Iodine crystals Hydrochloric acid Sodium bisulfite Solvents Diethyl ether Hexane Cyclohexane

TABLE 6612 M Synthesis of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide

(LSD)

Lysergic acid + lithium hydroxide + diethylamine LSD Ergotamine lysergic acid azide + diethylamine LSD Reagents/catalysts Sulfur trioxide Sodium chloride Sodium sulfate Hydrazine Alumina Activated carbon Tartaric acid Solvents Dimethylformamide (DMF) Diethyl ether Methanol Methylene dichloride Chloroform Acetone Ethanol

METHYLENEDIOXYAMPHETAMINE AND METHYLENEDIOXYMETHAMPHETAMINE The syntheses of methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) closely mimic the syntheses of amphetamine and methamphetamine. MDA is usually synthesized by the lithium aluminum hydride (LiA1H4) reduction of the intermediate 3,4-methylenedioxylphenyl-2-nitropropene (Table 6611). Other reducing media are viable, including a number of the catalytic methods using metals, hydrogen gas, and a hydrogenator. The LiA1H4 reduction is performed in either diethyl ether or tetrahydrofuran. The excess LiA1H4 must be decomposed prior to working the final product up, and is extremely water-sensitive. MDMA is synthesized using 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylacetone, methylamine, and an aluminum-amalgam reducing medium. This reaction carries the same hazards as the conversion of P2P to methamphetamine. Some of the precursors for MDA and MDMA synthesis are natural products and require some processing. There are some procedures occasionally encountered that use bromine gas or bromine water to facilitate these conversions. LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE The major health risk from an LSD laboratory (Table 6612) is the potency of ergotamine, an LSD precursor, and LSD. LSD is typically encountered in blotter paper squares for consumption at a dosage of 30 to 60 g. Thus, LSD and ergotamine dust that might be inhaled either by the cook or an investigator may cause a physiologic reaction. Picric acid, used in the synthesis of LSD, may form crystals on the

threads of an improperly sealed container, which can age and explode from the friction of opening the container. METHCATHINONE Methcathinone (CAT) is a synthetic substance also made from ephedrine or pseudoephedrine (Table 6613). Instead of reducing the hydroxy group of the ephedrine, it is oxidized to a ketone group. This oxidation is usually facilitated with sodium dichromate, potassium permanganate, or chromium trioxide. These laboratories tend to be small in scale, producing 20 to 40 grams of finished product, and are easily transported. Many CAT laboratories have been discovered in hotel and motel rooms. The oxidation must be performed in a strong acid, usually concentrated sulfuric acid. Hydrogen chloride gas, used to powder out the finished methcathinone, is usually generated either from heating of muriatic acid or by using a rock salt generator. AMPHETAMINE Recently, amphetamine has been synthesized from phenylpropanolamine, an over-the-counter decongestant and appetite suppressant, using the reduction method previously described for ephedrine, with similar hazards. Historically, amphetamine has been synthesized using P2P and formamide in a Leuckart reaction. MARIJUANA EXTRACTION (HASH OIL)

TABLE 6611 M Synthesis of 3,4-

Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA):

Isosafrole MD-P2P + formamide MDA Isosafrole MD-P2P + N-methylformamide MDMA MD-P2P + methylamine MDMA Reagents Acetic acid Ammonium formate Formic acid Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen peroxide Aluminum (foil, wire, powder) Mercuric chloride Sulfuric acid Solvents Ethanol Acetone Methanol Diethyl ether Benzene

A hash oil laboratory is probably one of the simplest types of laboratory. Marijuana is soaked in alcohol, petroleum ether, or chloroform to extract out the active tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The solvent is decanted from the soaking vessel and is evaporated, usually over an open flame burner. The use of any open flame near a flammable organic solvent creates a high risk of fire. The gooey residue left over is used as the final product.

Health Effects
Health risks occur from exposure to explosions, fires, spills, and uncontrolled reactions, as well as exposure to a variety of hazardous materials. The extent of potential adverse health effects varies with the characteristics of the

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TABLE 6613 M Methcathinone Synthesis Ephedrine + oxidizer Methcathinone Reagents/catalysts Sodium dichromate Potassium dichromate Chromium trioxide Potassium permanganate Hydrochloric acid Sulfuric acid Hydrogen chloride gas Sodium hydroxide Solvents Toluene Methanol Ethanol

laboratory and the exposure victim. Exposure victim characteristics include the type of involvement in the chemical process, duration of exposure, kind of personal protective equipment used (if any), and overall sensitivity to chemicals. Illness has been reported in cooks, their family members, and other individuals present in the laboratories; law enforcement personnel involved in the arrest of individuals in clandestine laboratories and the collection of evidence; and in some cases medical personnel who treated patients exposed to hazardous chemicals in the clandestine drug laboratories. Levels of chemical contamination vary greatly from laboratory to laboratory, given the variety of synthetic methods, level of ventilation, and cleanliness of the cooks. Explosions and fires are the most common occurrences in illicit drug laboratories that result in contaminated individuals presenting to emergency departments. The combination of highly flammable solvents, an open flame or other heat source, and reactive chemicals poses a real danger. Often the exposure victims will not admit that they were involved in the synthesis of illicit drugs and will instead make up a different story. Inhalation or skin exposure may result in injury from corrosive substances, with symptoms ranging from shortness of breath, cough, and chest pain to skin burns. Most solvents are absorbed through inhalation and, at sufficient concentrations, may cause intoxication, dizziness, lack of coordination, nausea, and disorientation. Dermal absorption may also occur through direct contact. Ingestion of chemicals can result in significant toxic effects. However, except in intentional drug use, a suicide attempt, or accidental ingestion of these chemicals, toxicity by ingestion is a remote possibility. In addition, there are risks at the laboratory site of exposure to bloodborne pathogens from puncture by contaminated needles. Information on documented, persistent adverse health effects of illicit drug synthesis is difficult to find. Anecdotally, chronic exposure has resulted in multiple illnesses, but it is difficult to sort out the illnesses due to methamphetamine use and associated lifestyle from the effects of chemical exposure during drug synthesis. Certainly the cooks are at highest risk of exposure, owing to their proximity to the chemical reactions and prolonged duration of exposure, often without personal protective equipment. Leadcontaminated methamphetamine has caused lead poisoning in methamphetamine users, but the route of exposure was through intentional parenteral administration.1,6

Children living in drug laboratories have a high potential for exposure because of the risk of accidental ingestion of chemicals, in addition to inhalation or skin exposure. Elevated results on liver function tests in children exposed to methamphetamine synthesis have been reported, and in one study more than 30% of children tested had drug screens positive for methamphetamine.3 Most of the positive tests were believed to reflect environmental exposure rather than direct use or abuse. Anecdotal reports of increased respiratory symptoms, mucous membrane irritation, nausea, and headache in children exposed to methamphetamine labs are not uncommon. Children with preexisting disease such as asthma may be at increased risk of respiratory illness. Adverse health effects have also been anecdotally reported in neighbors of clandestine drug laboratories and in subsequent occupants of laboratories that were not adequately decontaminated. Residual chemicals may pose health concerns in residential structures even after the laboratory equipment has been removed. The actual risks vary depending on a number of factors, such as the presence of gross contamination and the type of chemicals used. Elevated levels of metals such as mercury and lead can be present if these chemicals were used in drug synthesis. Surface wipe samples have also revealed the presence of methamphetamine and caustic substances. In a number of incidents in Washington State, individuals exposed to large amounts of chemicals used in methamphetamine synthesis through explosions have presented to health care professionals without adequate decontamination. In these instances, adverse symptoms were reported in personnel transporting these patients, including headache; nausea; and eye, throat, and chest irritation. Concern over the effects of this contamination has in at least one incident resulted in prolonged emergency department closure. HEALTH EFFECTS: LAW ENFORCEMENT PERSONNEL As part of their duties, law enforcement personnel often enter clandestine drug laboratories to arrest individuals involved in the synthesis and distribution of illicit drugs. The phases of a typical laboratory investigation include entry, preassessment/assessment, processing, and disposal. Entry is a short (usually 5- to 30-minute) phase during which suspects are apprehended and the laboratory is secured. In preassessment and assessment, chemical and physical hazards are evaluated and the contents of the laboratory are determined. Processing is the longest phase (often up to 8 hours or longer), during which the laboratory contents are removed and representative chemicals are sampled. In the disposal phase the chemicals and associated laboratory apparatus are transported from the laboratory for destruction. Law enforcement responders typically wear chemicalresistant clothing and respiratory protection. However, it is only in recent years, following recognition of potential chemical hazards, that adequate personal protective equipment has become widely used, and even now many investigators do not routinely wear respiratory protection during laboratory investigations.

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In a questionnaire study of law enforcement chemists with 2255 total laboratory investigations, 17% of all responders had become ill at some time during their laboratory investigation career. The chance of developing illness during an average clandestine drug laboratory investigation was more than 0.75%. In the same study, in a group of Washington State clandestine drug laboratory investigation team members with more than 564 combined investigations, 3.4% of all investigations were associated with reports of adverse health effects. The majority of reported exposures were through inhalation, and a large number occurred in the years prior to use of adequate personal protective equipment. Symptoms were primarily headache and respiratory, mucous membrane, and skin irritation (Table 6614). Most illness episodes occurred during the processing phase of laboratory responses. In this same study, more than 50% of illnesses occurred in laboratories where fires, explosions, spills, or uncontrolled reactions had occurred, although these laboratories constituted a minority of all laboratories encountered. Responding to an active laboratory was associated with a 7- to 15-fold risk of becoming ill, compared with responding to set-up, in-transit, or former laboratories. This study also demonstrated an increased risk of illness in P2P-methylamine laboratories. This may be a result of historical bias, not necessarily increased toxicity of the chemical reagents. Since this type of synthetic process was more common in earlier years, when law enforcement investigators did not have as much experience with protecting themselves from chemical exposures, illness may have been more common than in present laboratory investigations, where more precautions against chemical exposure are taken. TREATMENT Prevention of exposure is the most effective means of treating individuals working with clandestine drug laboratories. Individuals exposed in clandestine drug laboratories are often sent to health care facilities for evaluation. Since no antidotes

are available for exposure to the majority of chemicals present in these laboratories, treatment is primarily oriented toward appropriate decontamination and symptomatic relief. A medical treatment guideline is listed in Appendix 661. Cooks and inhabitants of drug laboratories usually have the greatest extent of exposure. Generally, asymptomatic individuals do not require evaluation. Symptomatic individuals should receive supportive care and substance-specific testing and treatment when appropriate. Specific blood testing does not often reveal abnormalities related to clandestine laboratory exposure. If medicolegal documentation is important, biologic samples should be collected under a chain-of-custody protocol.

Reoccupancy
Owing to the potential medical hazards of chemical contamination of clandestine laboratories, local health departments have developed regulations covering the condemnation and reoccupation of suspected drug laboratories. Prior to reoccupation, the structure must be cleaned to acceptable standards. These standards may vary between states and change over time. The reoccupation standards used in Washington State at the time this chapter was written included a final lead standard of <20 g/ft2 (wipe sample), provisional methamphetamine standard of <5 g/ft2 (wipe sample), air sampling for mercury of <50 ng/m3, and a volatile organic compounds (VOCs) standard of <1 ppm. Testing for lead and mercury in clandestine laboratories is potentially problematic. These materials were commonly added to paints, with lead paints used for the interior of residential structures until 1978 and mercury-containing paints used until 1990. One course of action is to test for lead and mercury only if there are indications that these chemicals were used in illicit drug synthesis. If the amalgam method was not used, then testing for lead or mercury may reveal preexisting conditions rather than contamination due to illicit drug synthesis. If there is no clear indication which method was used, or in cases where multiple methods were used and also where precursors were synthesized, specifically P2P, testing for lead and mercury is recommended. As an illustration of this problem, Chandler et al. measured houses used as methamphetamine labs in comparison with uncontaminated control houses and found no statistically significant difference between the two groups.7

TABLE 6614 M Symptom Description During Symptoms Headache Sore throat Nose irritation Cough Breathing difficulty Eye irritation Skin burn/irritation Dizziness Chest pain Abdominal pain Nausea Lung damage Other

Clandestine Drug Lab Responses

Frequency (%) 60 60 40 35 20 15 15 15 10 10 5 5 15

Coordinated Drug Laboratory Response

The ideal structure for responding to clandestine drug laboratories is a cooperative process between national, state, and local agencies.25 Generally, law enforcement officials/agencies are responsible for arresting suspects and notifying environmental and local/state health agencies. The state ecology department or equivalent is responsible for the removal, transport, and disposal of bulk hazardous

From Burgess JL, Barnhart S, Checkoway H: Investigating clandestine drug laboratories: Adverse medical effects in law enforcement personnel. Am J Ind Med 20:488494, 1996.

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materials and for conducting environmental risk assessments. State health departments are responsible for training, testing, and certifying illegal drug laboratory site cleanup contractors and workers, maintaining a list of illegal drug laboratory sites, maintaining a list of certified illegal drug laboratory site cleanup contractors, providing technical assistance to local health departments, developing cleanup guidelines, and developing sampling and testing methods for surface water, groundwater, soil, and septic tanks. Local health departments are responsible for posting properties, notifying property owners and others with an interest in the properties, inspecting properties, determining contamination, prohibiting use until cleanup is completed, and overseeing cleanup of properties and authorizing reoccupation.

Recommended Medical Evaluation Components

The need for hospital or outpatient medical evaluation should also be determined on a case-by-case basis. A list of the possible chemicals to which exposure may have occurred, if known, should accompany the patient to the medical facility. If the exposed patient has been transported to a health care facility, the following recommendations are provided:
G

Acknowledgments
The authors thank Roger A. Ely, Senior Forensic Chemist, DEA Western Laboratory, San Francisco, California, for his invaluable contributions to and review of the manuscript.

Appendix 661
EXPOSURE TO CLANDESTINE METHAMPHETAMINE LABORATORIES: GUIDELINES FOR PATIENT EVALUATION AND TREATMENT Persons present in clandestine drug laboratories for extended periods such as cooks and family members have the greatest potential exposure to hazardous chemicals. Short exposure to methamphetamine laboratories, especially if they are not actively synthesizing methamphetamine, are usually not associated with any persistent medical effects. However, methamphetamine laboratories contain a wide variety of chemicals that have the potential to cause serious harm in certain circumstances, and serious illnesses have been reported. The need for and extent of medical treatment should be guided by the individual circumstances of each exposure.

A thorough physical examination. Laboratory tests. Most exposures do not require extensive laboratory testing, and many do not require any testing. Specific laboratory tests should be based on clinical indications: If indicated by the history or physical examination, liver function tests, a complete blood cell count, and urinalysis should be obtained. Testing of urine for methamphetamine may be indicated for legal documentation, especially in children, and samples should be obtained under proper chain-of-custody protocol. Blood lead levels are not indicated for routine exposures unless the patient has ingested chemicals in the clandestine laboratory, uses methamphetamine, or was chronically exposed to methamphetamine synthesis using a lead-containing synthetic process. For significant exposure to mercury, biologic testing should be considered. Urine mercury levels are preferred for chronic exposure. For urine mercury assays, either a spot urine sample sent for both mercury and creatinine concentrations or a 24-hour urine collection obtained in a metal-free (e.g., acid-washed plastic) container should be sent. Pulmonary function tests (FEV1 and FVC) and a chest radiograph are recommended if the patient has significant persistent respiratory symptoms.
G G G G G

Decontamination
The need for decontamination should be determined on a case-by-case basis. Clandestine drug labs usually contain a number of corrosive substances, such as strong acids and bases, which can damage skin. For exposure to hazardous chemical liquids and solids, exposed areas should be thoroughly washed with soap and water. Decontamination may not be necessary for exposures to a gas or vapor, but it is recommended for patients reporting skin irritation. If the patient smells strongly of the chemical exposure, removing and bagging their clothing may be helpful. Minimal exposures such as walking near a drug lab do not require decontamination. Regional Poison Centers may be able to provide immediate information on the need for decontamination.

Specific concerns should be addressed to the state or local health department. Substance-specific testing information as well as medical toxicologist consultation are available through Regional Poison Centers. REFERENCES
1. Alcott JV, Barnhart RA, Moonsy LA: Acute lead poisoning in two users of illicit methamphetamine. JAMA 258:510511, 1987. 2. American Industrial Hygiene Association: Odor Thresholds for Chemicals with Established Occupational Health Standards. Fairfax, Va, American Industrial Hygiene Association, 1993. 3. Brown MJ: Child endangerment and environmental health hazards caused by clandestine methamphetamine laboratories. Presentation, 1996 CLIA Annual Training Seminar, Sacramento, Calif, 1996. 4. Burgess JL, Barnhart S, Checkoway H: Investigating clandestine drug laboratories: Adverse medical effects in law enforcement personnel. Am J Ind Med 20:488494, 1996. 5. Carter CJ: Drug labs up in smoke, 2 destroyed in fires. Lodi News Sentinel, Jan 2, 1996.

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6. Centers for Disease Control: Lead poisoning associated with intravenous methamphetamine useOregon, 1988. JAMA 263:797, 1990. 7. Chandler D, Haven R, Feely T: Value of lead, mercury, and methamphetamine as measures of decontamination of methamphetamine labs (abstract). Vet Hum Toxicol 35:317, 1993. 8. Chemical Hazard Response Information System: Hazardous Chemical Data. Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Coast Guard [CD-ROM version: Micromedex, Inc, Englewood, Colo; edition expires 10/31/96]. 9. Christian D: Spontaneous ignition of red phosphorus samples. J Clandest Lab Invest Chemists Assoc 6(2):2, 1996. 10. Dawson N: The sodium-ammonia Nazi method of methamphetamine synthesis: A historical overview, methodology and case reviews. J Clandest Lab Invest Chemists Assoc 5(3):1214, 1995.

11. Ely R, McGrath D: Lithium-ammonia reduction of ephedrine to methamphetamine: An unusual clandestine synthesis. J Forensic Sci 35:720723, 1990. 12. Emde H: Diastereoisomerism: I. Configuration of ephedrine. Helv Chim Acta 12:365376, 1929. Chemical Abstract 23:3452, 1929. 13. Emde H: Diastereoisomerism: III. Chloro-and bromoephedrine. Helv Chim Acta 12:384399, 1929. Chemical Abstract 23:3453, 1929. 14. Harber T: Stove-top lab ignites in Las Vegas, NV. Clandest Lab Invest Chemists Assoc 2(4):16, 1992. 15. Hazardous Substances Data Bank, National Library of Medicine [CD-ROM version: Micromedex, Inc, Englewood, Colo; edition expires 10/31/96]. 16. Hubler S, Himmel N: Three children die in apparent drug lab blast. Los Angeles Times, Dec 27, 1995.

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17. Johnson S, Ely R: Fatalities resulting from clandestine drug manufacturing laboratories. Presented at a meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Boston, Mass, February 16, 1993. 18. Kalchik M: Hydriodic acid lab seized in Fresno County. J Clandest Lab Invest Chemists Assoc 5(4):78, 1995. 19. Massetti J: Ignition of red phosphorus reaction mixtures. J Clandest Lab Invest Chemists Assoc 6(4):13, 1996. 20. Ruth JH: Odor thresholds and irritation levels of several chemical substances: A review. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 47:A-142A-151, 1986. 21. Skinner H: Methamphetamine synthesis via hydriodic acid/red phosphorus reduction of ephedrine. Forensic Sci Int 48:123134, 1990. 22. Tsutsumi M: An illegal preparation of an amphetamine-like compound. Science and Crime Detection (Japan) 6:5052, 1953.

23. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration: Stronger Controls Urged on Chemicals (Drug Enforcement Report 714). Washington, DC, U.S. DEA, 1991. 24. von Beroldingen L: Caution urged in sampling red phosphorus, arson analysis on cocaine samples. J Clandest Lab Invest Chemists Assoc 2:14, 1992. 25. Washington State Interagency Steering Committee on Illegal Methamphetamine Drug Labs: Model Local Health Department Response to Illegal Methamphetamine Drug Labs. Olympia, Wash, Department of Social and Health Services, Toxic Substances Section LD-11, 1989. 26. Western States Intelligence Network, Sacramento, Calif. 27. WillersRusso LJ: Phosphine gas deaths in Los Angeles County Clandest Lab Invest Chemists Assoc 6(4)11, 1996.