Emile Durkheim

(1858-1917) Born in: France Resided in: Germany Sociological theory: Functional analysis Major theme: Sociology is the study of social facts. Durkheim believed it was the job of the sociologist to uncover social facts and explain them through other social facts. Definitions: "Social facts"- ways of thinking, acting, or feeling and social structures and cultural norms and values, which are external to the individual and have a power of coercion over him/her. "Collective conscience"- a strongly held common morality. "Division of labor"- the degree to which tasks or responsibilities are specialized. "Integration"- the degree in which collective sentiments are shared (i.e. the degree to which people feel a part of social groups). "Regulation"- the degree of external constraints on people. "Sacred"- things set apart or forbidden that inspire fear, awe, reverence, or deep respect. "Profane"- common elements of everyday life. General Concepts: 1. Durkheim identified two types of social facts: a. Material social facts- the social fact is sometimes materialized so far as to become an element of the external world. b. Nonmaterial social facts- can be thought of as mental phenomena. Examples include norms, values, or more generally culture. 2. Durkheim saw both material and nonmaterial social facts as external to the individual and has a power of coercion over him/her. 3. Many of the issues that Durkheim studied stem from his concern with the decline of the common morality of society. He coined the term "anomie" and stated individuals are confronted with anomie (weakened common morality) when they are faced with insufficient moral constraints. That is, people do not have a clear concept of what is and what is not proper and acceptable behavior.

4. Durkheim studied many social facts: among them are the division of labor, suicide rates, and religion. I. Division of labor- Durkheim differentiated between two types of societies: a. Mechanical (primitive type)- has relatively undifferentiated social structure, with little or no division of labor. A person in this society tends to be a "jack of all trades." b. Organic (modern type)- has a much greater and more refined division of labor. A person in this society occupies more specialized positions and have a much narrower range of tasks and responsibilities. What holds society together according to Durkheim? In a "mechanical society"- the bond is that the members of society are engaged in similar activities and have similar responsibilities thus having a common goal and identity. In an "organic society"- the bond is that members of society have different tasks and responsibilities to perform that are highly specialized and therefore they need one another to survive. II. Suicide- Durkheim believed that if he could show that sociology had a role to play in a seemingly individualistic act, it would be relatively easy to extend sociologys domain to phenomena that are much more seen as open to sociological analysis. Durkheim was not interested, per se, in why any one individual committed suicide. But instead wanted to explain differences in suicide rates (why one group had a higher rate of suicide than another). He linked each of the four identified types of suicide to the degree of integration into, or regulation by society. Integration (low)- egoistic suicide. High rates found in societies or groups in which the individual is not well integrated into the larger social unit. This lack of integration leads to a sense of meaninglessness among individuals. Ex. Nonmarried individuals have higher rates of suicide than married people. Integration (high)- altruistic suicide. When social integration is too strong. Examples include an individual rescuing plane crash victims and soldiers going into battle because of his/her attachment to the group. Regulation (low)- anomic suicide. When the regulative powers of society are disrupted. Periods of disruption unleash currents of anomie, moods of restlessness and normlessness. Such changes put people in new situations in which old norms no longer apply, but new ones have not yet developed. Example includes individuals jumping from windows during the Wall Street depression. Regulation (high)- fatalistic suicide. When social regulation is too excessive. Examples include the slave who takes his/her own life because of the hopelessness associated with the oppressive regulation of his/her every action and among college students, suicide rates increase during final exam time.

Durkheim stated changes in suicide rates are due to changes in social facts. III. Religion- according to Durkheim, religion is defined by separating the sacred from the profane. Durkheim saw religion as the ultimate nonmaterial social fact. Durkheim further stated, religion is defined by three elements: a. Beliefs- that some things are sacred (i.e. forbidden, set off from the profane). b. Practices (rituals)- the rules of conduct which prescribe how a man should carry himself in the presence of these sacred objects. c. A moral community (church).