Volume 1. Technical Reference. Chapter 2. Combat Gunnery.

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Terms defined -Operator: Operator refers to a person who is engaged in a combat operation. Operators' action is the subject of this text. The term was chosen partly because of lack of better words to describe the subject person of this text. Shooter only means a person who is engaged in a shooting activity. Also, the person had to be distinguished from military definition of combatant.

Chapter 2. Combat Gunnery. Goal of combat gunnery is to incapacitate the opponent or damage opponent's ability to take actions against the operator when delivering incapacitating shots is not feasible.

2.1. Mechanism of incapacitation There are multiple ways a death can occur by gun shot wound. However, a slow death that gives an opponent time and opportunity to attack is not an interest for the purpose of incapacitation that would have a significance in the outcome of a gun fight. For the purpose of incapacitation, there are only few primary methods relied on. First is delivering damage to area that will make a human body impossible to function when sufficient damage is delivered. Such area would be brain or upper spine, areas that consists of central nerve system. Second method is to inflict damage on the target with focus on increasing the volume of the body being destroyed as much as possible. The mechanism involved in the first method as the highest probability for immediate incapacitation. However, the target area on the target body that this method can be applied is very small. That limits the situation where this method is feasible. The part of the body may not be exposed, or the exposed area is too far or too small for an operator to deliver effective hit without taking too much time for operator's safety. That often makes it necessary for operators to use the second method. The manner or cause of incapacitation and time it takes for the incapacitation occurs, if it is not immediate, varies greatly with this method. Incapacitation may be caused by response to sense of volume of body being destroyed, body structure needed for combat action being destroyed, destruction of oxygen supply or circulation system, etc. Even though the exact manner of incapacitation may not be consistent, the probability of incapacitation would increase as volume of damage on the target's body increase. When targeting central nerve system area of an opponent's body is not feasible, targeting an area that will cause maximum volume of damage, preferably in torso area that contains organs important for life support, would have the next highest probability of incapacitation. Because of difficulty of hitting central nerve system area, this is the method most employed. Other than central nerve system, organs that have a significance in incapacitation are heart and lungs. Loss of function of either one of them will stop delivery of oxygen to the body. The effect of loss of oxygen supply to brain will cause incapacitation. The incapacitation due

to this effect may not be immediate, but may occur in time fast enough to affect the outcome of a contact with an opponent depending on how long the fight lasts. One other mechanism of how incapacitation occur is opponent's reaction to sense of volume of body being destroyed by gunshot wound. The effect of this is not reliable or consistent, and what effect is will have is unpredictable. However, other than central nerve system damage, this is one way an immediate incapacitation can occur. Exactly how immediate incapacitation occurs in this manner is not measurable or completely explainable. Psychological state may be a factor in how incapacitation occur in this manner, and the people who are likely to have less sense of being hit, such as people under the influence of drug, alcohol, etc., are expected to have less probability of incapacitation in this manner. Some people hold the position that incapacitation occurred in this manner is purely psychological response and the person who was shot was incapacitated because the person voluntarily gave up. But, there are problems with that assertion. First problem is that although psychological state can be a factor, the people who made such assertion failed to establish that it is the only factor. Another problem is that something being a psychological response does not mean it is something that can be controlled with will power alone, and it does not prove it is voluntary. Loss of consciousness can occur by extreme pain, but a person usually cannot voluntarily lose consciousness on demand. A person who got stabbed by a hot iron glowing red may turn pale, sweat, and make abrupt violent movements, but it is not voluntary. Although the exactly how the incapacitation in that manner occur is not clear, the probability of occurrence will increase when volume of body being destroyed increase. Most people would not object to the claim that hit on areas such as central nerve system has the highest probability of incapacitation. However, to dismiss body's reaction to sense of gun shot wound as a factor for consideration is unsound, considering the frequency of incapacitation by hit to Central Nerve System area compared to other areas of a human body. Even total destruction of heart allows a human to function until the stop of blood circulation starts affecting the target's ability to function. Considering that, without a hit to areas like Central Nerve System, body's reaction to sense of gun shot wound often would be the cause of incapacitation in most cases where incapacitation is immediate. There are concerns and reports regarding incidents where operators found it harder to incapacitate opponents when the opponents are under the influence of narcotics. That is a clear evidence that in most cases where non-Central Nerve System area hit is involved, body's reaction to sense of the gun should wound has great influence in incapacitation. Loss of blood is often mentioned as an incapacitating factor. Loss of great amount of blood certainly can cause an incapacitation. However, unless a major artery is hit, it usually takes a very long time for incapacitation from blood loss can occur by gun shot wounds. A time so

long that can last hours or days that it is unlikely to be any significant influence in combat unless the time length of contact is very long. Gun shot would to the heart causing failure would result in incapacitation in time it takes for loss of blood circulation resulting in loss of consciousness. However, besides those kind of circumstances, blood loss is not a significant factor in causing incapacitation that occurs fast enough for tactical significance.

2.2. Aim point assessment. ------------------------------------------------------------------------Target area: With a human opponent as a target, area that would cause most reliable incapacitation upon damage, such as central nerve system area should be targeted as priority when effective delivery of shot to such area is feasible. However, too often it may not be. If effective shot delivery to central nerve system area is not feasible, the point of aim should be where bullet would cause damage to maximum volume of opponent's body, preferably in torso area where it contains organs important for life support. However, operators can only hit target area that is not obstructed by any object that can block gun fire. So, the intended aim point selection on a human opponent would be as follows: -Area of the body that is exposed to gun fire, and within that area: -Area that a shooter in a given situation can make effective hit in a time frame within opponents effective response time, and within that area: -A parts in following order of priority for targeting: Parts that contain central nerve system feasible for effective hits, parts with highest probability of incapacitation upon hit feasible for effective hits, or a point where a hit with a bullet would cause the largest volume of body damage. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------Time from gunnery process to effective hit: Relevant factors: Size of probable impact zone Size of probable impact zone decrease / time Stability of probable impact area on target area. As an operator initiates a gunnery process, the operator will try to

accomplish two things: Getting the probable impact area on the target area and getting the size of the probable impact area sufficiently small enough. Once an operator gets a probable impact area covering a target area, probability of hit per each shot will increase as size of the probable impact area covering the target area gets smaller and reaches maximum probability as the probable impact area gets equal to or smaller than the target area. Spending any more time to make the probable impact area any smaller than necessary would increase the risk to the operator by allowing more time for opponents to react to the operator. More aiming effort and time will be required to get probable impact area smaller. More time an operator will take before firing will give longer time for opponents to react to the operator, if operator's presence is known. If an operator fires before probable impact area becomes sufficiently small, it may result in missing the target area which will give opponents more time to react to the operator until the operator can get a hit and alert opponents who were not aware of the operator's presence. To ensure a hit, an operator shooting would have to get the probable impact area equal or smaller than the target area, preferably smaller to allow for margin of error. If that can be done within an acceptable time frame, then that approach can be taken. However, probable impact area will not go smaller beyond a certain limit, according to a given situation. That can keep the probable impact area always larger than the target area in certain situations. If probable impact area would not get more smaller, operator may have to repeat firing to saturate the no longer shrinking probable impact area until the target area gets hit. In situations where there is very limited time frame to fire and/or the operator does not have sufficient stability to keep the size of probable impact area equal or smaller to the target area, saturating the probable impact area with high rate of multiple shots is a method that can be employed, if operators are operating in situations where such method is acceptable. Use of weapons with auto repeat firing capability may enhance the effectiveness of that approach, depending on the circumstances. If that method is used, the auto repeat should not be sustained past the point where the size of the probable impact area became too large to expect hits within expected time frame or the probable impact area has shifted too much from intended aim point to expect hits within expected time frame. However, use of auto repeat firing mode is likely to make it take longer to recover aim tracking. With rifles such as AR-15 type, that would limit the duration of auto repeat firing to approximately 2~5 shots, depending on the situation. The effectiveness would depend on the operator's ability to control the size of the probable impact area and the distance to the opponent, etc. That limits the situation where this method may be favorable.

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2.3. Gunnery process. Gunnery process starts as operators become aware of a situation that requires shooting. If there is a potential threat, operators need to observe it. Turning one's upper body will be more faster than turning the whole body, turning the head will be faster than turning the upper body, so it will be quicker for the head to move first then the upper body or the whole body following the head's movement as necessary. This may also prevent unnecessary turning motion by stopping the turning motion of the whole body when the operator whose head is turned toward the potential threat determines no action is required. NOTE: Firearms described in this document is assumed to be fired in single round firing mode, a mode that fires one round per trigger pull and requires resetting the trigger by releasing pressure on the trigger and pressing the trigger again for firing another round, unless specified otherwise. NOTE: Firearms described in this document is assumed to be a self loading firearm, a type that does the chambering, feeding, extraction, and ejection action automatically that it only requires manipulation of the trigger to fire a round until ammunition supply in the magazine is depleted, unless specified otherwise.

-Aiming and forming of a shooting platform: As an operator decides to shoot a certain target, operator forms a shooting platform while directing the aim of the operator's weapon toward the target. Orientation of shooting platform needs to be quick and precise at the same time. So, speed needs to be controlled to a degree that precision can be maintained. In part of movement segments where speed does not affect accuracy, speed can be maximized. As forming of the shooting platform comes to a completion, movement may need to be slower so that the part of the body in motion will not go past its intended position. Movement past intended position will slow the process because the operator will have to make more motion and take more time to get that part of the body to proper position. For example: If an operator in a low ready position with a rifle starts the gunnery process, the operator will move the muzzle toward the direction of the target. The initial movement of the muzzle direction change toward the general direction of the opponent can be fast without affecting accuracy. So, the operator can move the muzzle of the gun as fast as one can. However, once the muzzle end of the gun is brought near the general direction of the target area, the operator would have to slow down the movement so that inertia would make the gun go past the position the operator need it to be for aim.

As the shooting platform is formed, the shooter would see the sight and the sight index point near the sight aim point on the target. If iron sights are used, front and rear sight would be alignment would start at this point. As shooter's skill improves, the sight index point will be more and more closer to the sight aim point on the target upon completion of forming the shooting platform. If the sight index point is not on the sight aim point, then the shooter will make adjustment to impose sight index point on the sight aim point and starts aim tracking. If iron sights are used, the shooter's focus distance is not shifted to the front sight, and front and rear sight alignment should be completed at or before the time aim tracking starts. The shooter may confirm the sight alignment as the aim tracking starts. A shooter's focus would be now on the top center of front sight or other sight reference point as aim tracking starts. The shooter then fires the gun.

-Firing: There many ways to manipulate a trigger of a gun. What method is appropriate depends on a specific gun type involved, shooter's preference, etc. The following is a few examples of how it can be done. Index finger of the trigger hand that was placed away from the trigger for safety will be placed on the trigger in preparation of the trigger pull as the shooting platform is forming. As the gun is moving into the firing position, the shooter can move the trigger a limited length to get it to firing preparation position and hold it in that position until arm tracking starts. As aim tracking starts, the trigger would be pulled further and the pull would be completed. When trigger needs to be moved further from any point, it should be done by smooth increase of pressure applied to it than abrupt increase in pressure. There may be a low resistance movement length of the trigger between the position of the trigger under no index finger pressure and the position of the trigger where actuation of firing mechanism begins. And, there may also be a trigger movement segment between the trigger position where actuation of firing mechanism begins and the trigger position where part holding a hammer or striker under spring tension begins to move away from the holding position and releases the firing pin or striker under spring tension. The trigger position where part holding a hammer or striker under tension begins to move away from the holding position and releases the firing pin or striker under spring tension is the starting point of the last trigger pull segment. Some guns have distinctive increase in trigger's resistance to movement as the trigger enters the next trigger pull segment. Some guns would have less number of segments, and some guns have the last two segment blended in with each other in a way that is not distinctive. With most single action only or most striker type triggers, the

approximate starting point of the trigger pull segment where process of the part holding a hammer or striker under spring tension being moved away from the holding position and releasing the firing pin or striker under spring tension is involved can be used for firing preparation position. A shooter can move the trigger to that position without significantly going beyond the starting point of that segment, and hold the trigger in that position until aim tracking starts. The trigger position where the trigger pull starts the actuation of the firing mechanism can also be used as a firing preparation position. This method can be good with type of triggers that has last two segments of the trigger pull are not so distinctive from each other. If a shooter attempts to use trigger position where last segment starts as the firing preparation position when the last segment does not have any distinctive characteristics, such as increase in trigger resistance, the shooter has a risk of pulling the trigger too far beyond the starting point of the last segment and fire the gun without intending to. However, using the starting point of any segment other than the last one as a firing preparation position can mean a longer trigger travel distance and time when aim tracking starts. No matter what trigger position is used for firing preparation position, movement of a trigger from that position to complete the trigger pull and fire should be done by smooth continuous increase of pressure applied to the trigger, unless the shooter intends to interrupt the process. Another way to manipulate a trigger is to disregard the difference between the trigger pull segments mentioned above and start a continuous increase in pressure applied to the trigger, after the index finger makes contact gently with the trigger, in a manner that the shooter anticipate the gun to fire upon completion of forming a shooting platform. As long as the aim is tracking properly, there is no need for the shooting platform to be complete. And, there are circumstances where shooting platform cannot be formed to a shooter's satisfaction.

------------------------------------------------------------------------Issue of manual firing inhibit devices: Some type of firearms have manual firing inhibit devices. These type of devices are designed to disable the firing capability of a firearm it is installed in until the shooter manually manipulates a button or lever to enable the firing capability. If an operator's weapon has such devices, the operator should have a plan on how it would be used and be proficient with the manipulation of it. Although these devices can reduce the risk of a gun from firing when

anything presses on the trigger when the user does not intend to fire, it also adds a risk of not being disengaged and keeping the gun inhibited from firing when the user does intend to fire which would endanger the operator if the operator needs to fire in combat. There are many reasons that a manual firing inhibit mechanism would not be disengaged when the operator intend to fire. And, because of that, some took a position that operators should disengage manual firing inhibit devices as soon as they are in combat operations. Some others took a position that operators should keep the manual firing inhibit device engaged until a gunnery process is initiated, and reactivate the firing inhibit as soon as the gunnery process is over. Some tool a hybrid approach. Examination of what risks are involved with each position and arguments regarding it would be explained here. An operator may get to be in aim tracking status and able to hit the target if the trigger is pulled at that moment before the operator was able to disengage the firing inhibit. This would cause a delay for the operator to make a shot, causing the operator to be in danger. The argument that attempts to dismiss this risk is that the manipulation required to disengage the firing inhibit can be done while the operator is in transition from ready position to shooting platform. There are some problems with that argument: It makes an assumption that is not always true. The demonstration to validate such argument is mostly done in commonly known standard low ready that involves approximately 30~40 degree downward angle of a rifle or corresponding lowered position of a pistol. In those cases, movement distance may require a transition time long enough for the manual firing inhibit device manipulation. However, not all transition takes that long. In some cases, operator's ready position is very close to or even identical to a shooting platform which can make transition time shorter than the time it might take for manual firing inhibit lever manipulation, especially with a type of weapon that has a manual firing inhibit device that is not easy to reach or manipulate. Some weapons, such as M1911 type pistols, have a manual firing inhibit device that allows the index finger of the trigger hand to move on a trigger while the thumb is manipulating a manual firing inhibit device lever. However, manual firing inhibit devices of some weapons require the index finger of the trigger hand to enable firing which makes disengaging the device and moving the finger index finger to the trigger a consecutive, not concurrent, process that requires more time to complete. Also, in most cases such assumption of effective manipulation of manual firing inhibit device also involves an assumption that an operator have not sustained any injuries that may hinder one's ability to do such manipulation and also the assumption that there is noting in the situation that physically obstructs the manipulation movement. Another problem with disengaging the manual firing inhibit device only during a gunnery process and immediately engaging it again is that there are situations where a decision to initiate, continue, terminate, or

resume a gunnery process change in quick succession that require manipulation of a manual firing inhibit device to reverse during transit which can cause a mistake in manipulation, especially when the reversal occurs multiple times which can be very confusing. An example of such situation is when an opponent's action switches a situation between deadly force is justified situation and deadly force not justified situation multiple times in quick succession. Another example is when an operator have to initiate another gunnery process because of a sudden appearance of a new opponent and have to disengage the manual firing inhibit device on the operator's gun while the operator was trying to engage the manual firing device after terminating a previous gunnery process for a different opponent. Such examples are very frequent occurrence, but it is usually ignored by people who advocate using manual firing inhibit device as much as possible. There can also be manipulation conflicts. According to the doctrine of keeping manual firing inhibit devices enabled as much as possible, operators need to be trained to immediately engage the firing inhibit device as soon as a gunnery process is over. That can conflict with doing certain manipulations with certain guns because some guns require manual firing inhibit device to be disengaged in order to do certain manipulations. For example, if a shooter subconsciously put the selector lever of an AK-47 rifle in firing inhibit position, the shooter would have a problem pulling the charing handle which may be required for reloading or malfunction clearing. This also brings up another concern about swapping trigger hand and support hand role when a gun in use needs to move to one offset side to another. There are many guns that have manual firing inhibit device control button or lever only on one side or in a form that need to be manipulated differently depending on whether if right hand or left hand is used. Another risk involved with manual firing inhibit devices is that the device can be engaged by contact with any object that moves the control button or lever without the user's knowledge. That creates a possibility that an operator that disengaged the manual firing inhibit device who thinks one is ready to fire may not be able to fire because the gun is back in firing inhibit mode again without the operator's knowledge. For example, even a partial rotation of Beretta M9's manual firing inhibit lever from firing position, without the lever completely rotating and locking into firing inhibit position, can disable the pistol. The prominently protruding slide mounted lever of the pistol can easily brush against an operator's clothing or other objects in the surroundings. Pistols with slide mounted lever for manual firing inhibit devices such as Beretta M9 or Smith and Wesson M4506 and similar models also have a risk of slide manipulation for reloading or malfunction clearing causing the lever to rotate and placing the gun in firing inhibit mode right after reloading is compete or malfunction is cleared. Simply using firearms that do not have manual firing inhibit devices can avoid all the above risks. However, there can be times when use of manual firing inhibit device can be of benefit.

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------------------------------------------------------------------------Time saving for gunnery process: There are number of tasks that need to be performed during a gunnery process. One method of shorting the time taken for gunnery process is overlapping. There are some tasks that some portion of it can be done without the task that started before it is completed. For example, trigger pull consists of multiple stages. A shooter does not have to wait for sight of a gun to be in stable aiming tracking state in order to move the index finger of the trigger hand from side of the gun's frame to front surface of the trigger. If the shooter moves the index finger on the trigger as soon as the direction of the gun's muzzle is in the approximate direction of the target, the time taken for that action that is overlapped with the action of orienting the gun's direction toward the target is reduced from the overall time it takes for the gunnery process. Like wise, a shooting platform may have to move as it tracks aim before the sight is sufficiently stabilized on the sight aim point. The sight may have to stabilize, and also be aligned when iron sights are used, while it is tracking aim. So, a proficient shooter can have the shooting platform orientation tracking the aim as it is being stabilized, instead of waiting for the shooting platform to be stabilized in order to start aim tracking. One important thing to keep in mind in order to prevent unnecessary delay in firing is to remember the purpose of forming a shooting platform. The whole purpose of a shooting platform is to facilitate the gun in use to be in position for a hit. So, when speed is most critical, operators should fire as soon as the gun in use is positioned within the range where firing would result in a hit while forming a shooting platform. It is an error for an operator to delay firing until a better stabilized shooting platform is formed when a hit can be made at that moment. There is a risk involved with shooting before a stable sound shooting platform is formed: Decreased accuracy. There is also a risk involved with delaying fire: Opponents having opportunity to attack the operator. Managing speed of firing process involves managing that risks. To maximize accuracy, a shooter would manipulate a trigger with the method of getting the trigger to the start point of the final stage of the trigger movement during transition to a shooting platform, and complete the trigger pull upon aim tracking being good enough for a hit. The operator would have a verification of how much accuracy can be expected, usually through visual feed back of sights.

However, when risk of delaying fire for recognition of accuracy verification is high, an operator can pull the trigger without stopping the pull at any stage at a rate of speed that the gun would fire at the anticipated point of the gun being in good enough aim tracking state, if the shooter is able to get the gun in good aim tracking state by the anticipated time of the gun firing. The above also means the gun can be fired as long as a hit can be expected, and that can even be before a gun in use is brought in to position where the gun sight can be used in a standard manner. Even if the gun sights are not used in a standard manner, use of alternate shooting posture or using visible part of the gun other than the sights can make it possible for an operator to get the gun in position to achieve a hit when fired, depending on the situation. More details of that will be explained in other part of this chapter. Assuming there is an opportunity for a shooter to form a standard shooting platform, there would be certain of motion that is required in order to get from transitioning from ready posture to shooting posture that is ready to fire. In order to reduce the amount of that time, one approach that can be used is to adjust the ready posture so that it would be more closer to shooting posture when doing so would not hinder operator's ability to maintain other requirements of a ready posture, such as gun and arms not obstructing view, or shooting soon would be a high possibility that the risk of doing so out weights the risk of not doing so. Other than getting a ready posture closer to shooting posture form, reducing time mostly involves increasing the efficiency of the ready posture to shooting posture transition. The movement of arms and gun in use need to be fast, and aim tracking stabilization also needs to be quickly achieved. However, common mistake is for a shooter to speed up the a movement in a stage too fast that it takes longer time to achieve the later stages. For shooting platform with good stability, the positioning of the gun in use, the positioning of arms and other part of the body and muscle tension of maintaining the platform, other details of forming a good shooting platform has to be within a specific range. When a shooter makes initial movement of forming the shooting platform too fast, the shooter would often get the body and gun positioning close to the general shape of a desired shooting platform, making an attempt to make the fast movement abruptly stop. Even though the general appearance of the form would look similar to a good shooting platform, the details of the body and gun positioning and mechanism that makes a shooting platform function is not yet in the specific range required. After the abrupt stop of the motion, the shooter who made a too hasty motion would start to make adjustment so that the platform would settle in to good functioning state. Even though this may achieve the appearance of a shooting platform faster, it can actually make it take longer for the shooting platform to

stabilize and function. Rather than making a multi stage movement of abruptly forming a general outline of a shooting platform then adjusting it, it is better to form a functional shooting platform in one smooth motion, with the details of its mechanism within working parameters, which would allow the shooter to immediately fire as soon as the platform is formed. This may require the shooter to making a transition movement to limit the speed of the transition as required so that the forming of the shooting platform can be correctly done to meet the specifications. That means all of the detailed mechanics to be in working parameters and the shooter would be ready to fire immediately upon form of the shooting platform when aim tracking is acceptable. This is hard to do for a shooter who does not have a good understanding of how a shooting platform works and the exact state the shooter is trying to achieve upon forming the shooting platform. The shooter has to know what the exact state of the shooting platform the shooter intends to from in detail, and be able to form it with consistency. It is not a matter of slowing down the process to help the shooter find a good shooting platform and settle into it. The desired state is that a shooter already know what it is, and controlling the speed in order to achieve it in one smooth step. Referencing and mechanics application check plays an important role in forming a good shooting platform with consistency. Referencing means the shooter have a easily verifiable physical reference in placement of one's specific body part or gun part in specific place so that it would be repeatable. Mechanics application is to get a feed back of application of shooting platform mechanics work, and form the platform in a manner that the mechanics would correctly apply. This also gives a shooter the ability to adjust the shooting platform to adapt to different weapon or different shooting conditions. If it does not work as it's supposed to, it's an indicator that something wrong with the platform. Some shooter make a mistake of just training to get a memory of what a correct shooting platform feels like for consistency. Feel of a body in certain posture without any referenced index is very unreliable. What a person feels through one's body about being in a certain form of posture in the past can be different from that the person would feel at present, even if the person is in the exact same form of posture. This does not mean feedback through what a shooter feels through one's body should not be utilized. However, in order to achieve consistency, the shooter must also know exactly what mechanics was at work and why being in the correct platform felt a certain way. Shooters should also work on making multiple tasks concurrent than consecutive. Shooters would also be orientating the direction of the gun and the shooting platform, as it is forming, along with it in a manner that the aim of the gun would be as close to good aim tracking as

possible upon completion of the shooting platform. Placement of trigger finger on the trigger would also be done during the transition so that it would be ready to pull the trigger upon completion of forming the shooting platform. Shooters also need to be mentally prepared for cases the standard gunnery process is not working or additional steps need to be taken. Some times, sights may not be visible or may be damaged. If there is a secondary sight that works better in a given condition, a shooter has to be prepared to use the alternate sights without delay. Iron sights may not be clearly visible in certain situations, and immediate use of low light supplement sights on iron sights can help in those situations. Optical sight may be damaged or fail, and immediate switch to iron sights or other indexing methods may be required. Increase in efficiency can also be made by use of ready posture that better facilitates effective ready posture to shooting platform transition. For example: When a pistol is in use, extending an arm holding a pistol near chest toward a target in order to form a shooting platform can be better controlled to stop at a desired point than swinging up a fully extended arm that was pointed downward.

------------------------------------------------------------------------Shot effect assessment and termination of gunnery process: There is a need to assess the effect of shots fired on a target. Depending on the assessment, the operator who is making the assessment may have to continue the attack by repeating firing, or change the aim point and resume firing, or stop firing. However, pausing to observe in order to make such assessment may give the targeted opponent an opportunity to attack the operator if the opponent is not incapacitated. However, operators would not want to waste time and ammunition on shooting an opponent who is already incapacitated. One way to deal with managing those risks is to make the assessment without stopping attack, by observing only what is observable while aiming and firing at the same time. Attack would continue without pausing for more detailed observation until there is an indication, such

as opponent falling and no longer showing any indication of hostile action, or some event is observed that would make it feasible to stop attack, such as opponent behind a protection object disappearing behind the object. That would not mean the opponent is incapacitated. An opponent who has fallen from standing or kneeling position may be still capable of fighting. The reason why an opponent disappeared behind a protection object may or may not because the opponent's falling behind the object caused by incapacitation. It only means the operator may have an opportunity to stop shooting in order to do a more detailed examination or move on to attack a more threatening opponent at the time. However, what is observable during aiming and firing may not be as detailed when an operator is only observing. Operator may not be hitting the target, or hits on the area of the target may not be effective. There's also a possibility that the target may not exhibit an obvious sign of incapacitation when it occur. An opponent who is incapacitated can still be in a posture that resembles a live opponent in attack posture in some situations. Operators may have to plan to shift aim to a different location or stop firing at a certain point to see what has happened if their firing appears to have no effect. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.4. Aiming Issues. ------------------------------------------------------------------------Moving target: Hitting moving target involves estimating the point where target course and bullet trajectory needs to converge in order for the aim point on the target and the bullet to be at the same place after a bullet's travel time if the bullet is fired at the moment. A shooter would then adjust the sight aim point to where the sight needs to index in order to hit the converge point to get the correct sight aim point. The shooter would fire to send a bullet to the converge point. Shooting where the estimated location of the aim point on a target would be in that future is called "lead." It's often not possible to get a precise prediction because the operator cannot know whether if the opponent's speed or direction of travel would change. The principal method involved in hitting a moving target in combat does not change from basics. Operator tracks the sight aim point, described above. In addition to the problem of estimating where the intended aim point on a target would be according to target movement pattern that is already observed, there is also a problem of operator's response speed to any observed change in the target's movement. If a target's movement speed or direction changes, operator's corresponding change in aim tracking will have a certain time delay. Depending on the situation, such as rate of change in speed or direction of movement, the lag can be too great for a successful hit. Also, continuous aim point tracking occupies processing power. Instead of aiming directly at the continuously calculated point where target course and bullet trajectory needs to converge, orienting the sight aim point on a point of the target's course where the target is predicted to move into then waiting for the target to move in that point may reduce the time gap caused by the tracking process lag and reduce mental work load of continuous tracking process by getting the gun's aim ahead of the target's movement rather than continuously catching up with it. The problem with this technique is that since the aim point is determined by prediction of target's position further into the future than the pure tracking method, the accuracy of the predicted aim point is less certain, greatly depending on how consistent target's movement is. For that reason, the technique is not completely free of the shooter having to constantly adjust aim point. Combination of both technique may be effective. This is almost same as the first aim tracking method in principle. With the combination technique, a gunner would still track aim point according to target movement with a gun sight. However, the tracking will start by tracking a point on the sight aim point movement course slightly ahead of the exact sight aim point at the given moment with the sight index point. Then the shooter would slow down the tracking movement so that the gap between the sight index point and sight aim point would decrease, then match. Instead

of constantly trying to get the sight index point to catch up with the sight aim point in order to track aim, that allows the operator to track a point on the sight aim point course ahead of the sight aim point then slow down to allow the sight aim point to catch up with the sight index point. The sight index point would continuously be adjusted according to target movement. Depending on the situation, and the individual gunner's characteristics, the gunner is adjusting the aim point not only for time it takes for the bullet to reach the target's distance and target's movement. There's may also be a time lag for the gunner to fire after decision to fire is make which should also be taken into consideration. However, if the distance is closer, the opponent can move less distance during the bullet's flight time. That makes it easier for the operator to hit with the same degree of estimation error. If the distance is close enough, the operator can still achieve acceptable hit even while completely ignoring lead. Also, for range up to 200m for rifle and about 50m for pistol, human target do not move fast enough for range to matter, so part of the movement that does not have angular speed from the shooter's point of view can be ignored in most circumstances. For example, from operator's point of view, front to back movement or horizontal or vertical movement that aim point does not have enough travel distance for a miss in acceptable impact area on an opponent in bullet flight time can be ignored. A bullet traveling at 800m/s would arrive at 200m distance in 0.25 second. This is a simplified formula where bullet's deceleration is ignored just for illustration purpose. Assuming an opponent is capable of sprinting at 7m/s with maximum angular speed, running horizontal in direction perpendicular to operator's line of sight to the opponent, opponent would have traveled 1.75m on 0.25 second. This is about the height of an adult male. Walking at approximately 1m/s would result in travel distance of 0.25m, approximately half step distance. Using this kind of data, a shooter can come up with a simple formula that can be quickly applied up to certain range. More the range, more data that has to be memorized, but even range up to 200m for rifle would cover distance where most incident of rifle combat occur. A pistol bullet traveling at 350m/s would take about 0.14 second to travel 50m. A person sprinting at 7m/s would have traveled 1m, sprinting at half that speed would have traveled 0.5m, and walking at 1m/s would have traveled 0.14m. If shooting occurs with in 20m, that would be 0.4m, 0.2m, and 0.028m respectively. But, if the opponent is moving away in a line that is 45 degree angle from operator's line of sight to the opponent, the angular movement would reduce in half. So, in case of 20m distance or closer, any speed that is walking speed or less can be ignored for lead in most cases, even brisk walk at full

possible angular speed value would only be about 0.056m travel in bullet flight time. However, even half speed sprinting can have an impact on how the shooter shooed adjust aim for relatively slow bullets like that of a pistol. 0.4m travel when only side of an opponent is visible from operator's point of view cam be more than enough for a complete miss. Operator should start tracking the target by orienting the shooting platform coming into form as soon as the gunnery process starts, not waiting until a shooting platform is formed in order to start tracking. If the angular movement of the target is to a large degree that tracking by upper body rotation alone would result in the upper body shooting platform reaching near its motion limit before firing occurs, operator should immediately turn the whole body to keep the shooting platform coming into form oriented toward the moving target. Otherwise, an operator may end up with a shooting platform that is oriented in a direction where the intended target was, not where it is currently at, by the time the shooting platform is formed. Same applies when a gunnery process is initiated while in stand by state. For example, an operator may have to rotate one's whole body fast while drawing a pistol from holster in order to keep the orientation of the shooting platform coming into form toward an opponent who is moving fast sideway at close proximity. Legs may need to be moved and upper body may also need to be rotated in order to keep orientation track target movement. If an operator is using a shooting posture technique that keeps the whole body, including the lower body leg positioning, in a same rigid form, that tracking may not be done effectively. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------Issue of only keeping one eye used for aiming open or both eyes open: Most gun sight system is aimed with one line of sight from an eye through the aiming device to the target. There are some problems with that. Any visual input from the other eye that does not reconcile from the image coming in from the eye used for aiming can cause confusion. Also, even if both images can be reconciled, it may require mental processing power that draws attention away from other critical mental processes. Either both eyes open or one eye only method can be used, and each has its own set of advantages and problems. Most people have vision system set in a manner that input recognized significantly stronger than the input from the the dominant eye is used for aiming, image reconciliation problem with most situations because any image input from eye is simply overpowered. from one eye is other eye. If may not be a the non-aiming

However, both eyes opened method has number of problems. Some people have the dominant eye on the side that is opposite of the side of a hand a pistol may need to be held or side of the shoulder a rifle stock has to contact. This is a problem with most type of weapons, even if the weapon is designed to be ambidextrous, because tactical situation may require an operator to switch the hand holding a pistol or side of the shoulder a rifle stock is placed on. If the weapon in use is a rifle, then it cannot be effectively used with its stock on the side of the shoulder that does not allow the dominant eye to be used for aiming. Also, some people may have images from the dominant eye input that is not recognized significantly stronger than that coming from the other eye. Another problem is that even if a weapon is aimed with a dominant eye with the weapon in use positioned on the shooter's body in an efficient and proper manner, there still can be a situation where failed image reconciliation creating confusion is a problem. Surrounding objects and how it is illuminated by various light sources can cause a situation where image input from the dominant eye is not recognized significantly stronger. Simplest method to avoid the image reconciliation problem is to close the eye not used for aiming. More efficient target image processing by eliminating conflicting image input from the eye not used for aiming, not being limited to use weapon effectively only with dominant side eye are the benefits. It also has the benefit of allowing more effective use of protection objects. With both eyes open method, an operator may have to expose one's head until the dominant eye can see the target. That would result in operator exposing significantly more area of the head, if the edge of the object used for protection the operator is being exposed from is on the opposite side of the operator's dominant eye. The one eye only method also has its set of problems. Some people may not be able to overcome a mental conditioning set by whatever life experience or subconscious response to threats that makes them open both eyes when other people are capable of closing one eye. Also, there are people, for whatever reason, are unable to use non-dominant eye for aiming even when no threat is involved, although they consist very small portion of the population. Some people claims one eye only method is bad for the reason that it makes shooter lose peripheral vision. However, selection of either method is a compromise between risk and benefits. Even though peripheral vision is not as wide with one eye only method compared to two eyes open method, the period with only one eye is opened is limited to time when an operator is aiming. And, when an operator is in an aiming process, the operator is not scanning since incapacitation of the primary target has priority and searching for possible existence of opponents in peripheral vision is a distraction. So, the risk involved in the one eye only method would be small compared to its benefits. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------Target to target transition: An operator should maneuver or position oneself in a way to prevent being exposed to more than one opponent at a given time when shooting. However, if there are more than one opponent visible that an operator has to attack, transitioning orientation of the shooting platform from one target to another becomes necessary. The first issue to consider is when the transition starts. If an opponent that is targeted first becomes incapacitated then operator can transition to the next target, but the appearance of the incapacitation may not be immediate or it may take more shots delivered on the target for the incapacitation to occur which would delay operator's shooting of the next opponent if the operator waits to observe such sign. That delay can give an opportunity for the next targeted opponent to attack the operator. It is about assessing the risk of taking time to observe a sign of incapacitation of the first target which may give an opportunity for the next target to attack the operator versus not taking time to observe a sign of incapacitation of the first target and transitioning to attack the next target. The risk of former can appear to be greater than the later in some situations and not so on other situations. To manage that risk, many operators or organizations make it a policy to deliver a certain number of shots on the first target, then transition to the next target without taking time to observe a sign of incapacitation, then after the last target either appears to be incapacitated or that certain number of shots has been delivered to it, the operator would reassess all visible opponents to determine which one needs to be attacked again. However, like any other techniques or polices, it needs to be adjusted according to the situation. If an opponent is far, delivering multiple shots on that target can take longer time, which may justify delivering less number of shots on target before transitioning to the next target. In some situations, operator may be more exposed to the next target than the first, or another target that appeared later can be more of a threat because it is closer. If angular dispersion between the current target and the next one is small, maintaining shooting platform and rotating it to transition would be less time consuming than allow the shooting platform to disintegrate to turn then rebuilding it. But, turning with a complete shooting platform form can be slower than making oneself compact by returning to ready position to various degrees. If angular dispersion between the two targets are great, then bringing the gun closer to facilitate faster turn may be necessary. That would result in the posture being less close to a compete shooting platform form. How less the posture would be close to a

complete shooting platform depends on the degree of angular dispersion of the two targets. More the angular dispersal, more change of posture may be needed to facilitate faster turn. It takes time to change the posture from shooting platform and reform the shooting platform, so changing the posture to a degree that it would take longer to do change from and to a shooting platform than to complete the transition turn should be avoided. It also depends on the length and weight of the gun. With a lighter and shorter rifle, turning rotating a large angle in shooting platform form or a form close to it may not be much of a disadvantage. Whether if the head and eyes should remain a complete shooting platform and turn with the aiming eye on the sight or disintegrate from the shooting platform and turn first to track the next target while transitioning also depends on the factors mentioned above. If the angular dispersion between the current and next target is small and the shooter knows exactly where the next target is, maintaining the shooting platform to be orientated exactly to that target can be a feasible option. However, the next target's location might have changed, or the shooter may be not do accurate in turning to orient the shooting platform in the last known direction of the next target without visually looking at that direction first. Eyes or head may have to turn first toward the expected target direction to get the location information of the next target and guide the rest of the body into forming a shooting platform oriented toward it. Best course of action would differ from individual to individual, depending on their speed and accuracy of the turn and observation capability during the turn with a complete shooting platform or posture with varying degree of change from the shooting platform in order to facilitate turn speed and accuracy. Some people may think transitioning with a complete shooting platform with eyes following the sight is better because it is effective in training or shooting sport situation where two targets are set up in not so wide angular dispersion. But, that is different from actual combat situation because the shooter knows exactly where the next target is and that target does not move or respond to the sound of gun fire. A shooter would briskly turn the shooting platform toward the known spot of the next target without looking at it first, and the target would still be there. Same does not apply to a live opponent. This does not mean rotating as a complete shooting platform cannot be effective. It is just to illustrate that operators should be cautious about why they believe a certain technique is effective or not. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------Aiming without sights: This can be necessary at times, but should be avoided as much as possible. Most reliable and accurate method for a human to indexing a

point with an object is to use visual reference and error correction by feed back. Without visual reference, orientation of a gun would be done by feel of body part positioning. In order for a gun to be positioned to hit a 30 cm wide circle at 10m, the gun's orientation has to be within 30 mil angular range(approximately 1.72 degree). Even a relatively closer range such as 5m would require 60 mil(approximately 3.44 degree) accuracy. Positioning a pistol within only a few degree accuracy by feel of body part positioning alone requires very fine sense and control which can be very easily degraded by stress and postures used that is awkward or different from a single posture that is used in training. This goes against the claim that such method is better suited for situations where fine sense and control ability is degraded. "Point shooting" in a sense of not using sight to aim which requires use of body feel alone to position a gun within only a few degree angle tolerance is therefore not a gross motor skill as many people who advocates use of such method as a primary means of aiming claims it to be. That's why the method also needs training, often extensive, which contradicts some people's claim that is "instinctive." All aimed shooting involves pointing a gun at a target, regardless of whether if a visual reference such as a sight is used or not. As long as a shooter can have a reliable indication that a gun is positioned within a certain range of angle to get a hit, there is no reason to use one method to the exclusion of others. There are few reason why shooting without using sight may be needed. One reason is that a shooter sometimes might be physically unable to get a gun positioned to get the sight in line of sight between they shooters eye and the target. Another reason is that there can be situations where orienting a gun by feel of body part positioning alone is sufficient for a shooter to hit the target and taking further time to place the gun where the shooter can get a visual reference of where the gun is pointing has more risk than shooting without visual reference. If the target is within 1m, the range of direction may be wide enough to orient a gun in hand within that direction without visual reference. Gun sights may be hard to see in certain conditions. However, that does not mean a shooter should abandon using a visual reference to know where a gun is pointed, it just means the shooter may have to use a less than clearly visible sight or use other part of the gun to determine where the gun is pointed. Visual reference to know the point the gun is pointed at does not have to be a purpose designed sight. And, regardless of whether if the shooter's eye is focused at target distance or a gun sight or other part of a gun, a visible gun can still provide visual reference to indicate where the gun is pointing at. Operators should try to get visual reference of the gun's orientation when shooting as much as possible, unless they are in a situation where such attempt would increase overall risk considering the risk of not using a visual reference or just unable to get a usable visual reference at all.

Training to hit using sights is what would be also used to build a memory of what was the body part positioning when a hit was achieved that can be used to aim without use of visual reference when visual reference is not available and shooting in that condition becomes necessary.

The "instinctive shooting","finger pointing" argument: Some people would claim extending the trigger hand as if pointing a finger a target greatly increases aiming efficiency. Some would even claim that the method to pint a gun without the use of sight should be the primary method of aiming a pistol. These arguments have logical and factual faults. If the goal is to point a gun at a target, a shooter should replicate a state of a gun being pointed at a target, not replicate an index finger of the trigger hand pointed at a target. Why try to achieve something by doing something less relevant or irrelevant? I had an argument with someone praising Glock pistols because the person believed Glock pistols in aimed position positioned that person's hand in same manner as pointing a finger at a target. The claim was easily proven false, because Glock pistols have the top of rear of grip contact area that is higher than the top of the trigger, so a correctly held Glock pistol would have the index finger pointing downward in relation to the sight reference line. So, this person felt as if the finger and wrist angle was identical to the finger and wrist angle when the index finger was pointed at the target when it was pointed significantly downward. This example is not about whether if a Glock brand pistol is more or less "natural" or "instinctive" to shoot with. The purpose of giving this example is to illustrate that what a person subjectively feels "natural" or "instinctive" is a very unreliable indicator of how accurately a gun is pointed at an intended point. If that person actually fired the Glock pistol with the wrist angle that points the index finger at the intended aim point, the impact point would be nowhere near the intended aim point. Also, every people point a finger at an object to index it in a different way. Even a same person does it different way in a different situation. All of that would have made a gun pointed at a different direction if the gun was held in that hand. It simply has no relevance to orienting an object, a pistol, that is not a part of the hand held in that hand in a certain range of direction. This is the reason why well known "point shooting" instructors made students get a pistol held in hand to form a straight line with the forearm and tense the wrist to lock the joint in that position. Then they would teach the students to condition themselves to consistently replicate that rigid straight line from pistol to forearm when shooting.

They stressed that point. Important thing to note is that they did not use a finger pointed at a target to build that conditioned memorized form, they used a pistol pointed at a target to build it. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.5. Shooting platform Issues. ------------------------------------------------------------------------Shooting platform symmetry: A pistol or rifle can be placed with its horizontal front to back line closer to or farther from the center of shooter's body. The more closer that line is to the center, the shooting platform can be more symmetrical and the recoil force transferred to the torso would be less biased toward one side of the torso. With a pistol, this would make the recoil force load bearing on each arm more symmetrical. If the front to back line of the gun is farther from the center of shooter's body, the shooting platform will likely appear more asymmetrical and recoil force transferred to the shooter's torso would be biased more toward the side the weapon's bore line is offset to. There are symmetrical and asymmetrical type of shooting platform, and the shooter using the asymmetrical type can choose varying degrees of asymmetry. Each has its benefits and risks, and an operator has to understand all of them. Symmetrical method has a benefit of recoil force having less torque to turn the shooting platform. It also has less conflict when a shooter has a tendency to make the direction the front side of the torso is facing directly toward a target. When a pistol is used, it also has the benefit of arms form also being symmetrical which may be more intuitive to some shooters. Asymmetrical method has a benefit of allowing minimum amount of exposure from objects that provide protection when such object is utilized. Because weapon's front to back line positioned offset to the center of shooter's body, the part of the shooter's body that is less offset would not have to be exposed for the gun to have line of sight not obstructed by the protection object. With a rifle, the platform often cannot be symmetrical because the rifle's stock cannot be placed near the centered of a shooter's torso. Also, stability and fatigue control issue may often require the support arm side shoulder to be in front of the other side, shortening the distance between the support arm side shoulder and the support hand gripping position on the rifle to support the front side of the rifle with less effort. Similar issue can also arise with support arm supporting a pistol hold. Although a shooter may have a preference for one over the other, what is used should be dictated by what is feasible and proper in a given situation. One type of shooting platform an operator prefers may not be feasible in a given situation. There are two major pistol shooting platform types. One type use both arms in a symmetrical manner. The arms are extended evenly to a full or

near full extension to toward the target. The pistol is horizontally centered in front of the shooter's body seen from front when the shooter is standing upright, and front side of the shooter's torso would face directly toward the target. Because of the symmetrical triangle like shape, the posture is called "Isosceles." Most other postures would be asymmetrical, since Isosceles Posture is probably the only way to shoot with a symmetrical posture. Most basic example of asymmetrical posture is a platform with the arm holding the pistol in a near straight horizontal line, when a shooter is standing upright and aiming at a target on the same elevation, although the arm can be bent at the elbow with other joints bent to corresponding degree and may not be a straight vertical line. Although it is possible to have the supporting arm extended to nearly similar degree with this type, normally the supporting arm side shoulder is positioned forward to the other side and the support arm is bent at the elbow. This makes the upper body rotated toward the side of the pistol with the front of the torso facing a direction oblique to line between the shooter to target. That brings the shooters head closer to the pistol's sight reference line, making it easier for the aiming eye to be in line with the sight reference line. The support arm that can be in various forms. It may or may not be symmetrical to the other arm supports the arm holding the pistol forming the near straight horizontal line. However, the arm holding the pistol, which will be referred to as the primary arm from now, is used as a primary means of absorbing recoil and be the base of the shooting platform. It is similar to shooting with one arm, but with the assistance of the support arm. The degree and manner of utilization of the support arm can be adjusted as desired. This type will be referred to as Primary Arm method. The primary arm can be bent at the elbow for various reasons, but it will have more rigidity when it is near full extension. Otherwise, required degree of rigidity has to be controlled by muscle which is less desirable for stability. Maximum rigidity is not desired, and elbow joint near the edge of its motion range is also not desired, so elbow would normally be near but less than full extension, for the reasons explained in Basic Gunnery section. The can be a certain range of the primary arm extension that some shooters many have a tendency to rotate the direction of the elbow to the side. When the hand is still holding the gun upright, it can conflict with that tendency and cause instability. In that case, a shooter may have to keep the elbow pointed downward to avoid that conflict. In one handed shooting methods, canting the gun and the hand holding it along with the arm and not resisting the tendency of elbow rotating is used by some shooters. This is usually a problem with certain range of arm extension, in conjunction with the arm's angle with the primary arm side shoulder. When the primary arm side shoulder is rolled forward, it greatly reduces the tendency of rotation of elbow direction. Both side shoulders rolled forward would compact the shooting platform, and can aid in increasing the rigidity of the shooting platform to a desired degree.

However, the above would illustrate that the Primary Arm method and many other asymmetrical method can be somewhat delicate to utilize compared to methods like Isosceles. There are many variations of the asymmetrical method, since almost anything other than Isosceles would be asymmetrical method. In any case, standard method of forming a shooting platform would likely provide the most stable and efficient shooting capability. The reason why various methods that involves arms and gun positioning deviating from the standard form of shooting platform is usually to adapt to a particular situation where standard form of shooting posture cannot be formed because of disability or obstruction, or the situation requires a shooting platform with priority of the platform placed on something other than shooting effectiveness. An example of such situation is an operator sitting in a car who is obstructed from forming a standard form of shooting platform and orient the whole body toward a target. In any case, those shooting platforms would be formed in a way to achieve maximum shooting effectiveness within the limits of how the form that is deviated from standard form would achieve it's intended goal, and the principles involved with the mechanism of standard form shooting platform would be utilized to the extent that is possible. When sights are used for aiming, those would involve positioning arms in various ways to get the sight of a gun in use on line of sight between a shooter's eye and a target. Although the variations would be limited with a rifle when a standard method of stock contact with shoulder and cheek is used for shooting platform, the standard method of stock contact is not always a requirement, and in some situations may not be achievable. The positioning of arms and gun would also involve means to manage recoil, using skeletal structure and muscle tension according to principles described and basic gunnery section. If utilization of skeletal structure is limited, more muscle strength would be used to keep a gun in position. There would also be consideration to position the gun in a manner that the operation of the gun would not be obstructed and ejection of the spend casing would not injure the shooter. So, if an operator has the understanding of principles of basic gunnery and standard form shooting platform mechanics, that can be modified an many ways to adapt to different needs and priorities. Some people criticizes asymmetrical method, saying that it limits upper body motion range to a certain side. However, there is no reason why an operator should only use upper body shooting platform rotation to track aim or use asymmetrical or symmetrical shooting platform exclusively. There is no reason to use one method in exclusion of others. A shooting platform type of form should be modified to fit a situation, and there is no one shooting platform type of form that will suit every situation. There are times an symmetrical or asymmetrical type shooting platform cannot be maintained and need to be modified for various reasons. If a shooter has to rotate the upper body shooting platform, but need to keep the lower body orientation direction, the shooter may reach the rotation

limit with the shooting platform. In that case, arms may need to be moved in relation to the rest of the upper body in order to track the target with the gun in use which would change the upper body shooting platform form. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------Issue of precision aim stabilization with rifle: Support arm will not likely be able to hold a rifle completely stable, especially when the support arm is not supported by contact with other fixed objects. At close distances, this is not a problem. However, if the target's exposed area is small or target distance increases, it can be a problem. If an operator intend to be effective beyond just close range and have a capability to utilize a rifle to most of it's potential, shooting platform that allows precision fire is needed. More the support arm relies on muscle strength to support the weight of the rifle, fatigue will increase and add instability. Moving the support arm shoulder closer to the support hand position in standing or kneeling shooting posture allows less use of muscle power to support the front side weight of the rifle with support hand, allowing added stability. A shooting posture with the front side of shooter's torso facing in a direction oblique to the line between the shooter and the target, allowing the support arm side shoulder to be in front of the other side shoulder would be necessary for this. Some caution in forming the posture us necessary to increase efficiency with this posture. Even though the support arm shoulder is positioned closer to the front of the rifle, resulting in the torso facing a direction that is in oblique angle to the bore line, the trigger hand side shoulder the stock of the rifle is contacting is curled some degree toward the front of the rifle. That will result in the shoulder surface the stock is in contact facing the direction of the target, and also helps form a better pocket like shape in the stock contact area that aids in stock placement. The forward roll of that shoulder would also have a similar effect to one or both side shoulders rolled forward when it is utilized in pistol shooting, and it will help the shooter form a posture with elbows pointing downwards when in postures of standing or kneeling position. For that torso angle to have minimal unnecessary tension on the body, the waist and foot positioning also has to be positioned according to the torso orientation, to have minimal twist at the waist or legs. The support arm side foot with the toe pointing toward the direction of

the target being forward of the other foot can help with keeping the shooting platform as a whole oriented toward the target. The idea is not to have a feel of shooting platform formed with a shooter facing in a direction oblique to the shooter to target line then turn a part of it's shoulder in contact with the rifle stock and shooter's head toward the target to orient the rifle toward the target. The idea is to have the posture formed be close to one created by a person facing the target moved the support hand side shoulder and waist forward with that side of the foot placed forward toward the target, resulting in the front side of waist and torso turning to a direction oblique to the shooter to target line with everything else still oriented toward the target. Any tension created on the trigger hand side leg by the waist and torso turning can be relived by turning the trigger hand side foot in a corresponding direction and degree. However, this can be a problem, because people in certain circumstances may have a tendency to have the direction the front of their torso is facing close to a target they are engaging. That tendency may be beneficial in close range when fast horizontal directional traverse of a shooting platform is necessary, but can be detrimental when precision is required. So, operators need to be aware of this and adjust accordingly. There is no one shooting platform that solves all problems for all situations, although some may advocates using one platform because of consistency or place too much emphasis on few types of shooting situation the shooting platform they advocate is suited for. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------Independence of upper body shooting platform from lower body positioning: There are certain way to position the lower body in relation to upper body shooting platform in order to achieve maximum shooting effectiveness. When shooting at a static target with the whole body shooting platform oriented toward the target, the relationship between the two should be in a way that it gives necessary degree of stability and desired level of readiness to maneuver. With a moving target, a shooter would also aim to achieve the same at the point when aim tracking starts, with the whole body shooting platform oriented toward the sight aim point at that point, but with the additional requirement that the upper body would have a good range of rotation motion range while the upper body rotates to track aim. However, that is assuming the firing can be done while the upper body shooting platform is within the motion range where rotation can be done without distortion of the upper body shooting platform. In a standing posture, this would generally come in a form of body in varying degree of crouching position with feet approximately shoulder width apart, support arm side foot placed forward in relation to

the center of body and trigger hand side foot placed to the rear in relation to the center of body. In kneeling positions, support arm side foot would also usually be placed forward in relation to the other foot. However, such lower body posture should be a preference that is attempted when there is an opportunity, not a rule. Upper body shooting platform should have some degree of independence from lower body posture because, it is not possible to always maintain a lower body posture that would give best performance with a static target or a target that only moves within certain range of direction that can be handled with no lower body movement. When upper body is supported by lower body, most often in standing postures and sometimes in kneeling or other postures, legs may need to be moved in order to make it possible for the upper body shooting platform to track a target. If angular speed of the target is too fast that an operator in a gunnery process expects only rotating upper body shooting platform would result in the upper body shooting platform reaching near its rotation range limit before the operator can fire, the operator needs to move the legs to rotate the whole body along with the upper body shooting platform. Same applies when an operator who has already started a gunnery process, only using upper body shooting platform rotation to track aim, expects the upper body shooting platform would reach near its motion limit before firing occurs. Such independence is also beneficial even when only upper body shooting platform rotation is used to perform aim tracking on a moving target. It is beneficial in any event when there is a need for the upper body shooting platform orientation needs to be different from the direction lower body orientation. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------Body armor other equipments affecting shooting: Equipments worn on person may affect forming an effective shooting platform which operators need to adjust to. Body armors are often not made with much consideration for rifle stock's shoulder contact. It often reduces the inward curve of rifle stock shoulder contact area. Load bearing vest or other worn equipments that cover the rifle stock contact area also have that problem. With reduced curve on the stock contact area and reduced contact feel of a rifle stock, it is harder get a feed back about whether if the stock is contacting a good spot for a good shooting plat form. Also, shape and orientation of the surface of those equipment that covers the shoulder contact area can make it easy for the rifle stock that is pressed into the area to slip. Because of that, the shooter may have to select the rifle stock contact area according to the shape of the surface the equipment is forming over the shoulder, rather than the shoulder contour. The somewhat flat surface

of body armor surface that covers the rifle stock contact area can make it easy for the rifle stock to slip away from the center of the shooter's body because rifle firing posture often have the shooter's torso facing a direction oblique to shooter to target line and general horizontal cross section shape of the front side of body armor is an outward curve. There are few solutions to this problem. One is to simply use a body armor that conforms better to the shooter's body to reduce the change in shoulder contour around the rifle stock contact area. Another solution is use body armor that has a suitable stock contact area designed into it. In any case, shooters would have to adjust the shooting platform. But, bulky body armors with no stock contact issue in design consideration would require more adjustments. In that case, the rifle stock would be often adjusted to contact more closer to the horizontal center of the shooter's body where the armor tend to be more flatter. This may also require the direction the torso is facing to be adjusted to be less oblique in relation to shooter to target line. That would make the shoulder contact area surface of the armor meet the rifle in more perpendicular angle, reducing probability of slip. Thickness of body armors or other equipments that covers the stock contact area positions the rifle more away from what the position would be without the armor. Adjustable length stock can be used to cancel that effect. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.5.1. Use of alternate shooting posture. Retention oriented shooting postures: These are used when standard shooting postures geared toward maximum gunnery efficiency would make the shooter vulnerable to opponents counter by direct physical contact such as grabbing or striking the shooter or the shooter's gun. This usually happens in close proximity. The principles involved in how to guard a gun against direct physical contact with an opponent in operation ready postures is used. (***** More details in Volume 2. Execution.) Basic principles involves the following: -Keeping the gun close to the torso so that the posture does not involve arms or the gun protruding too much in a way that it makes easier for an opponent to manipulate -The gun held in a manner that the arm would have more leverage on the gun than an opponent who might grab the gun. Usually close to the torso. -The gun held in a position that makes harder for an opponent to make physical contact, blocked by arm or other part of the body. With a pistol, the gun can be held close to the torso below eye level. The arm holding the gun can extend toward the target to varying degree depending on how close the opponent is.

With a rifle, the center of the rifle is brought closer to the front center of the torso. The support hand may need to move to part of the gripping area closer toward the muzzle end so that an opponent who makes physical contact with the front end to gain more leverage to move the front end of the rifle. The rear end of the rifle can be tucked in between the trigger hand arm and the torso for more security. When the rifle needs to be forced to rotate, possibly against a force of an opponent asserting force on the rifle, an operator can utilize the whole upper body and waist power more effectively to control the direction of the rifle. Also, the support hand moved closer to the front end can be used more effectively to force the muzzle to point on part of an opponent's body against resistance if need be.

When the gun is not seen because it is out side of the field of view, the shooter only has the sense of arm position as an aiming reference. At very close proximity that may be sufficient. But, accuracy of such sense can degrade under stress. When the gun can be brought into peripheral view, the outline of the gun can give an indication of where the gun muzzle is pointed, and that can be enough for close proximity shooting. The top of a pistol and forearm of the trigger hand arm aligned straight, front to back line of the top of the slide of a pistol seen from above, rifle's front to back line seen from above, can all be used as a aiming reference when normal use of sight is not feasible.

Emergency/hasty switching of rifle stock contact side:

There are situations where switch of side of shoulder a rifle stock contacts need to be switched, but there is no time for a complete posture adjustment. The speed in switch may be required because there is an emergency or the switch is only temporary and need very fast transition to and from the temporary switched position, such as when temporarily switch in side is only needed during a momentary exposure technique in cases where momentary exposure period warrants a use of different side of shoulder. In such cases, a rifle can be switched in position to contact another side of the shoulder by simply shifting its position to the other side while maintaining hand position. There's only a side movement of the rifle with no switch of trigger hand and support hand.

2.6. Shooting and maneuvering Increasing stability while walking: If shooter is executing a gunnery process while moving, legs moved in a certain manner would increase stability of the upper body shooting platform. The normal up and down oscillating pattern of the upper body when a person normally walks needs to be minimized. The steps taken may need to be shorter. Also, when a fully extended leg is moved front to back, the foot at the end would have an arc path. Because of that, walking with the leg that is supporting weight fully extended as it moves under torso would result in up and down oscillating path of the upper body as a person walks. So, instead of walking on fully extended legs, a shooter would have to bend the knee as the leg supporting weight moves closer to directly under the shooter's torso so that the shooter's upper body shooting platform would not rise.

Such method can be utilized mostly in regards to forward or rearward movement of the lower body. However, since it is possible to orient the upper body shooting platform in a direction independent of the direction of the line a lower body is oriented on to move forward or backward, that makes it possible for an operator to maneuver in a direction different direction from the upper body shooting platform orientation direction. The difference in the direction is limited by rotation motion range of the upper body shooting platform in relation to the lower body maneuver orientation direction. ------------------------------------------------------------------------Practical maneuver speed and gunnery effectiveness: Walking or running will degrade an operator's ability to make effective shots. Because of that, situations where doing both at the same time would be effective are very limited. Maneuvering at full effort degrades gunnery effectiveness and gunnery process in full effort would degrade one's ability to maneuver. An operator can either shoot while maneuvering at the same time or interrupt the maneuver to shoot then resume maneuvering. Gunnery process during maneuvering can be effective if walking or side stepping is slowed down enough and executed in a careful manner to maximize upper body shooting platform stability. However, the utility of such slow moving method is very limited. Unless the operator involved is forced to move, it is better for the operator to stop in position to maximize gunnery effectiveness. And, if an operator is forced to move to avoid danger, the operator most likely must move at a speed too fast for that method. When an operator is forced to move, they're likely executing some form of evasive maneuver. Combining a gunnery process with evasive maneuver should not be done unless it can be done without significantly slowing down the maneuver or evasive maneuver alone is unlikely to prevent the operator from receiving effective fire until a protected position is reached. If the shooting is to be done while the operator is moving at speed fast enough for evasive maneuver, the distance to target has to be short enough or the target has to be large enough for the operator to get effective hits. The operator may turn the upper body or whole body to some degree toward the target in order for the shooting platform to be able to aim a gun at the target, then the operator shoots when the aim is sufficiently accurate enough for a hit. For this to be effective, the distance has to be very close so that angular size of the target is large enough for an effective hit with acceptable probability even the affected by the running or side stepping. Some elements of stability increasing technique mentioned before can be incorporated to improve the accuracy and stability of the platform to a certain degree, but it should not be to a degree or manner that makes the evasive maneuver ineffective. The other method, interrupting an evasive maneuver for gunnery process

then resuming the maneuver is used when executing a gunnery process while maneuvering at the same time does not allow effective gunnery. The operator may be running, side stepping, or moving backwards while side stepping to produce angular movement while increasing distance at the same time while facing an opponent. In any case, it would be a movement in fast phase. It's a simple idea of maneuvering, stopping to shoot, then resuming the maneuver, but certain measures need to be incorporated in order to maximize operator's safety. When an operator executing an evasive maneuver at full effort slows down and stops to execute a gunnery process, the operator becomes an easier target to hit for the opponent. The slowing down needs to be done quickly. At the same time, the operator executing the technique has to start forming a shooting platform and starts to orient oneself toward the target as the slow down begins, not waiting for the body to come to a complete stop. It is done is a manner that the operator would already have a good aim on the target with a shooting platform formed before coming to a complete stop, and immediately fire when the body is stable enough. when the gunnery process is done, the operator would resume full speed maneuver. That would minimize the time the operator is in a slow or stopped state. It also forces the opponent aiming the operator to adjust to abrupt slowing down followed by a quick acceleration which may be harder for aim tracking compared to a target that is moving at a constant speed.

Utilization of protection object issue: Incorporating minor movement for position adjustment while the shooter is transitioning to a shooting posture that results in no significant increase in shooting response time may be of benefit. It will involve not more than one or very few steps, and done quickly. This small degree of movement is not usually to create angular movement of target to make opponents' aim less effective. It is used for adjusting position to increase shielding effect of an object that provides protection when an opponent's position or opponent's maneuvering makes the operator more exposed than the operator has to in order for the operator to execute a gunnery process.

An operator also may have to move to adjust position between shots or while making continuous repeating shots even at the cost of lowered shooting effectiveness when the operator is exposed too much from a protection object being used because an opponent maneuvers in a direction that exposes the operator from the object or other reasons. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.7. Using firearms with flashlight 2.7.1. Techniques to use a flashlight in conjunction with weapon in ready or with shooting platform. Back Stop Press Technique: This method of using a compact tail button switch flashlight with a gun involves a flashlight held by a support hand with the flashlight parallel to the sight reference line that controls the switch by pressing the flashlight against a back stop. The back stop can be a part of the gun or a part of the trigger hand. The method can also be used with a side of body mounted switch flashlights. In such case, the thumb or index finger will be used to manipulate the switch, and hand position will be adjusted so that the finger used can reach the switch. The method may not be suitable for use with a pistol if the light is larger than a compact size which is usually around 10~15cm in length. In cases where a pistol is used, the flashlight will be held by support hand thumb its base with the thumb oriented somewhat parallel to the flashlight and the index finger curled around the body of the flashlight. That controls the direction of the beam. The flashlight will be positioned under the trigger guard with the tail switch touching the trigger hand finger that is in contact with the front side of pistol's grip. The rest of the support hand consisting of the palm and middle to little finger would form a curve that will cover the middle to little finger of the trigger hand as much as possible. The flashlight will be grasped closer to the end so that it would protrude less to the rear from the support hand gripping area, which will allow the rest of the support hand to contact the trigger hand as much as possible. Other than the displacement by the presence of the flashlight, the support hand will support the trigger hand in the same manner as when flashlight is not present. The trigger finger area that contacts the tail switch is the back stop used to control the switch. Pressing the flashlight rearward against it will turn the light on, and releasing the rearward pressure and letting the flashlight move forward will turn the light off.

For this technique to be used with a rifle, the rifle needs to have a

support hand grip area with a surface that is parallel to the barrel, like a "hand guard" type that surrounds the barrel, and a downward protruding part to the rear of the support hand grip, such as a magazine well, that can be used as a back stop. In cases where a rifle is used, the flashlight will be held by support hand thumb base and the index finger curled around the body of the flashlight. That controls the direction of the beam. The flashlight will be positioned under the support hand gripping area in the same vertical plane of the sight reference line. That places the flashlight between the support hand palm and support hand grip surface on the rifle. The tail switch of the flashlight will be touching a downward protruding part of the rifle to the rear of the support hand gripping area, such as a magazine well or magazine. The flashlight will be grasped closer to the front so that it would if the shooter prefers to grip the rifle on the support hand grip surface that is parallel to the barrel. Other than the displacement by the presence of the flashlight, the support hand will support the support hand grip area of the rifle with mostly by its thumb and middle to little finger contact in the same manner as when flashlight is not present. That downward protruding part will be used as the back stop to control the tail switch. Pressing the flashlight rearward against it will turn the light on, and releasing the rearward pressure and letting the flashlight move forward will turn the light off. Another option is to use the same method as when using a pistol, but the downward protruding part to the rear of the support hand grip surface, such as magazine well or magazine, would be grasped instead of the trigger hand and serve as a back stop. If a magazine well or magazine as a back stop places the support hand too far to the rear compared to what a shooter prefers, the shooter can place a vertical grip or angled forward grip, like ones produced by Magpul Inc., to use it as a back stop or gripping surface. The operator evaluating this technique should check if there is anything on the gun in use that would block the beam, such as sling of an AR-15 type rifle installed with the front sling point under the barrel which would make the sling hang directly downward in the same vertical plane of the barrel.

There are two distinct advantages with this technique over most other techniques commonly taught. One is that it places the light directly under the bore. That eliminates the problem with light being offset to the bore which causes problem with utilizing side corner of an wall or other object for cover or maneuvering around them. Another advantage is that the support hand placement allows the shooter to utilize shooting posture / platform with wider range of arm or torso direction, including "Weaver" or "Isosceles," compared to some other techniques, such as Harries, that require the support arm to be bent at the elbow to not be awkward. "Chapman" technique does not have that problem, but it does not work with a flashlight that has a tail switch only configuration.

Other support hand flashlight techniques: Another technique involves holding a flashlight between the support hand index and middle finger and pressing the tail switch with a part of the hand. This form is commonly known as "Rogers" or "Surefire" technique. The area that is used to press on the tail switch is usually the base of thumb or the palm area near the base of thumb. Exactly what spot is used depends on the shape and size of the flashlight used and the tail switch configuration. Wish some flashlights with hard to press switch or switch that is recessed from a rim that surrounds it may require the thumb to press it in order to reliably turn the light on.

When used in conjunction with a pistol, the middle to little finger would be used to support the trigger hand in a manner similar to when no flashlight is in use. However, in order to allow the flashlight held in that manner to be oriented toward the same direction of the gun, the position the wrist and forearm has to be within is somewhat limited, and it is awkward to get an Isosceles type shooting platform. It would require more of an asymmetrical shooting platform because the support arm has to be bent. Also, it may be awkward for the support hand to support a rifle unless the shooter uses the middle finger to little finger to grip around a magazine well, if it is available for gripping, or a vertical forward grip. The technique is relatively faster compared to some other techniques to get in and out of. There is also a technique that holds a flashlight with the support hand in a bar gripping like form with the lens side protruding from the little finger side of the grip, activating the tail switch with the thumb. Then the support hand wrist would be made to contact the trigger hand wrist with the back of hand of right and left hand touching back to back. The posture is held by the two wrists being pressed against each other. This is commonly known as "Harries technique." This is usually used with a pistol, since a rifle cannot be supported by supporting the trigger hand wrist. Although some variation of it exists to be used with a rifle, it

is very cumbersome.

One handed shooting techniques: Another approach is to simply shoot with the trigger hand only, with the other hand manipulating a flashlight only. In such cases, holding a flashlight with the hand holding it or the flashlight in contact with a part of the shooter's body, such as side of the head or chest,can help with reducing the mental work load of consciously holding the flashlight steady and also physically aid in it. There is also what is known as the "FBI hold." This is not about a specific method of gripping a flashlight, but refers to the practice of holding a flashlight away from the center of shooter's body significantly far. That is to increase the distance from the light and the shooter's center of body from a point of view of anyone who is where the beam is pointed at. The concept can be applied differently. For example, an operator exposing oneself from a protection object to shoot an opponent can make the flashlight emerge from a different point from where the operator's head and gun is emerging from.

2.7.2. Transition issues/Manipulation issues. Often operators would examine an area with a flashlight while weapon is not in ready position. Even if a gun, such as a pistol, is held in one hand ready position, a flashlight may need to be used with the other hand independently at times. Operators need to plan how to transition from a state of holding a flashlight separate from holding a gun to holding a flashlight in conjunction with a shooting platform. The best technique to use with a shooting platform for maximum shooting efficiency can require shifting the way the support hand holds a flashlight. Some techniques may not require a transition shift in the way a flashlight is held, but the shooting platform it allows can be less efficient. There are few ways to manage the risk involved. One way is to hold a flashlight in a manner that is as close to how it would be held when a flashlight is used in conjunction with a shooting platform, so that transition shift would not be required or the shifting motion would be minimized. When an opponent that would require an operator to immediately shoot is detected while a flashlight is used independently from holding a weapon, an operator can choose to form a shooting platform with a technique that does not require a transition shift in the way a flashlight is held, then switch to a technique that requires a shift if the technique offers more effectiveness when operator decides one has the opportunity. If maximum shooting effectiveness is required, but the flashlight hold technique required for it requires a transitional shift of the way a flashlight is held, then the operator needs to make an assessment about the risk. If the transitional shift can be done quickly enough that it can be done during the forming of a shooting platform, then there may be no time loss. But, if the transitional shift means the target would not be illuminated during the transition, there may be a risk of operator not being able to see the opponent during that period. The opponent may change position during that period, which may require additional time for the operator to find the opponent again when the light from the flashlight becomes available again. Also, if there is ambient light that allows the operator to track the opponent, and the light was only needed for better view of the opponent, the risk is further lowered compared to when an operator is in complete darkness. Shorter transition time means lower risk. That risk need to be compared to the risk of shooting with less effective shooting platform. There can also be situations where operator would want to have a flashlight that illuminated an opponent turned off, such as when the operator needs to do an evasive maneuver and want to make the opponent hard to track the operator by not emitting light in low light situation or not slow down the evasive maneuver to keep the opponent illuminated. When one handed shooting would suffice, operator can simplify the issue by just using one handed shooting techniques.

------------------------------------------------------------------------Two handed operations and manipulations while retaining a hand held flashlight: There is also the issue of how to retain a flashlight an operator needs to use in readily accessible position or grip while performing actions other than shooting that would require hands to be occupied. Operators need to think about the issue and plan on how to handle the issue. Training with techniques to deal with it is important, but note that there is no one technique that would solve the problem in every conceivable situations. Following is an example of technique that can be used. For pistol, freeing the support hand of the flashlight by placing the flashlight in grasp of trigger hand little finger would allow most most manipulations such as changing magazine or clearing most type of malfunction.

It would also allow swapping of trigger hand and support hand role. An operator can take the pistol by the support hand from the trigger hand in the same manner as when there is no hand held flashlight involved, after placing the flashlight in the grasp of the trigger hand little finger. Most of the operation above can also be done by placing the flashlight in grasp of a finger or fingers other than the little finger. However, using the little finger would have least hindrance of operating and manipulating the pistol as needed because most of it can be done without trigger hand little finger on a pistols' grip. Magazine change and many other manipulations with rifle can also be done using the same technique. However, the above is true under the condition that the manipulation or operation can be done without the illumination from the flashlight held by the trigger hand finger or ambient light created by the flashlight

held in that manner provides sufficient light for that manipulation or operation if the operator chooses to leave the light on because of lack of light. In case of using a rifle, support hand and trigger hand role swap while using Back Stop Press Technique can be done by the trigger hand moving forward and taking over the role of the support hand, grasping the support grip area and the flashlight. Support hand would be moved to make room for the other hand to grasp the support grip area and the flashlight. After the other hand grasps the support grip area of the rifle and the flashlight, the support hand is now moved to take the trigger hand role. Further adjustments are made to make the role transition complete as needed. Depending on what technique is used, operator can either move the trigger hand forward to receive the flashlight and the support grip area of the rifle then move the support hand to the trigger hand grip to take over the role of the trigger hand then make necessary adjustments, or hand over the flashlight in support hand to trigger hand little finger then transition the role by taking over the trigger grip in a way similar to when a pistol is in use. For malfunction clearing or reloading, the flashlight can be handed over to the trigger hand little finger as can be done in case of using a pistol.

2.8. Use of stationary support Movements that need to be minimized in order to achieve stability consists as follows: Considering a 3 dimensional space with x, y, z axis, there is movement along the x,y, and z axis, and rotation with its axis parallel to x,y,z axis. Let's say x axis is the front to back line from a shooter to the shooter's target on horizontal line, y axis is a horizontal line that goes from shooter's left to right, z axis is a line that is perpendicular to that horizon. Naturally, a shooter and a gun held by the shooter is not stable unless it is fixed to a stationary object. The idea of utilizing stationary object is simple. Make contact with a stationary object so that the part that contacts the stationary object would have less movement. However, the implementation needs some consideration. If the utilization is done with poor thought, the use of stationary object as support can actually have a negative impact. For use of a stationary support to be effective it needs to meet the following conditions. For any axis to be stabilized, it needs to be stabilized in two points. That can be achieved by either getting a contact at two or more different are of the shooting platform, including the gun, along that axis or getting a one wide contact area with the stationary support object. Also, doing so must not put the shooter in a condition that adversely affect the stability of other axises. One widely used and taught method is making a one point contact with a support hand on objects such as corner of a wall. This is a one point contact. Applying the rule of two or more stabilization point or one wide stabilization point, that means if a shooter just contacts a corner of a wall with a support hand holding a gun, that shooter's body swaying would result in the gun still being unstable and cause the aim to rotate by the shooter's body swaying with the support hand's wall contact as a pivot point unless the shooter is inherently stable or the shooter's shooting platform has an additional stabilization point. Same problem exists with any other single point contact stationary support, such as a shooter in standing posture aiming a rifle while using a bi-pod.

When it is hard to find a stationary support that allows two separate areas of contact, it may be better to find a way to make a one wide contact area with the object. When utilization of stationary object support is hastily executed with one point of contact, stabilizing the entire upper body with torso or shoulder contact or contact with arms, such as support on elbow, that is closer to the center of the shooting platform rather than fixing a point near the edge of the shooter's body may bring an improvement with less adverse effect mentioned above. That means in certain situations, a shooter leaning one's body on a stationary object or kneeling down to reduce lower body sway can be of more benefit then fixing a part of a support hand on a corner of a fixed object with arms at full extension.

Another problem with fixing the front part of the gun for stationary support is that when a target has an angular movement, the shooter cannot do an aim tracking with the fixed front position by rotating the upper

body or whole body from the standing or sitting point. The shooter has to move the whole body in an arc around the front contact point as a pivot point which decrease stability and requires larger movement to execute. For directional stability when large target angular movement is not a concern, multiple contact is better for the reason mentioned above. It is preferable for the position for stationary object support selected to be fast to get in and out of.

------------------------------------------------------------------------Ground as support: This involves making body contact with ground to stabilize that portion of the body to increase overall stability. If stationary stability is only concern, most shooting would be done in posture that maximizes body contact with surfaces that does not move, such as prone. The reason why it is often not done that way is as follows: -Operator may need to be ready to move. -Operator may need large horizontal rotation range of the shooting platform. -Operator needs rifle and eyes to be higher than objects or terrain features that would block view when in posture that places operators eyes near ground. For mobility sake, standing would be the best posture. However, when additional stability by utilizing ground contact is required, kneeling would be the next best option. This is the posture that utilizes ground contact for stability that is fastest to get in and out of. It also gives operators to see over many types of vegetation or terrain features that would obstruct operator's view if operators get into posture that would place eye level lower. And, operators would retain ability to rotate upper body to track aim. There are many different forms of kneeling posture that can be utilized, but one given the most importance here is a type that an operator can get in and out of quickly. The posture is formed by making the trigger hand side knee contact the ground with that side foot contacting the ground on it's toes and ball of the foot. The support arm side foot contacts the ground with its bottom surface in the same manner when a person is normally standing, then feet and knee placement adjusted if the placement is awkward. The shooter would rest the trigger hand side of the torso on the calf and back side of the ankle of the trigger hand side leg, and that foot would contact the ground with the front side sole of the shoe, since the heel

would be lifted up. Even though the operator may be sitting on part of the trigger hand side leg, the slight front leaning of the upper body would make the support arm side leg bear some portion of the weight. The body weight would be distributed to the three ground contact points, part of the feet and the knee that contact the ground, evenly or in a manner that no single part bears too much portion of the weight. Placing too much load on the foot of the side of the leg the operator is sitting on stresses the foot, especially with its heel lifted up. Also, uneven load on ground contact point would mean bias in balance, which is not good for aim stability. The upper body of the shooting platform would be used in the same manner as in standing posture. The posture can be modified so that the elbow of the support hand would contact the support hand side knee for further support. However, that should not be used as standard method for kneeling posture for following reasons. When the support arm elbow contacts the support arm side knee, it limits the upper body shooting platform motion range. Also, any swaying of the upper body would result in the shooting platform rotating with the support arm elbow's contact point as a pivot point. And, it takes longer time to get in the posture. So, it may not increase stability unless it is used against a static target in a situation where the shooter has enough time to get up the posture. Also, the shooter using the method has to lower the upper body enough so that the support arm elbow would contact the knee. That is not feasible if the shooter has to shoot over a protection object that requires the upper body shooting platform to be higher. It is also often not feasible when the shooter leans or offset the upper body shooting platform position to one side in order to keep most part of the body shielded behind a protection object. There are methods that involve sitting on the side of the ankle of the trigger hand side foot. There are many problems with that method that makes its utility limited. Shoes, especially boots, may not allow enough motion range to allow that posture. Also, ankle may be painful to sit on, especially when there are objects such as rocks on the surface. That makes shooter lift the hip up from the foot, which nullifies the goal of stabilizing by resting weight on the ground through the foot. It takes longer time to get in and out of that posture, and the operator is very unstable while doing so. Prone, lying with one's torso on the ground with the belly or side in contact with the ground, would have least amount of exposure when the opponent is on the same horizontal level and no shielding is available. It also allows a shooter to place one's elbow, or part of the gun on the ground or objects on the ground for stationary support, and the torso contact can also aid in stability with aim. However, operators should be aware that once in that position, it is time consuming to get out of, and use of arm to get up from that position hinders an operator's ability to shoot while transitioning from that position. It has least mobility. It is more suited from shooting targets that are distant, but the lower

eye level would cause the line ground of terrain shape to see allow opponents to maneuver to seen when the position is more

of sight to be blocked by objects on the opponents at a distance. This can also close in on the operator without being vulnerable to contacts at close distance.

For the same reason, the position can allow an operator to hide behind an object or terrain feature that is not tall enough to hide behind if the operator is in a taller posture. It also makes the operator less conspicuous in plain view compared to kneeling or standing posture, which might allow an operator to not be recognized to an opponent who has the operator in field of view, especially with the aid of camouflage or other means of lowering detection or recognition probability. Used in conjunction with objects such as vegetation that conceals an operator which the operator can see through and shoot through, it can be effective in attacking opponents while making it hard for them to counter attack.

2.9. Reload and malfunction remedy manipulations. The actions for reloading and remedy to clear malfunctions need to be efficient. Exactly what action is efficient depends on what specific gun and magazine combination is used. It is not the intent of this document to cover all details of what is effective action to perform those task with any specific firearm. However, some basics and cautions would be mentioned.

Reloading cautions: Regarding magazine changing, operators need to make sure the new magazine is set in position correctly. The common practice to set a magazine in position is to hit the magazine in a tapping motion. Using that as the primary means to set a magazine in place has substantial risk. Tapping a magazine only means the hand feels an impact which may allow mentally ensuring feeling for some, but it does nothing to actually indicate how completely a magazine is set in place. A magazine needs to be inserted beyond the point where the magazine catch engages the magazine, and remain there until the mechanism has time to engage and hold the magazine in place. Also, when the bolt or slide is in closed position, a fully loaded magazine would have great resistance that has to be overcome because the tension of the magazine spring that is compressed by all the bullets has to be compressed further when the top round contacts the bold or the slide. That creates a high probability that the magazine that is tapped in place not inserted fully enough for the magazine catch to engage the magazine. Magazine catch of many type of guns are often capable of holding the magazine inside the magazine well by exerting tension even when the magazine catch has not engaged the notch on the magazine designed for it to latch on, but the magazine may not be in position for feeding and may also fall out when gun abruptly moves upon recoil. There are many instances of magazine improperly inserted falling out of shooter's gun after shooter has fired the gun. There's also many cases of shooters discovering that they have an empty chamber after doing a reloading motions. A better method of reloading is to insert a magazine by squeezing it into the position that would allow the magazine catch to engage. An operator would squeeze it in position until the operator feels the magazine contact the point where it cannot be pressed into position further, then exert force on the magazine in reverse direction and inserting direction again to ensure that the magazine is locked in place.

Dealing with malfunctions: A self loading firearm performs a series of task to fire a round of

ammunition and prepare the firearm to fire another upon another trigger pull. Upon firing, a bolt or slide of a rifle or a pistol travels rearward by either recoil or gas pressure. Lock between the barrel and the bolt, designed to contain the propellant pressure while a bullet is being launched, is released upon that rearward movement, and the extractor on the bolt pulls the empty casing out of the chamber. Once the casing is out of the chamber it is propelled out of the ejection port by an ejector. The bolt moves rearward enough to have room to eject the casing and position it self behind the rear of the ammunition at the top of the magazine that is pushed closer to the bore line by the magazine. Then the bolt will move forward, pushing the next ammunition on the top of the magazine into the chamber. This process is called feeding. Some people distinguish pushing a round from the magazine and the ammunition being seated in the chamber as a separate task. At the final step, the bolt locks with the barrel to seal the chamber. Malfunction means any of these tasks not performed properly. During operations, an operator will become aware of a malfunction by either seeing that the weapon is not in proper condition or the weapon not firing or not functioning as intended. Following explains common malfunctions. Most malfunctions are caused by friction, obstruction, or bad ammunition. Also, most malfunctions are related to what happens to ammunitions and spend casings during a gun's cycling to have a next round of ammunition in the chamber. The first action that occurs to any casing or ammunition upon firing of a gun would be extraction of the spent casing from the chamber. Some times the extractor that is supposed to pull the spend casing out fails to hold on to the casing rim. Some of the probable cause for this is the spent casing is held in the chamber with high friction, often due to high chamber pressure at the time of extractor moving rearward, or extractor spring is not strong enough. It can also happen if the extractor is broken. That can result in the casing remaining in the chamber and obstruct the next round of ammunition to enter the chamber. That would require the next round to be removed from position to clear the way for the spent casing to exit, then the casing should be removed from the chamber, usually by manually moving the bolt forward and rearward to make the extractor grip the casing and pull the casing out. The next round to being fed obstructed by the spent casing is usually removed by forcing the magazine which is partially holding it out. The bold or slide can be locked to the rear before doing that, which may make it easier. Second thing that occurs to a spent casing upon firing is ejection. Sometimes the spent casing extracted from the chamber fails to get pushed out through the ejection port. Probable cause of this is damaged ejector, ejection port being blocked, etc. Usually pulling the bolt back to open the ejection port, making the port face downward, would allow the spent casing to fall out through the ejection port. If ejection of spent casing is done without problems, the next thing occurring would be feeding of the top round of the magazine from the

magazine on to the feed ramp. If there is a problem with the magazine, the bolt may move forward and close the chamber without taking a round from the magazine. Damaged or heavily contaminated magazine may fail to push the round inside to the feel lip area. In such case, magazine should be changed. If the magazine is not properly set in place, the top round may not be in place for the bolt to push it forward. That would require the shooter to set the magazine in the gun properly in order to resume firing. Also, heavily fouled gun and magazine would make the forward movement of the bolt weak, causing it to stop the forward motion. Dissolving the contamination with gun lubricant can be a temporary fix to that. Pulling the bolt rear and letting it move forward causing it to force its way thorough resistance with the bolt propelled forward by recoil spring tension from full rear position may be a remedy. However, that can make problems worse. If it does not correct the problem, it may cause the bolt and ammunition it is pushing forward to be binded by fouling with increased force. Same problem of binding and possibly even damaging the gun can occur if the forward movement was stopped for some other reason. If the forward movement has stopped for that reason where the bolt or slide is only slightly out of position from chamber locked position, pushing the bolt forward with a charing handle or forward assist mechanism, or pushing the slide forward in case of a pistol may remedy the problem. Another problem that can occur during feeding is the round being displaced by recoil force causing the top round to be in a position that cannot be pushed forward, usually in a form of the front of the round pointing downward and meeting the feed ramp in a steep angle or hitting the top edge of the front magazine wall. This is often referred to as "nose dive." With a pistol, the problem can sometimes be solved by pulling the slide to the rear, allowing the magazine spring to reposition the round, then releasing the slide. In severe cases of top round displacement from the magazine, the top round is totally dislodged from the magazine during recoil, causing the bolt or slide to take the next round from the magazine. In that case, more than one round would be out of the magazine in one feeding cycle. And, the dislodged top round can obstruct slide or bolt movement while the bolt or slide feeds the next round from the magazine. That may be cleared by method similar to clearing a failure to eject malfunction. The top round can also enter the chamber and obstruct the next round from entering the chamber, often called "double feed," in which case it needs to be remedied with method to remedy a failed extraction of a spent casing. If the round in chamber fails to fire, the remedy is quite simple: Move the bolt or slide back and release it as if the round did fire. Another remedy is to pull the trigger again to make the primer be struck again to see if it fires. However, the method of re-striking the primer has some problems which will be explained in the following.

Emergency malfunction remedy procedures: These are remedy methods are for restoring shooting ability of an operator who experienced a weapon malfunction as fast as possible when there is no opportunity to do a detailed diagnosis or repair. There would be no detailed diagnostic that takes long time or any disassembly involved. These procedures should not be structured on exact cause of a malfunction. That is because an operator often may not be able to know what caused a malfunction. The operator would only know what the state of the gun appears to be. Keep in mind that these are not the only method of remedying a malfunction, and at times more time consuming methods that do involve disassembly or use of tool has to be used. Remedy should start with observing the gun to determine what remedy would be best. Some people hold a position that operators should execute a "tap-rack-bang" type remedy, described elsewhere in this chapter, immediately without observing to see what kind of malfunction has occurred, stating that looking at the gun and taking time to determine what type of malfunction has occurred would slow down the restoring of the operator's shooting ability and possibly losing sight of the opponent. That position is flawed in number of ways. Some malfunction would not be remedied by "tap-rack-bang" type remedy, in which case doing the remedy would make time spent without shooting ability significantly longer. Also, there is no sense in staring at an opponent with a nonfunctional weapon at the cost of potentially delaying restoring the function of that weapon. First priority for an operator when one experience a malfunction is to avoid being shot while the remedy is done. That means the operator needs to execute evasive action immediately, unless the operator is not under immediate threat of opponent's effective gun fire. If an operator can get to an area shielded by protection object before receiving effective fire, the remedy action can be done there. If an operator has to execute evasive maneuver while exposed to opponent's gun fire, the operator may have to execute remedy action during the maneuver or temporarily stop the movement for a shot period to perform the remedy. First part of the remedy is to determine if it would take longer to transition to a secondary weapon or to remedy the malfunction, if the operator can effectively attack opponents in the situation with the secondary weapon. If an operator decided to clear the malfunction of a weapon. The operator should take a short time to observe what type the malfunction appears like. If the gun appears to have failed to fire while the bolt or slide appears to be in closed position, or a spent casing is obstructing the bolt or slide from moving forward while pushing a round into the chamber,

squeezing the magazine against the gun to ensure it is properly set in position then pulling the bolt or slide to its rearmost position then releasing it would remedy the problem in most cases. That method is called "tap-rack-bang" method. Although "tap" refers to tapping the bottom of the magazine to ensure proper positioning of the magazine, I would not recommend tapping motion. The motion to ensure proper magazine position should be a squeezing motion instead of tapping for the reasons explained in "Reloading Cautions" section. That would remedy malfunctions caused by a chambered round not firing upon primer strike, empty chamber caused by magazine not being in proper position, failure to eject a spent casing. Some would recommend attempting fire a round that has failed to fire upon primer strike by pulling the trigger again, if the weapon used would strike the primer again by a second trigger pull. They argue that that is what people are likely to do when a gun does not fire, which is an assumption that is not always true. They also claim that a round that failed to fire with a first strike has a high probability that it would fire upon a second strike. That may be true, but there are problems with that approach. The second strike does not always make the round fire. More bigger problem is that there is no way for an operator to know if a primer failing to fire upon first strike is the reason why the gun is not firing upon a trigger pull, and the second pull of the trigger would not fix anything if the problem is something other than the primer of a chambered round needing another strike. An operator's gun may not fire upon a trigger pull because improperly positioned magazine did not allow the bolt or slide to take a round from it. An operator taking such approach would be repeating pulling the trigger with a gun that has an empty chamber.