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Society of Instrument and Control Engineers (SICE) Annual Conference Fukui, Japan 4 August 2003
Plenary Lecture
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Malcolm C. Smith
Performance objectives 1. Control vehicle body in the face of variable loads. 2. Minimise roll, pitch (dive and squat). 3. Improve ride quality (comfort). 4. Improve tyre grip (road holding).
Malcolm C. Smith
Constraints 1. Suspension deectionhard limit. 2. Actuator constraints (e.g. bandwidth). 3. Diculty of measurement (e.g. absolute ride-height).
Malcolm C. Smith
load disturbances
suspension force mu
road disturbances
zr
Malcolm C. Smith
Invariant Equation The following equation holds ms zs + mu zu = Fs + kt (zr zu ) independently of u. This represents behaviour that the suspension designer cannot inuence. Consequence: any one of the following disturbance transmission paths determines the other two. sprung mass (zs ) road (zr ) suspension deection (zs zu ) tyre deection (zs zu )
J.K. Hedrick and T. Butsuen, Invariant properties of automotive suspensions, Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs., 204 (1990), pp. 2127.
SICE Annual Conference, Fukui, Japan, 4 August 2003 5
Malcolm C. Smith
Invariant Points kt mu
10
10
10
10 Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
10
10 Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
1
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Further Work
1. What is the complete freedom on a given transfer function? [1] 2. What is the minimum number of sensors required to achieve a given behaviour? [1] 3. Are there conservation laws? [1] 4. Can disturbance paths for ride and handling be adjusted independently? [2]
[1] M.C. Smith, Achievable dynamic response for automotive active suspension, Vehicle System Dynamics, 24 (1995), pp. 133. [2] M.C. Smith and G.W. Walker, Performance limitations and constraints for active and passive suspensions: a mechanical multiport approach, Vehicle System Dynamics, 33 (2000), pp. 137168.
Malcolm C. Smith
Conservation Laws
0 dB magnitude
Malcolm C. Smith
Active Suspension Design zs ms (1) Modal Decomposition (2) Decoupling of Ride and Handling cs A ks mu kt
[1] R.A. Williams, A. Best and I.L. Crawford, Rened Low Frequency Active Suspension, Int. Conf. on Vehicle Ride and Handling, Nov. 1993, Birmingham, Proc. ImechE, 1993-9, C466/028, pp. 285300, 1993. [2] K. Hayakawa, K. Matsumoto, M. Yamashita, Y. Suzuki, K. Fujimori, H. Kimura, Robust H Feedback Control of Decoupled Automobile Active Suspension Systems, IEEE Transactions on Automat. Contr., 44 (1999), pp. 392396. [3] M.C. Smith and F-C. Wang, Controller Parameterization for Disturbance Response Decoupling: Application to Vehicle Active Suspension Control, IEEE Trans. on Contr. Syst. Tech., 10 (2002), pp. 393407.
SICE Annual Conference, Fukui, Japan, 4 August 2003 9
ms cs s+ks
K zs zu
+ +
Malcolm C. Smith
Passive Suspensions (Abstract Approach) Try to understand which vehicle dynamic behaviours are possible and which are not without worrying initially how the behaviour is realised. This is a black-box approach. Classical electrical circuit theory should be applicable. i
Driving-Point Impedance
v Electrical Network i
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Malcolm C. Smith
Classical Electrical Network Synthesis Denition. A network is passive if for all admissible v, i which are square integrable on (, T ],
T
v(t)i(t) dt 0.
Theorem 1. A network is passive if and only if Z(s) is positive-real, i.e. Z(s) is analytic and Re(Z(s)) 0 in Re(s) > 0. Im
Re forbidden Z(j)
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Malcolm C. Smith
Fundamental Theorem of Electrical Network Synthesis Theorem 2. Brune (1931), Bott-Dun (1949). Any rational function which is positive-real can be realised as the driving-point impedance of an electrical network consisting of resistors, capacitors and inductors.
Circuit Realisation
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Oldest analogy historically, cf. electromotive force. 2. Force-Current Analogy. current voltage electrical ground force velocity mechanical ground
Independently proposed by: Darrieus (1929), Hhnle (1932), Firestone (1933). a Respects circuit topology, e.g. terminals, through- and across-variables.
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Malcolm C. Smith
cv = F kv =
dF dt
C dv = i dt
i
m dv = F dt
i
v2
v1
Electrical
F F
v2 Mechanical
v1
Malcolm C. Smith
The Exceptional Nature of the Mass Element Newtons Second Law gives the following network interpretation of the mass element: One terminal is the centre of mass, Other terminal is a xed point in the inertial frame. Hence, the mass element is analogous to a grounded capacitor.
v2
SICE Annual Conference, Fukui, Japan, 4 August 2003
v1 = 0
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Malcolm C. Smith
Mechanical
F v2 F v1 i v2
Electrical
i v1
spring
i v2 i v1
inductor
v2
v1 = 0
mass
i v2 i v1
capacitor
F v2
F v1
damper
resistor
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Malcolm C. Smith
Two major problems with the use of the mass element for synthesis of black-box mechanical impedences: An electrical circuit with ungrounded capacitors will not have a direct mechanical analogue, Possibility of unreasonably large masses being required.
Question Is it possible to construct a physical device such that the relative acceleration between its endpoints is proportional to the applied force?
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terminal 2
gear
ywheel
terminal 1
r1 r2 r3
= = =
radius of rack pinion radius of gear wheel radius of ywheel pinion Equation of motion:
Malcolm C. Smith
The Ideal Inerter We dene the Ideal Inerter to be a mechanical one-port device such that the equal and opposite force applied at the nodes is proportional to the relative acceleration between the nodes, i.e. F = b(v2 v1 ). We call the constant b the inertance and its units are kilograms. The stored energy in the inerter is equal to 1 b(v2 v1 )2 . 2 The ideal inerter can be approximated in the same sense that real springs, dampers, inductors, etc approximate their mathematical ideals. We can assume its mass is small.
M.C. Smith, Synthesis of Mechanical Networks: The Inerter, IEEE Trans. on Automat. Contr., 47 (2002), pp. 16481662.
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Malcolm C. Smith
Mechanical
F v2 dF dt F F v1
Electrical
k s i v2 di dt i v2 i v1 1 L (v2
Y (s) =
Y (s) =
1 Ls
= k(v2 v1 )
spring
v1 ) inductor
i v1
v2
F Y (s) = bs
v1 d(v2 v1 ) b dt F
F =
F v2
i = C d(v2 v1 ) dt
i v2 i v1 1 R (v2
F = c(v2 v1 )
v1
i=
v1 )
resistor
Y (s) = admittance =
1
impedance
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m y
2 m0
k1 M x
2 k1 /0
inerter
k3
c1
k2
Malcolm C. Smith
mu zu kt zr
The design of a passive suspension system can be viewed as the search for a suitable positive-real admittance Y (s) to optimise desired performance measures.
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Traditional Suspension Struts Theorem 3. The driving-point admittance Y (s) of a nite network of springs and dampers only has all its poles and zeros simple and alternating on the negative real axis with a pole being rightmost.
|(Y (j))| Im
Re
0 dB
90
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Malcolm C. Smith
Realisations in Foster form Theorem 4. Any admittance comprising an arbitrary interconnection of springs, dampers (and levers) can be realised in the following form:
k1 k
k2
kn
...
c1 c2 cn
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Three Candidate Admittances I. One damper: Y1 (s) = k where T2 > T1 > 0 and k > 0. II. Two dampers: (T4 s + 1)(T6 s + 1) Y2 (s) = k s(T3 s + 1)(T5 s + 1) where T6 > T5 > T4 > T3 > 0 and k > 0. III. Same degree as two damper case but general positive real: a0 s2 + a1 s + 1 Y3 (s) = k s(d0 s2 + d1 s + 1) where d0 , d1 0 and k > 0. (Need: 1 = a0 d1 a1 d0 0, 2 := a0 d0 0,
3 := a1 d1 0 for positive-realness.)
SICE Annual Conference, Fukui, Japan, 4 August 2003 25
(T2 s + 1) s(T1 s + 1)
Malcolm C. Smith
Design Comparison ms = 250 kg, mu = 35 kg, kt = 150 kNm1 Problem: maximise the least damping ratio min among all the system poles subject to a static spring stiness of kh = 120 kNm1 . Results: Y1 and Y2 : min = 0.218. Y3 : min = 0.481.
10
1.8
6
1.6
Magnitude
10
1.4
zr zs
1.2
10 0 10
10
(rad/sec)
10
10
0.8
50
Phase
0.6
0.4
50
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
100 0 10
10
t (seconds)
(rad/sec)
10
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Malcolm C. Smith
Brune Realisation Procedure for Y3 (s) A continued fraction expansion is obtained: a0 s2 + a1 s + 1 Y3 (s) = k s(d0 s2 + d1 s + 1) 1 k + = 1 s s + 1 kb c3 + 1 1 + c4 b2 s
where kb = k2 k4 k4 , c3 = k3 , c4 = , b2 = and d0 1 2 2 4 := 2 1 3 .
kb
k c4 c3 b2
Numerical values in previous design: k = 120 kNm1 , c3 = 9.8 kNsm1 , kb = , b2 = 181.4 kg, c4 = 45.2 kNsm1
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Lossless network
V2 R
k2 1 b
k3 2 c Corresponding mechanical network realisation of Y3 (s) has one damper and one inerter but employs a lever.
k1
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Malcolm C. Smith
kb k k c c k c b k
(c) layout S1
(d) layout S2
(e) layout S3
(f) layout S4
parallel
series
M.C. Smith and F-C. Wang, Performance Benets in Passive Vehicle Suspensions Employing Inerters, 42nd IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, December, 2003, Hawaii, to appear.
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kb
kb
k1 k k1
c k b
k1
k1
k1
k2
k1
k2
(g) layout S5
(h) layout S6
(i) layout S7
(j) layout S8
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Malcolm C. Smith
Performance Measures Assume: Road Prole Spectrum = |n|2 (m3 /cycle) where = 5 107 m3 cycle1 = road roughness parameter (typical British principal road) and V = 25 ms1 . Dene: = E zs (t) 2
J1
ride comfort
= r.m.s. body vertical acceleration J3 = E (kt (zu zr ))2 = r.m.s. dynamic tyre load grip
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2.4
16
2.2
14
2 12
% J1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x 10
4
1.8
J1
10
1.6
1.4
6 1.2 4
0.8
0.6
10
11
12 x 10
4
static stiness
Key: layout S1 (bold), layout S3 (dashed), layout S4 (dot-dashed), layout S5 (dotted) and layout S6 (solid)
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% J1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x 10
4
J1
500
4 450 2 400 0
350
10
11
12 x 10
4
static stiness
Key: layout S1 (bold), layout S2 (bold), layout S3 (dashed), layout S4 (dot-dashed), layout S5 (dotted) and layout S7 (solid)
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Rack and pinion inerter made at Cambridge University Engineering Department mass 3.5 kg inertance 725 kg stroke 80 mm
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Laboratory Testing
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10
10
10
10
10
10
phase (degrees)
Hz
50
50
10
10
10
10
10
Hz experimental data () theoretical without inerter damping ( ) theoretical with inerter damping ()
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screw
nut ywheel
screw
nut
gears
ywheel
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hydraulic
T1
1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000
11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00
t2
t1 T2
lever arm
rotary
See Cambridge University Technical Services Ltd patent PCT/GB02/03056 for further details.
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Conclusion
A new mechanical element called the inerter was introduced which is the true network dual of the spring. The inerter allows a complete synthesis theory for passive mechanical networks. Performance advantages for problems in mechanical vibrations and suspension systems have been described. It is expected that future work will continue to explore both the theoretical and practical advantages as well as its applicability in collaboration with interested commercial partners.
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