[A] Sulphuric Acid

Uses of sulphuric acid Sulphuric acid is very important industrially, and has many uses including: A. The production of fertilisers such as ammonium sulphate, potassium sulphate, calcium superphosphate (Ca(H<2PO4)2), etc.; these are straight fertilisers, as they supply one of the important elements of nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium (NPK); B. The manufacture of non-soapy detergents: modern detergents are organic compounds 'sulphonated' with concentrated sulphuric acid; C. The making of artificial silks like rayon: here, the fine threads in the alkaline cellulose solution are neutralised by passing them through a bath of sulphuric acid; D. The cleaning of metals by removing the surface oxide coating: this is called pickling and is important in preparing articles for electroplating. E. Its use as an electrolyte inside batteries for cars: most car batteries are made up of lead plates in a sulphuric acid electrolyte; occasionally, the electrolyte needs to be 'topped up' with distilled water ; this is because small amounts of hydrogen and oxygen gases are given off by the chemical changes inside the battery, and therefore the sulphuric acid loses water and becomes too concentrated ; in the manufacture of drugs, paints, dyes and many other chemicals .

Manufacture of sulphuric acid Manufacture by contact process Raw material used => sulphur, air & water Process consists of 3 stages

Stage Aim Stage 1 To produce sulphur dioxide, SO, gas Sulphur dioxide, SO , gas can be produced by burning sulphur in air. S (s) + O (g) SO (g) Stage 2 The gas mixture sulphur dioxide, SO , & oxygen, O, is passed over vanadium (V) oxide, V O , (catalyst) at a temperature of 450-500 c and under the pressure of 1 atmosphere 2SO (g) + O 2SO (g) Stage 3 Sulphur trioxide, SO , gas is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, H SO , to form oleum, H S O . SO (g) + H SO (l) H S O Water is then added to the oleum, H S O , to dilute it to produce sulphuric acid, H SO . H S O (l) + H O 2H SO (l) To pproduce sulphur trioxide, SO , gas

Sulphur dioxide & Environmental Pollution

y y Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is the pollutant primarily associated with acid rain. Gaseous at normal temperature and pressure it dissolves in water and readily oxidises to sulphuric acid. Levels of SO2 have reduced over recent years with a move away from widespread burning of coal in homes and factories. It is one of the main pollutants that led to the introduction of legislation governing atmospheric pollution such as the 1956 Clean Air Act. Sources of Sulphur Dioxide The principal source of SO2 is from the combustion of fossil fuels in domestic premises and , more importantly, non-nuclear power stations. Fossil fuel burning power stations account for around two thirds of total SO2 emissions in the UK. Other industrial processes contribute a further 20%, with vehicles, primarily diesel, accounting for a mere 2%. Health effects :

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SO2 is an irritant when it is inhaled and at high concentrations (over 1000ppb) may cause severe problems in asthmatics such as narrowing of the airways, known as bronchoconstriction.

Sulphuric Acid

to make fertilisers, polymers, detergents,

T : 450C-550C P : 1 atm

manufactured by the contact process

Catalyst : V2O5

Ammonia and its Salts

1. Uses of ammonia a. Manufacture of Fertilizers
y y The main use of ammonia is in the manufacture of fertilizers. Approximately 75% of all ammonia produced is converted into various ammonium compounds like ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4, ammonium nitrate NH4NO3, ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4 and urea NH2CONH2. These compounds are called nitrogenous fertilizers.

Example ; Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq) --->(NH4)2SO4(aq) Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) ---> NH4NO3(aq) Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4 H3PO4(aq) + 3NH3(aq) ---> (NH4)3PO4(aq) Urea NH2CONH2 CO2(g) + NH3(g) ---> CO(NH2)2(p) + H2O(l)
y They are solids for ease in handling and water soluble so that they seep into the soil to be absorbed by the roots of the plant. Nitrogen is an essential element for healthy plant growth as we saw earlier with the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is essential for making proteins which are needed for healthy growth of stems and leaves. The proportion of nitrogen present in a particular fertilizer can be calculated and is usually quoted as an 'N' value on the fertilizer bag.

b. Solvent Uses
1. Aqueous ammonia is used as a degreasing agent, as it is a good solvent of grease and fat. 2. Many household cleaners boast of the 'power of ammonia' for removing grease stains around the kitchen. 3. However, it is wrong, as stated in some commercials, to talk of 'liquid ammonia'. 4. It is more accurate to say 'ammonia solution', as ammonia does not liquefy until a temperature of -34 C is reached.

Characteristic of ammonia
React with acid to form salt and water
y As an alkali, ammonia can react with acid to form salt and water. Example H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq)

-> (NH4)2SO4(aq) HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) ---> NH4NO3(aq) H3PO4(aq) + 3NH3(aq) ---> (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Ammonia solution react with positive ions

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Ammonia dissolve into water to form ammonium and hydroxide ion.

NH3 + H2O ---> NH4+ + OHy

The hydroxide ion can react with many kinds of positive ion to form precipitate.

Example Mg2+ + 2OH- ---> Mg(OH)2 Fe2+ + 2OH- ---> Fe(OH)2 Al3+ + 3OH- ---> Al(OH)3

Testing for Ammonia Gas

y Ammonia is the only common alkaline gas, so it can be identified with moist red litmus paper turning blue. 2. However, a more specific chemical test is to hold close to the suspected ammonia, a glass rod dipped into some concentrated hydrochloric acid. 3. This will give off fumes of hydrogen chloride gas which, in the presence of ammonia, form a dense, white 'smoke' of ammonium chloride: 4. ammonia gas + hydrogen chloride gas ---> ammonium chloride NH3 (g) + HC1 (g) ---> NH4C1 (s) In the same way, mixing a gas jar of hydrogen chloride and ammonia gas produces the same dense, white smoke. The smoke again is the fine-particled solid called ammonium chloride.

The Haber Process

1. The
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reaction

Ammonia is made by the Haber process from nitrogen and hydrogen: N2(g) + 3H2(g) ---> 2NH3(g); Heat of reaction = -92 kJ mo1-1 The reaction is exothermic, and involves a decrease in the number of moles of gas.

2. Sources of the raw material

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Hydrogen Hydrogen is produced industrially from cracking oil Nitrogen Nitrogen from liquefaction of the air

3. Condition
Catalyst Promoter Ratio of Hydrogen & Oxygen Iron Aluminium Oxide The two gases are combined directly in a ratio of 3:1 Temperature y At 450 C An application of Le Chatelier's shows that the forward reaction should be assisted by a low temperature. At low temperature, the rate of attainment of equilibrium is low. At high temperature, the position of equilibrium is over to the left. A compromise temperature is adopted, and a catalyst is employed to speed up the attainment of equilibrium concentrations

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Pressure y At 200-1000 atm An application of Le Chatelier's shows that the forward reaction should be assisted by a high pressure

4. Products
y y The yield is about 10%, and unreacted gases are recycled When the ammonia has been produced, it is liquefied 'out', by reducing the temperature to 34C(239 K)

to make fertilisers, nitric acid, and as a cooling agent (refrigerant

T : 450C550C P: 200-500 atm

Ammonia and its Salts

manufactured by the Harber process

Catalyst : Iron

Alloys
 An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals mixed in a certain percentage.

Characteristic of metal
A pure metal has the following characteristics: y y y y y Ductile can be drawn into wires Malleable can be made into sheets High melting and boiling points High density High electrical conductivity

I.

Many metal are also soft. Metals like iron and copper also form oxides easily.

II. As a result, the uses of pure metals are limited, and alloys are made to improve the malleability, ductileness and hardness of a metal. III. A pure metal is composed of layers of atoms which are arranged in an even, orderly and close manner at fixed positions (see Figure 9.8). Each atom is surrounded by 8-12 atoms. IV. This arrangement of atoms causes the metal to be very dense with high melting and boiling points. The strong forces of attraction between atoms require a great amount of heat to overcome. V. However, in spite of strong forces of attraction between atoms, the metal is not hard. If a force is applied on the metal, the layers of atoms can glide and slide on top of each other, causing them to move to new positions. This allows the metal to be drawn into wires (ductile). (See Figure 9.9.) VI. The spaces left naturally between layers of metal atoms also make it easy to be beaten into sheets (malleable). VII. The formation of alloys occurs when these empty spaces between metal atoms are filled with atoms of another metal, which may be higher or smaller than the original metal atoms. (Figure 9.10)

VIII. The foreign atoms are usually another metal but sometimes a non-metal, like a carbon or silicon is used.

Purpose of Making Alloys

Alloys are made to : 1. Increase the hardness of metals. 2. Prevent the corrosion of metals. 3. Improve the beauty and luster of metals.

Alloy Bronze

Composition 90% copper 10% tin

Properties Hard & strong Does not corrode easily Has a shiny surface

Uses 

In the building of statues / monumens In the making of medals , instruments & artistic materials In the making of musical instruments & kitchenware In the making of cutlery In the making of surgical instruments In the building of the body of aeroplanes & bullet trains

Brass

70% copper 30% zinc

Harder than copper

Stainless steel

74% iron 8% carbon 18% chromiun

Shiny Strong Does nt rust

Duralumin

93% aluminium 3% copper 3% magnessium 1% manganese 96% tin 3% copper 1% antimony

Light Strong

Pewter

Lustre Shiny Strong

In the making of souveniers

steel, bronze, brass, magnalium, pewter

To prevent corrosion

Alloys

to increase hardness and strength

to improve the appearance

Synthetic Polymers
1. Synthetic polymer is a polymer that is manufactured in industry from chemical substances through the polymerisation process. Through research, scientists are now able to copy the structure of natural polymers to produce synthetic polymers. 2. Plastics, synthetic fibres and elastomers are examples of synthetic polymers. 3. The raw materials for the manufacture of synthetic polymers are distillates of petroleum. 4. The two types of polymerisation are: 5. Polymerisation by addition 6. Polymerisation by condensation 7. Polymerisation by addition involves monomers with >C = C< bonding, where the monomers join together to make a long chain without losing any simple molecules from it. Examples of polymers produced through this process are polythene, PVC perspex and other plastics. 8. Polymerisation by condensation involves the elimination of small molecules like water, methanol, ammonia or hydrogen chloride during the process. Examples of products of this process are terylene and nylon-66.

Issue in using synthetic polymer

1. Synthetic polymers have multiple uses in daily life because of the following properties: 2. Light and strong 3. Cheap 4. Withstand corrosion and chemical reaction 5. Withstand action of water 6. Synthetic polymers are also used to replace natural polymers such as cotton, silk and rubber. 7. However, synthetic polymers cause environmental pollution. 8. Most polymers are not biodegradable . Polymers cannot be decomposed biologically or naturally by bacteria or fungi as in the case of other garbage. Thus, the disposal of polymers has resulted in environmental pollution because they remain in the environment forever. 9. Plastic containers and bottles strewn around become good breeding places for mosquitoes which cause dengue fever, or malaria. 10. The open burning of plastics gives rise to poisonous and acidic gases like carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen cyanide. These are harmful to the environment as they cause acid rain.

polythene : to make plastic bags,container and toys

polypropene : to make plastic bottles, tables, and chairs

PVC : to make water pipes, rain clothes, and wire casing

Glass and Ceramics

Properties of glass and ceramic:
1. Both have the following properties: 2. Hard and brittle 3. Do not conduct heat electricity 4. Inactive towards chemical reactions 5. Weak when pressure is applied 6. Can be cleaned easily

Glass
1. It is a mixture of two or more types of metallic silicates but the main component is silicon(IV) dioxide. 2. Glass has the following properties: 3. Transparent and not porous 4. Inactive chemically 5. Can be cleaned easily 6. Good insulators of heat and electricity 7. Hard but brittle 8. Can withstand compression but not pressure

9. Due to the above reasons and the low cost involved to produce glass, it is used in industry to make bottles, cooking utensils, plates and bowls, laboratory apparatus (such as conical flask, beakers and test tubes), window panes, bulbs and others. 10. Different types of glass can be obtained depending on the composition of substances in it.

Glass Soda lime,glass

Composition     SiO2 70% Na20 15% CaO 10% Others 4%

Properties Low melting point

Uses Glass containers, Glass panes, Mirrors, Lamps and bulbs, Plates and bowls Bottles

(700 degree )
Mouldable into shapes Cheap Breakable Can withstand high heat High density and refractive index Glittering surface Soft Low melting point (600C)

Lead glass (crystal)

  

SiO2 70% Na20 20% PbO 10%

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Containers for drinks and fruit Decorative glass and lamps Crystal glassware Lenses for spectacles Glass apparatus in laboratories Cooking utensils

Borosilicate glass (Pyrex)

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SiO2 B203 Na2O Al203

80% 13% 4% 2%

Resistant to high heat and chemical reaction Does not break easily Allows infra-red rays but not ultraviolet rays High melting

Fused silicate glass

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SiO2 99% 6203 - 1%

Composite Materials
1. Composite materials are substances which contain 2 or more materials that combine to produce new substances with different physical properties from the original substances. 2. They are used to make various substances in daily life because of the following reasons: 3. Metals corrode and are ductile and malleable 4. Glass and ceramics break easily 5. Metals are good conductors but have high resistance, leading to loss of electrical energy as heat 6. Plastics and glass can withstand heat to certain level only. 7. Composite materials have been created to overcome these problems and to make materials stronger, more long-lasting and light for specific purposes.

Some composite materials and their components are: Uses of Composite Materials : 1. Reinforced concrete 2. Optical fibre 3. Photochromic glass 4. Plastic reinforced with glass 5. Superconductor

reinforced concrete

photocromic glass

superconductors

Fibre glass

Fibre optic

Conclusion
1. Chemical processes change raw materials into materials with certain properties that can we use 2. As technology evolves, new uses for existing materials would be found in many areas such as household use aerospace modern architecture, microelectronics, telecommunication and scientific research. 3. In many cases synthetic polymers, alloys and composites can be manufactured to meet our needs.

4. However, they can never totally replace the traditional materials that we have been using for many generations like wood and steel. 5. The synthetic materials, if not managed properly, will harm the environment.

Manufacture Substances In Industry

Prepared by : y y y Class : 4A Teacher s name : Pn . Rosyaniza binti Salim Nur Syafiqah Binti Mohamad Kamisah Binti Mohd Muhd Azwani Bin Mahad

No 1 2 3 4 5 6

Title Sulphuric acid Ammonia & Its Salts Alloys Synthetic Polymers Glass & Ceramics Composite Materials

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