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Multi-barrier approach to meet the goal of having safe drinking water

Water neous a Miscell t Techniques en Treatm

Protecting source from contamination Appropriately treating raw water Ensuring safe distribution of treated water to consumers taps

A. Disinfection
Killing of disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens: bacteria, viruses, and amoebic cysts)

Pathogens
Bacteria: single-celled shaped like rods, spheres, or spiral structure Viruses: reproduces only within living host cells Amebic cysts: feed on bacteria found in multicellular organisms

Removes all other microorganism that were not removed by previous processes:
Coagulation/flocculation, sedimentation: 60-70% removal Filtration: 99% removal

Properties of Disinfectants
Must be able to destroy organisms Must be able to adapt to fluctuations in composition of water being treated Must not be toxic to humans and animals Must be palatable Economical

Properties of Disinfectants
Safe to handle and easy to store, transport, handle, and apply Its concentration is determined easily Must persist within disinfected water in a sufficient concentration to provide reasonable residual protection against its possible recontamination before use

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Methods of Disinfection
Chlorination Ozonation Ultraviolet Radiation Heat Ultrasonic Waves

Kinetics of Disinfection
Chicks Law

dN = kN dt

Chlorination
Most common disinfecting chemical used Several theories on how chlorination work:
Chlorine reacts with protein and amino acids of cells to alter and ultimately destroy cell protoplasm Bactericidal action of chlorine is physiochemical

Chlorination
Variations in resistance of bacteria, spores, cysts, and viruses, and the appearance of mutants still not understood

Breakpoint Chlorination
Addition of chlorine in an amount sufficient to react with any ammonia and readily oxidizable organics which are present in the water

Breakpoint Chlorination

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Combined Residual Chlorination

Involves application of chlorine to water, with natural or added ammonia Applicable after filtration for controlling certain algae and bacterial growth Not a good disinfectant, it has an advantage over free chlorine residual in that it is reduced more slowly, and therefore persists for a longer time Indicator of major contamination

Free Residual Chlorination

Application of chlorine to water to produce a free available chlorine residual, either directly or through the destruction of ammonia Have higher oxidation potentials than combined available chlorine forms and therefore, are more effective as oxidants

Free Residual Chlorination

Most effective disinfectants If water contains no nitrogenous materials, the application of chlorine will yield a free residual If water contains ammonia, it must be destroyed by applying an excess of chlorine

Disinfection Byproducts
Chemical compounds formed unintentionally when chlorine react with organic matter in water

Disinfection Byproducts
Amount of natural organic matter prior to disinfection should be controlled, while ensuring that microbial protection remains top priority

Chlorination
Advantages:
Highly effective against most pathogens Provides a residual to protect against recontamination Easily applied, controlled, and monitored Strong oxidant Operationally the most reliable The most cost-effective disinfectant

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Chlorination
Limitations:
Byproduct formation Will oxidize bromide to bromine, forming bromine organic byproducts Not effective against Cryptosporidium Requires transport and storage chemicals

Elemental Chlorine
Most commonly used form of chlorine Transported and stored as liquefied gas under pressure Advantages:
" Lowest form of chlorine forms " Unlimited shell life

Limitations:
" Hazardous gas requires special handling and operator training

Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)

Produced by adding elemental chlorine to sodium hypochlorite Solution contains 5 to 15% chlorine, and are shipped by trucks

Sodium Hypochlorite
Advantages:
" Solution is less hazardous and easier to handle than elemental chlorine " Fewer training requirements and regulations than elemental chlorine

Sodium Hypochlorite
Limitations:
" Limited shelf-life " Potential to add inorganic byproducts (chlorate, chlorite, and bromate) to water " Corrosive to some materials and more difficult to store than most solution chemicals " Higher chemical costs than elemental chlorine

Calcium hypochlorite
White, dry solid containing approximately 65% chlorine, and is commercially available in granular and tablet forms

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Calcium hypochlorite
Advantages: " More stable than sodium hypochlorite, allowing longer storage " Fewer training requirements and regulations than elemental chlorine

Calcium hypochlorite
Limitations: " Dry chemical requires more handling than sodium hypochlorite " Precipitated solids formed in solution complicate chemical feeding " Higher chemical costs than elemental chlorine " Fire or explosive hazard if handled improperly " Potential to add inorganic byproducts (chlorate, chlorite, and bromate) to water

Chlorine dioxide
Formed onsite by combining chlorine and sodium chlorite Used as a primary disinfectant, does not maintain a residual long enough to be useful as a distribution system disinfectant Does not react with precursors to form THM (trihalomethanes) Cause taste and odors, and has relatively high cost

Ozonation
Ozone (O3) is generated on-site at water treatment facilities by passing dry oxygen or air through a system of high voltage electrodes Pungent, unstable gas Powerful oxidant Does not form THMs Does not persist in the water Used as a primary disinfectant

Ultraviolet radiation
Involves exposure of a thin layer of water to light from a mercury vapor arc lamp that emits UV in the range 0.2 to 0.29m To achieve good microorganism kill, the UV light should be able to pass through the water to get to the target organism Advantage: good against bacteria and viruses Limitations: leaves no residual protection and very expensive, not applicable for turbid water

Heat
Impractical on a large scale Continuous-flow pasteurization has been used successfully on small-scale systems Provides no residual protection

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Ultrasonic waves
Frequencies of 20 to 40 kHz Expensive No residual protection provided

B. Aeration
A physical treatment process in which air is thoroughly mixed with water For taste and odor control: Dissolved gases that tend to cause the taste and odor problems, such as hydrogen sulfide, are transferred from the water to the air during aeration. (Air Stripping)

B. Aeration
Used for the removal of iron and manganese from the water, particularly in groundwater supplies. The oxygen in the air reacts with the iron and manganese to form an insoluble precipitate.

How is aeration done?

1. Spray nozzles 2. Multiple-tray aerators 3. Diffused-air aerators

C. Activated Carbon
Available as a very fine black powder or in granular form Powdered carbon can be mixed with the water, preceding filtrations Granular carbon is sometimes used in the filter bed itself, combining both filtration and adsorption in one treatment unit

D. Defluoridation
When water contains excessive fluoride, the teeth of consumers may become mottled with a permanent brown to gray discoloration of the enamel Because of excessive costs of construction and operation, not so many treatment plants include defluoridation

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Benefits of fluoride
Reduces prevalence of osteoporosis and hardening of arteries in older people

Point of Application
Should be added after filtration to avoid losses that may occur as a result of reactions with other chemicals

Point of Application
Fluoride injection points should be as far away as possible from any chemical that contains calcium so as to minimize loss by precipitation

Fluoride compounds used in water treatment

Sodium fluoride:
Expensive for the amount of F available Crystalline type is preferred when manual handling is involved

Sodium silico-fluoride
Low cost

Fluosilic acid
Colorless, transparent, fuming corrosive liquid having a pungent odor and irritating to skin

E. Desalination
Brackish water water with more than 1000 mg/L salts Seawater water with about 35,000 mg/L Process of separating freshwater from seawater Expensive, but may be cheaper than transporting freshwater over long distance

Thermal Processes
Involve transfer of heat and a phase change of water into a vapor or ice Multistage flash distillation Solar humidification (solar stills)

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Membrane Processes
Make use of the thin sheets of special materials that allow freshwater to pass through, but not salt Limited to the treatment of brackish inland or well water supplies, rather than seawater Reverse osmosis (ultrafiltration): a semi-permeable membrane separates salty water of two different concentrations Electrodialysis: a voltage is applied across the salty water, causing to migrate toward an electrode of opposite charge