machine tool, any stationary power-driven machine that is used to shape or form parts made of metal or other materials.

The shaping is accomplished in four general ways: (1) by cutting excess material in the form of chips from the part; (2) by shearing the material; (3) by squeezing metallic parts to the desired shape; and (4) by applying electricity, ultrasound, or corrosive chemicals to the material. The fourth category covers modern machine tools and processes formachining ultrahard metals not machinable by older methods. Machine tools that form parts by removing metal chips from a workpiece include lathes, shapers and planers, drilling machines, milling machines, grinders, and power saws. The cold forming of metal parts, such as cooking utensils, automobile bodies, and similar items, is done on punch presses, while the hot forming of white-hot blanks into appropriately shaped dies is done on forging presses. Modern machine tools cut or form parts to tolerances of plus or minus one ten-thousandth of an inch (0.0025 millimetre). In special applications, precision lapping machines can produce parts that are within plus or minus two millionths of an inch (0.00005 millimetre). Because of the precise dimensional requirements of the parts and the heavy cutting forces exerted on the cutting tool, machine tools combine weight and rigidity with delicate accuracy. History Before the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, hand tools were used to cut and shape materials for the production of goods such as cooking utensils, wagons, ships, furniture, and other products. After the advent of the steam engine, material goods were produced by powerdriven machines that could only be manufactured by machine tools. Machine tools (capable of producing dimensionally accurate parts in large quantities) and jigs and fixtures (for holding the work and guiding the tool) were the indispensable innovations that made mass production and interchangeable parts realities in the 19th century. The earliest steam engines suffered from the imprecision of early machine tools, and the large cast cylinders of the engines often were bored inaccurately by machines powered by waterwheels and originally designed to bore cannon. Within 50 years of the first steam engines, the basic machine tools, with all the fundamental features required for machining heavy metal parts, were designed and developed. Some of them were adaptations of earlier woodworking machines; the metal lathe derived from woodcutting lathes used in France as early as the 16th century. In 1775 John Wilkinson of England built a precision machine for boring engine

cylinders. In 1797 Henry Maudslay, also of England and one of the great inventive geniuses of his day, designed and built a screw-cutting engine lathe. The outstanding feature of Maudslays lathe was a lead screw for driving the carriage. Geared to the spindle of the lathe, the lead screw advanced the tool at a constant rate of speed and guaranteed accurate screw threads. By 1800 Maudslay had equipped his lathe with 28 change gears that cut threads of various pitches by controlling the ratio of the lead-screw speed to the spindle speed. The shaper was invented by James Nasmyth, who had worked in Henry Maudslays shop in London. In Nasmyths machine, a workpiece could be clamped horizontally to a table and worked by a cutter using a reciprocating motion to plane small surfaces, cut keyways, or machine other straight-line surfaces. A few years later, in 1839, Nasmyth invented the steam hammer for forging heavy pieces. Another disciple of Maudslay, Joseph Whitworth, invented or improved a great number of machine tools and came to dominate the field; at the International Exhibition of 1862, his firms exhibits took up a quarter of all the space devoted to machine tools. Britain tried to keep its lead in machine-tool development by prohibiting exports, but the attempt was foredoomed by industrial development elsewhere. British tools were exported to continental Europe and to the United States despite the prohibition, and new tools were developed outside Britain. Notable among these was the milling machine invented by Eli Whitney, produced in the United States in 1818, and used by Simeon North to manufacture firearms. The first fully universal milling machine was built in 1862 by J.R. Brown of the United States and was used to cut helical flutes in twist drills. The turret lathe, also developed in the United States in the middle of the 19th century, was fully automatic in some operations, such as making screws, and it presaged the momentous developments of the 20th century. Various gear-cutting machines reached their full development in 1896 when F.W. Fellows, an American, designed a gear shaper that could rapidly turn out almost any type of gear. The production of artificial abrasives in the late 19th century opened up a new field of machine tools, that of grinding machines. C.H. Norton of Massachusetts dramatically illustrated the potential of the grinding machine by making one that could grind an automobile crankshaft in 15 minutes, a process that previously had required five hours. By the end of the 19th century a complete revolution had taken place in the working and shaping of metals that created the basis for mass production and an industrialized society. The

20th century has witnessed the introduction of numerous refinements of machine tools, such as multiple-point cutters for milling machines, the development of automated operations governed by electronic and fluid-control systems, and nonconventional techniques, such as electrochemical and ultrasonic machining. Yet even today the basic machine tools remain largely the legacy of the 19th century. Machine-tool characteristics All machine tools must provide work-holding and tool-holding devices and means for accurately controlling the depth of the cut. The relative motion between the cutting edge of the tool and the work is called the cutting speed; the speed in which uncut material is brought into contact with the tool is called the feed motion. Means must be provided for varying both. Because an overheated tool may lose its cutting ability, temperatures must be controlled. The amount of heat that is generated depends on the shearing force and the cutting speed. Because the shearing force varies with the material being cut and the tool material varies in its tolerance for high temperatures, the optimum cutting speed depends both on the material being cut and the cutting-tool material. It is also influenced by the rigidity of the machine, the shape of the workpiece, and the depth of the cut. Cutting tools Metal-cutting tools are classified as single point or multiple point. A single-point cutting tool can be used for increasing the size of holes, or boring. Turning and boring are performed on lathes and boring mills. Multiple-point cutting tools have two or more cutting edges and include milling cutters, drills, and broaches. There are two types of operation; either the tool is moving on a straight path against the stationary workpiece, as on a shaper, or the workpiece is moving against the stationary tool, as on a planer. Relief or clearance angles must be provided to prevent the tool surface below the cutting edge from rubbing against the workpiece. Rake angles are often provided on cutting tools to cause a wedging action in the formation of chips and to reduce friction and heat. Tool materials In order to remove chips from a workpiece, a cutting tool must be harder than the workpiece and must maintain a cutting edge at the temperature producedby the friction of the cutting action. CARBON STEEL

Steel with a carbon content ranging from 1 to 1.2 percent was the earliest material used in machine tools. Tools made of this carbon steel are comparatively inexpensive but tend to lose cutting ability at temperatures at about 400 F (205 C). HIGH-SPEED STEEL In 1900 the introduction of high-speed steel permitted the operation of tools at twice or three times the speeds allowable with carbon steel, thus doubling or trebling the capacities of the worldsmachine shops. One of the most common types of high-speed steel contains 18 percent tungsten, 4 percent chromium, 1 percent vanadium, and only 0.5 to 0.8 percent carbon. CAST ALLOYS A number of cast-alloy cutting-tool materials have been developed; these nonferrous alloys contain cobalt, chromium, and tungsten and are particularly effective in penetrating the hard skin on cast iron and retaining their cutting ability even when red hot. OXIDES Ceramic, or oxide, tool tips are one of the newest developments in cutting-tool materials. They consist primarily of fine aluminum oxide grains, which are bonded together. DIAMONDS Diamonds have been used for many years for truing grinding wheels, in wire-drawing dies, and as cutting tools. For cutting applications they are used largely for taking light finishing cuts at high speed on hard or abrasive materials and for finish-boring bronze and babbitt-metal bearings. Cutting fluids In many machine-tool operations, cutting fluids or coolants are used to modify the harmful effects of friction and high temperatures. In general, the major functions of a coolant are to lubricate and cool. When cutting a screw thread, either on a lathe or with a tap, the lubricating function is most important; in production-grinding operations, the cooling function predominates. Water is an excellent cooling medium, but it corrodes ferrous materials. Lard oil has excellent lubricating qualities, but it tends to become rancid. Sulfurized mineral oil is one of the most popular coolants. The sulfur tends to prevent chips from the work from welding to the tip of the tool. For sawing and grinding operations, soluble oil, which is an oily emulsion freely miscible in water, is commonly used. Turning machines

The engine lathe, as the horizontal metal-turning machine is commonly called, is the most important of all the machine tools. It is usually considered the father of all other machine tools because many of its fundamental mechanical elements are incorporated into the design of other machine tools. The engine lathe is a basic machine tool that can be used for a variety of turning, facing, and drilling operations. It uses a single-point cutting tool for turning and boring. Turning operations involve cutting excess metal, in the form of chips, from the external diameter of a workpiece and include turning straight or tapered cylindrical shapes, grooves, shoulders, and screw threads and facing flat surfaces on the ends of cylindrical parts. Internal cylindrical operations include most of the common hole-machining operations, such as drilling, boring, reaming, counterboring, countersinking, and threading with a single-point tool or tap. Boring involves enlarging and finishing a hole that has been cored or drilled. Bored holes are more accurate in roundness, concentricity, and parallelism than drilled holes. A hole is bored with a single-point cutting tool that feeds along the inside of the workpiece. Boring mills have circular horizontal tables that rotate about a vertical axis, and they are designed for boring and turning operations on parts that are too large to be mounted on a lathe. Shapers and planers Shaping and planing operations involve the machining of flat surfaces, grooves, shoulders, Tslots, and angular surfaces with single-point tools. The largest shapers have a 36-inch cutting stroke and can machine parts up to 36 inches long. The cutting tool on the shaper oscillates, cutting on the forward stroke, with the workpiece feeding automatically toward the tool during each return stroke. Planing machines perform the same operations as shapers but can machine longer workpieces. Some planers can machine parts up to 50 feet long. The workpiece is mounted on a reciprocating table that moves the workpiece beneath a cutting tool. This tool, which remains stationary during the cutting stroke, automatically feeds into the workpiece after each cutting stroke. Drilling machines Drilling machines, also called drill presses, cut holes in metal with a twist drill. They also use a variety of other cutting tools to perform the following basic hole-machining operations: (1)

reaming, (2) boring, (3) counterboring, (4) countersinking, and (5) tapping internal threads with the use of a tapping attachment.

Date: November 29, 2011

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