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THE FRAMEWORK: The Teaching/Learning Transactional Model................................................... 1 Rationale and Relevance of the Teaching/Learning Transactional Model ....................................... 1 The Elements of The Teaching/Learning Transactional Model ........................................................ 1 An Illustration of the Model in Action .............................................................................................. 3 STI LEARNER: An Expos .............................................................................................................. 6 Learning Modalities .......................................................................................................................... 6 Multiple Intelligences ....................................................................................................................... 6 Multiple Intelligences Chart ............................................................................................................. 8 SUIT YOUR MODE: Learning Domains and Instructional Approaches ........................................... 10 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives .............................................................................................10 The Revised Blooms Taxonomy Cognitive Domain ....................................................................11 Krathwohls Taxonomy Affective Domain ...................................................................................13 Psychomotor Domain .....................................................................................................................14 Uses of the Taxonomy ....................................................................................................................15 Instructional Approaches and Methods .........................................................................................24 Comparison of Teacher-Centered and Learner-Centered Paradigms ............................................27 TEACHING METAMORPHOSIS: Creating Breakthroughs through Behaviorism and Constructivism 28 Behaviorism ....................................................................................................................................28 Constructivism ................................................................................................................................29 RECIPE FOR SUCCESS: Classroom Management .......................................................................... 33 Four Elements of Effective Classroom Management (by Catherine Fortin) ..................................33 A POSITIVE : Creating Lasting Impressions as a Speaker ........................................................... 36 The Speaker ....................................................................................................................................36 STI Policy on Dress Code for Faculty Members ..............................................................................36 Dressing Appropriately ...................................................................................................................37 Accessories .....................................................................................................................................37 Personal Grooming .........................................................................................................................38 Complementing Womens Body Type ............................................................................................39 Dressing in the Academe (Women & Men)....................................................................................41

TOUCH POINT: Connecting with Your Audience .......................................................................... 43 Tips on Connecting with the Audience (from Dan Bobinski)..........................................................43 Audience Diversity ..........................................................................................................................44 ROOM FOR IMPROVEMENT: Organizing the Learning Environment ............................................. 46 Appearance of the Physical Environment ......................................................................................46 The Teaching Environment .............................................................................................................46 Sample Seating Arrangements .......................................................................................................47 Accessibility and Usability of Resources .........................................................................................51 READ MY LIPS: The Interplay of Verbal and Non-Verbal Expressions ............................................ 53 Verbal Messages.............................................................................................................................53 Non-Verbal Messages.....................................................................................................................55 SOUNDPROOFING: Dealing with Internal and External Noise....................................................... 59 Noise ...............................................................................................................................................59 Other Types of Noise ......................................................................................................................59 Most Specific Ways a Speaker Can Use to Combat Noise ..............................................................59 FINE-TUNING: The Art of Questioning and Giving Feedback......................................................... 60 Feedback.........................................................................................................................................60 Blooms Taxonomy and Questioning Types ...................................................................................60 Questioning Techniques .................................................................................................................60 Questioning Strategies ...................................................................................................................61 Probing Techniques ........................................................................................................................62 SWITCHING CHANNELS: Using Display Materials to Enhance Presentations ................................. 63 Channels of Communication Lenny Laskowski) .............................................................................63 Types of Display Materials..............................................................................................................63 Using the Overhead Projector ........................................................................................................65 Using the Flip Charts.......................................................................................................................66 11 Tips for Using Flip Charts More Effectively ...............................................................................67 Using Music or Sounds ...................................................................................................................69 THE POWER OF YOUR POINT: Using PowerPoint Slides as Visual Aids .......................................... 73 The PowerPoint Workspace ...........................................................................................................73 Working on Tool Bars and Task Panes............................................................................................74 Creating PowerPoint Presentation .................................................................................................75 Formatting Presentation ................................................................................................................75

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Multimedia and Effects ..................................................................................................................76 Tips in Creating Effective PowerPoint Slides ..................................................................................78 ORCHESTRATING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT: An Overview of Assessment ..................................... 79 Overview of Assessment ................................................................................................................79 Purpose of Assessment ..................................................................................................................79 Types of Assessment ......................................................................................................................79 HITTING THE RIGHT NOTE: Selecting Appropriate Assessment Methods ...................................... 82 Assessment Methods (from Lee Dunn) ..........................................................................................82 BRINGING RHYME AND RHYTHM: Test Construction and Item Analysis ....................................... 84 Tests and their Uses .......................................................................................................................84 Steps in Constructing Classroom Test ............................................................................................86 The Test Blueprint ..........................................................................................................................86 Writing Different Item Test Format................................................................................................88 Multiple Choice Test .......................................................................................................................93 What is Item Analysis? ...................................................................................................................94 Evaluation .......................................................................................................................................96 Assessment Feedback ....................................................................................................................97 SETTING THE TONE: Rubric as an Assessment Tool .................................................................... 103 What are Rubrics? (From Wikipedia) ...........................................................................................103 Role of Rubrics in Different Phases of Assessment (according to R. Sabetiashraf)......................105 Steps in Rubrics Development......................................................................................................105

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The goal of the T/LT Model is to provide a framework to guide teachers that recognizes the complexity of the art of teaching. The T/LT Model is designed to present a qualitative description of the key elements that occur during the teaching process and then encourage reflection and discussion regarding classroom experiences. This T/LT Model posits teaching as a transactive process in which all of the elements involved in the teaching event interrelate, connect, and influence the classroom experiences. The model promotes holistic inquiry in the classroom. It challenges reflection that focuses on the specific aspect of the art of teaching and encourages inquiry that analyzes teaching from a more complex perspective that includes thoughts and observations before, during and after the event. There are also other important uses of the T/LTM such as: developing a peer review process to guide pairs of colleagues in working together to examine teaching a faculty development tool to research how faculty members and students understanding interacts and changes over time understanding the basic education teaching and in preparing teachers for that arena as well

Teacher The teacher element of the model includes the personal history, expectations, and beliefs of the individual teacher. This element is the self reflective and autobiographical part of the T/LT model. Teachers beliefs are considered to be a primary element in any instructional transaction. They include how personal perspectives, history and beliefs about higher education impact decisionmaking processes. The goal of the model is to encourage reflection on how a teachers personal beliefs influence the teaching transactions that occur in the classroom. This also includes: Understanding how life stories impact practice. Identifying awareness of the in-the moment factors that affect student learning. Identifying how an individual teacher defines his/her role in the process of learning.

Style The classroom manifestation of the teacher element is style. In the T/LT model, the style element identifies the overall interpersonal climate of the classroom that is created by the teachers behaviors, actions and overall personality (Fenstermacher Soltis, 1992; Grasha, 1996; Heimlich & Norland, 2002; Lowman, 1995; Opdenakker & Van Damme, 2006). Teachers beliefs, attitudes and philosophies are revealed in classroom transactions with students. How we use humor, react to student questions or challenges, and a host of other variables all make up the style element of the T/LT model.

Mode The mode element identifies how the teacher chooses to design the experiences through which the students can learn the material. By mode, we mean how the teacher translates the content and other factors into strategies, activities, and other elements of teaching. We must identify instructional strategies, learn how to use them effectively, and implement them.

Content The content element of the model addresses both the actual content of what is being taught (i.e. knowledge, information and/or specific skills) and the pedagogical issues associated with teaching in a specific field of study. In addition, educational research points to the fact that different kinds of goals and objectives should be taught in different ways (Bain, 2004; Fink, 2003; Weimer, 2002).

Learner The learner aspect of the model identifies issues of learning style, student expectations, motivation and metacognition. The learners themselves are key parts of the instructional transaction. Students bring to a situation a set of styles, abilities, expectations and attitudes that surely affect how the transaction proceeds (Dunn & Griggs, 2000; Gardner, 1983; Hativa, 2000; Kolb, 1984; Phillips & Soltis, 1998; Sarasin, 1998; Zull, 2002).

Environment The environment element deals with the space where the experience takes place. It includes a host of factors that may exist in the physical, social or even virtual environment for learning and teaching. In the physical environment we may find factors such as the seating arrangements (whether the room allows the students to be grouped and arranged in a variety of ways, or is more rigid), the technology available (teacher's station with projector, Internet access, as well as wireless access and power supplies for student laptops), or basic human comforts, such as appropriate heating, cooling, or lighting (Bartlett, 2003; Douglas and Gifford, 2001; Niemeyer, 2003). The social environment may reflect the size of the class, its composition, and the relationships that can be developed among students and between students and the instructor.

Assessment The assessment component of the model clarifies the ways we try to identify how student knowing clearly impacts the teaching experience. It is important, however, not to separate assessment too sharply from the learning/teaching transaction, as nave teachers may tend to do. There are several reasons for this. First, student expectations of how they will be assessed and based on what knowledge and skills, are critical factors in determining how they approach the learning process (McKeachie, 2006; Sander, Stevenson, King, & Coates, 2000; Taras, 2003). Second, a good assessment can be the place where students learn the most, especially if it is well integrated into the instructional transaction (Gronlund, 1998; Haladyna, 1997; Ooseterhof, 1996). In addition, how the teacher chooses to find out about student knowledge and learning can have profound effects on how he or she approaches the transaction itself, both in the planning and in the moment stages.

International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/

Pre-Event Reflection David is an Assistant Professor in education at a large Midwestern university, with thirteen years experience. Over the past few months he has become keenly interested in a deeper understanding of the learning that occurs in his classroom. To begin his reflective process using the T/LT model, David considers the following questions: Which one of the teaching/learning transactional elements categories do I think is my strongest area? Why do I think this is my strongest area (education, personal background, etc.)? What evidence (student evaluations, intuition, etc.) do I have that this is my strongest area? In which of the teaching/learning transactional elements do I need the most improvement? As David considers these questions, he notes that his strongest areas are the teacher and style components of the model. Having won teaching awards in the past and having consistently received positive student evaluations, David believes his students like him and respect his knowledge of the field. However, he has become concerned about how much his students are internalizing the course concepts and actually trying to apply these ideas to their professional and personal lives. He wants to identify how his students are internalizing the content. The model has made him realize that he needs to think more about the relationship between content, mode, and the learner. He considers the following question: How are my actions in class allow students to internalize and create personal meaning with the course material? As he reflects on this question, he decides to try a different approach in his next class session.

In-the-Moment Reflection This class is a sophomore level teacher education course in which students are exposed to a variety of complex educational theories regarding public education. David has been frustrated in the past with the fact that students seem to be able to recall and identify which concepts are associated with which theorists, but they do not seem to understand how a theory leads to an educational practice. For this session, he wants to create an event that will explore this idea. He begins the class with a mini ten-minute lecture that outlines the concepts and concerns of Paulo Freire. Freires (1970) goal of personal reflection is to encourage oppressed individuals to become cognizant of their oppression and to identify the ways in which the structure of their environment has allowed this to occur. Students intellectually understand this concept and are very savvy at identifying Freires ideas on a quiz or exam. But, do they really understand how to practice this level of awareness? David decides to try an activity to bring this concept to life. After the short lecture, David informs the students that he wants them to view a video of an eighth grade science class in which the teacher is teaching "Newton's Law". David asks his students to imagine that they are either the student or the teacher in this video. His students' first goal in this activity is to create a list of words and/or phrases that represent what they believe the students and/or teacher think and feel as they explore Newton's Law. David's students begin watching the tape of this eighth-grade classroom. The teacher in this video was utilizing a lecture approach, mixed with probing questions, as she teaches the content of Newton's Law. As the students watch the tape, David became conscious of the fact that he was focusing on how his students are analyzing this video. He notices that when he is teaching, he really watches students eyes and reactions to the material they are discussing. He begins to wonder if this is why he feels he is so confident in the teacher and style component of the model. Much of his awareness is on the students' emotional responses to activities and material. After watching the video and creating a list of words and/or phrases that captured this experience, David then instructs his students to use this list as inspiration to create an imaginary dialogue between the teacher and the students in the video. David challenges his students to try to capture the voice of the student and/or teacher and truly represent what it feels like to be in this classroom or to teach in this manner. David allows the students to either work alone or in small groups as they create a dramatic interpretation that brings their chosen perspective (student or teacher) to life. Four of the students work alone and write monologues. The other students work in groups

of two or three and utilize a more dialogic approach. All of the students, except for one, take the perspective of the students in the video. As David listens to the groups create their dramatic interpretations, Brookfields (1995) challenge rings in his head. In Brookfields text, he notes that when teachers check in on groups it may send a signal that the teacher does not trust the students to do the work on their own. This practice may also intimidate some students or encourage them to perform for the teacher. David sits back and waits. He wants to jump in and add to the discussion of the groups. He wants to see what the students are writing. But he waits. As he waits, he notices a strange emotional response within himself. He is excited and anticipates getting back to the class discussion. He remembers that this is the same feeling he had before he entered the stage as an actor years ago. Waiting backstage for your entrance is both exciting and fear inducing. As an actor, David wanted to just run on stage and become a part of the show. But, waiting for the right cue is crucial. He begins to think that maybe the reason he has not missed acting or directing plays is because he is getting an artistic and creative fulfillment through his classroom encounters. Has his classroom become his theatre space? He jots a note to himself to think on this further after class. After a few minutes the students read and perform their dialogic creations. Without question, they capture the voices of the students. As the class listens and enjoys the performances that are very critical of this teaching style, David asks them probing questions to identify how they are internalizing this information in terms of their future professional practice. For example, one exchange follows: David: Why do you suppose the teacher would use lecture as her primary mode of instruction? Student One: Because of the time crunchteachers only have 45 minutes to teach concepts in this classso she has to lecture to cover everything. Student Two: Or maybe it's the achievement tests.this teacher has to make sure she has covered everything so the students can pass the test. Student Three: Yes, I mean, she has to cover all of these standards and outcomes that will be on these testsshe is trapped. This discussion was very pleasing to David. His students recognize how outside pressure and social structures influence and affect classroom practices. As the conversation continued, other students note that there may be social pressure to conform to teaching in specific ways. The students also address how money and social efficiency may influence the design of our schools and, in turn, impact how we are able to teach. The discussion of these issues allows David to identify how his students are analyzing the impact that social structures have on personal practice. The students recognize how the structure of the environment, if oppressing, can lead to oppressive practices. Additionally, the students realize that if they become aware of this structure, they may be able, through thoughtful practice, to teach in a manner that is not as restrictive. From the conversation that followed the video analysis, David feels that his students not only understand the ideas of Freire, but they now recognize how applying a theoretical perspective can lead to a change in professional practice.

Post-event Reflection David was very happy with the tone and feel of the class. He felt that the students had an understanding of the ideas and concepts of Freire and were able to connect this perspective to their future practice. When using the model for pre-reflection, David had realized he needed to consider the connection between student learning and content. By focusing on these elements within his classroom he began to consider a different and alternative mode to connect the elements in the teaching/learning transaction. In the post-reflection, he feels very confident about the success of the video analysis. Using the T/LT model for post-reflection, David is now able to look at the classroom from a more holistic perspective. As he considers the event, he begins to see that there is a structure to this mode of practice: he began with content coverage (mini-lecture), moved to a real experience (tape of teaching), and then to student application (student monologues and dialogues), and finished with a reflective summary. As he used the T/LT model to guide his post-event reflection he realizes that this pedagogical approach encouraged a broader range of experience and reflection for his students. He also realizes that the T/LT model is encouraging him to consider multiple elements of the teaching event. As David reflects on all of the model elements he recognizes that he did not consider issues of assessment. In the future he must reflect more on how assessment is connected to the teaching event. He also sees in his postevent reflection that he did not consider and reflect on the environment of the classroom, and that in the

future more consideration needs to be given to this element. However, the elements David considered (learner, content, mode, style, and teacher) did provide some informative insights into his overall teaching. From the learners perspective, David realizes that this activity addresses various learning styles at different points of the event. From the content perspective, he addresses the reflective question of creating personal meaning in the students lives. In the domain of mode, he has reaffirmed his belief that in many ways, how we structure the event can dictate what students experience and remember. Within the style component, David recognizes that he has a passion for this way of teaching because he believes in creating meaningful aesthetic experiences in students lives. This passion was clearly seen in his activities today. Finally, as he reflects on the teacher element, David is drawn by his in-the-moment reflections that focused on theatre and student connections. This element he will reflect on even further. David is fascinated by how much of his reflection in the moment is based on the experience that students are having in his class. When he focuses on student learning, he keys into their expressions in the teaching/learning transaction. As he considers his own work, he notices that he was identifying his own emotional response to the experience and relating back to his theatrical background. Could it be that his teaching has filled this artistic void in his life? This is an in-themoment question he wants to explore further. To David, theatre is about experience. The role of a theatrical encounter is to take a given piece of content (script) and to create an environment where the meaning and interpretation of this content comes to life. For him, this classroom approach accomplished this task. He was able to take the content of Freire and create a real experience, that, in turn, the students were able to engage with, and create their own aesthetic response to the event. This aesthetic mode of reflection has always been important for David, and now he sees that when he teaches this way he is more comfortable, and in turn, feels he creates a better learning experience for his students. From his post-event reflection, David realizes he needs to be committed to teaching in this manner. He needs to provide a framework for the content, create an experience for the students that bring the idea to life, and then find a way to have the students reflect on this experience as they connect the content to their personal lives. David also realizes, through this reflective process, that his background and passion for theatre explains why he is so confident in the style and teacher elements of the model. Theatre is about creating passionate connections to the material (style) and also reflecting and identifying in-the-moment what is being communicated in the space (teacher). Davids pre-, during, and post-reflection has encouraged him to continue to create these educational events in his classroom. Using the T/LT model as a guide for reflection has also reminded David that he needs to think more about assessment and environment in his future practice. In this illustrative case study, the elements of the T/LT model interconnect and interact with one another even as we focus on individual components. When teaching is viewed from this perspective, we can begin to re-frame the relationships between elements involved in teaching while developing new questions to consider. Through the reflective process encouraged by the model, David has recognized and scrutinized some of the tacit decisions affecting his teaching practice. He has also developed possible explanations for his strengths in teaching while also recognizing areas of improvement.

Source: Dees, D., et al. (2007). A Transactional Model of College Teaching. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Vol.19, pages130-139. Retrieved from http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/pdf/ IJTLHE187.pdf

The VAK learning styles model suggests that most people can be divided into one of three preferred styles of learning. These three styles are as follows : Someone with a visual learning style has a preference for seen or observed things, including pictures, diagrams, demonstrations, displays, handouts, films, flip charts, etc. These people will use phrases such as show me, lets have a look at that and will be best able to perform a new task after reading the instructions or watching someone else do it first. These are the people who will work from lists and written directions and instructions. Someone with an auditory learning style has a preference for the transfer of information through listening: to the spoken word, of self or others, of sounds and noises. These people will use phrases such as tell me, lets talk it over and will be best able to perform a new task after listening to instructions from an expert. These are the people who are happy being given spoken instructions over the telephone, and can remember all the words of the songs that they hear! Someone with a kinesthetic learning style has a preference for physical experience - touching, feeling, holding, doing, practical hands-on experiences. These people will use phrases such as let me try, how do you feel? and will be best able to perform a new task by going ahead and trying it out, learning as they go. These are the people who like to experiment, hands-on, and never look at the instructions first!

People commonly have a main preferred learning style, but this will be part of a blend of all three. Some people have a very strong preference; other people have a more even mixture of two or less commonly, three styles. When you know your preferred learning style(s), you understand the type of learning that best suits you. This enables you to choose the types of learning that work best for you. There is no right or wrong learning style. The point is that there are types of learning that are right for your own preferred learning style.

This theory was conceived in 1983 by an Education professor in Harvard University named as Dr. Howard Gardner. Dr. Gardner stated that aside from intelligent quotient (which refers to the logical skill of an individual), there are other kinds of intelligence that should be studied and taken into consideration. According to him, there are eight multiple intelligences: Logical-Mathematical Intelligence good in numbers and rational thinking Linguistic Intelligence excels in articulating/conveying messages through language and writing Interpersonal Intelligence good in relating with other people

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence athletic, capable of displaying exemplary body movements (gymnastics, dancing, etc.) Intrapersonal Intelligence good in dealing with his/her own personality Naturalist Intelligence has established a good relationship with nature (This is the eighth and newest of the intelligences, added to the theory in 1999. This type of intelligence was not part of Gardner's original theory of Multiple Intelligences) Musical Intelligence excels in dealing with tempo, rhythm and sounds Spatial Intelligence excels in painting, photography, sketching and drafting (e.g. painters, architects etc.)

Other intelligences have been suggested or explored by Gardner and his colleagues, including spiritual, existential and moral intelligence. Gardner excluded spiritual intelligence due to what he perceived as the inability to codify criteria comparable to the other "intelligences". Existential intelligence (the capacity to raise and reflect on philosophical questions about life, death, and ultimate realities) meets most of the criteria with the exception of identifiable areas of the brain that specialize for this faculty. Moral capacities were excluded because they are normative rather than descriptive. One of the roles of a teacher is to identify whether his/her student has a specialization on at least one of the eight kinds of multiple intelligences. It should be emphasized that the interest of the students should be tapped for the said specialization.

How do you ensure all of your students' intelligences are being tapped? Here is a list of activities that target each intelligence. Verbal-Linguistic choral speaking declaring storytelling retelling speaking debating presenting reading aloud dramatizing book making nonfiction reading researching listening process writing using money writing journals using geometry Logical-Mathematical problem solving measuring coding sequencing critical thinking predicting playing logic games collecting data experimenting solving puzzles classifying using manipulatives learning the scientific model Visual-Spatial graphing photographing making visual metaphors making visual analogies creative movement mapping stories going on field trips making 3D projects painting illustrating using charts using organizers visualizing sketching patterning visual puzzles physical education activities crafts dramatizing using cooperative groups dancing Bodily-Kinesthetic hands on experiments activities changing room arrangement

Musical humming rapping playing background music patterns form playing instruments tapping out poetic rhythms rhyming

Interpersonal classroom parties peer editing cooperative learning sharing group work forming clubs peer teaching

Intrapersonal personal response individual study personal goal setting individual projects journal log keeping personal choice in projects independent reading

Naturalistic reading outside cloud watching identifying insects building habitats identifying plants using a microscope dissecting going on a nature walk build a garden studying the stars bird watching collecting rocks making bird feeders going to the zoo

social awareness conflict mediation singing discussing cross age tutoring study group brainstorming

Sources: http://www.teachervision.fen.com/intelligence/teaching-methods/2204.html http://www.businessballs.com/freepdfmaterials/free_multiple_intelligences_test_young_people.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences http://www.acu.edu/cte/activelearning/whyuseal2.htm http://www.teachervision.fen.com/intelligence/teaching-methods/2204.html

There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom (1956), identified three domains of educational activities: Cognitive Affective Psychomotor mental skills (Knowledge) growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude) manual or physical skills (Skills)

"Taxonomy simply means classification, so the well-known taxonomy of learning objectives is an attempt (within the behavioral paradigm) to classify forms and levels of learning. It identifies three domains of learning, each of which is organized as a series of levels or pre-requisites, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. Domains can be thought of as categories. It is suggested that one cannot effectively or ought not try to address higher levels until those below them have been covered (it is thus effectively serial in structure). As well as providing a basic sequential model for dealing with topics in the curriculum, it also suggests a way of categorizing levels of learning, in terms of the expected ceiling for a given program. An illustration of Blooms Taxonomy Cognitive Domain:

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An illustration of Krathwohls Taxonomy Affective Domain:

An illustration of Harrows Taxonomy Psychomotor Domain:

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Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, revisited the cognitive domain in the learning taxonomy in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the two most prominent ones being: changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms, and slightly rearranging them.

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more accurate (based on Pohl, 2000, Learning to Think, Thinking to Learn, p. 8):

Levels of Cognitive Learning (image from: http://www.kurwongbss.eq.edu.au/thinking/Bloom/blooms.htm):

Lower level questions are those at the remembering, understanding and lower level application levels of the taxonomy. Usually questions at the lower levels are appropriate for:

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o o o

Evaluating students preparation and comprehension Diagnosing students strengths and weaknesses Reviewing and/or summarizing content

Higher level questions are those requiring complex application, analysis, evaluation or creation skills. Questions at higher levels of the taxonomy are usually most appropriate for: o o o o Encouraging students to think more deeply and critically Problem solving Encouraging discussions Stimulating students to seek information on their own

Knowledge and Process Dimension The Revised Blooms Taxonomy also combined both the cognitive processes and knowledge dimensions (refer to handout for a complete list of the cognitive processes and knowledge dimensions and their definitions). Below is a chart that presents a sample intersection of the six Cognitive Process defined dimensions (Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create) with the four Knowledge Dimensions (defined as Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, and Meta-Cognitive) forms a grid with twenty-four separate cells as represented. The Knowledge Dimension Factual Knowledge Conceptual Knowledge Procedural Knowledge MetaCognitive Knowledge The Cognitive Process Dimension Remember List Understand Summarize Apply Classify Analyze Order Evaluate Rank Create Combine

Describe

Interpret

Experiment

Explain

Assess

Plan

Tabulate

Predict

Calculate

Differentiate

Conclude

Compose

Appropriate Use

Execute

Construct

Achieve

Action

Actualize

Source: Extended Campus -- Oregon State University http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/coursedev/models/id/taxonomy/#table

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Affective learning is demonstrated by behaviors indicating attitudes of awareness, interest, attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond in interactions with others, and ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which are appropriate to the test situation and the field of study. The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. Krathwohl's affective domain taxonomy is perhaps the best known of any of the affective taxonomies. "The taxonomy is ordered according to the principle of internalization. Internalization refers to the process whereby a person's affect toward an object passes from a general awareness level to a point where the affect is 'internalized' and consistently guides or controls the person's behavior (Seels & Glasgow, 1990, p. 28)." The five levels of Krathwohls Taxonomy of Affective Domain are:

Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas, material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or phenomena. Organization is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with the values he or she has internalized.

Psychomotor learning is demonstrated by physical skills: coordination, dexterity, manipulation, grace, strength, speed; actions which demonstrate the fine motor skills such as use of precision instruments or tools, or actions which evidence gross motor skills such as the use of the body in dance or athletic performance. The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.

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The committee led by Benjamin Bloom did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor domain model, but others have. There are three primary taxonomies of the psychomotor domain: Dave, R. (1967). Psychomotor domain. Berlin: International Conference of Educational Testing. Level Definition Possible Verbs

1. Imitate

2. Manipulate

3. Precision

4. Articulation

5. Naturalization

Observe a skill and attempt to repeat it, or Attempt, copy, see a finished product and attempt to duplicate, imitate, replicate it while attending to an mimic exemplar. Perform the skill or produce the product in Complete, follow, a recognizable fashion by following general play, perform, instructions rather than observation. produce Achieve Independently perform the skill or produce automatically, excel the product, with accuracy, proportion, expertly, perform and exactness; at an expert level. masterfully Modify the skill or product the product to Adapt, alter, fit new situations; combine more than one customize, originate skill in sequence with harmony and consistency. Completion of one or more skills with ease and making the skill automatic with limited Naturally, perfectly physical or mental exertion.

Simpson, E. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain: The psychomotor domain. Vol. 3. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.

Level 1. Perception

Definition The ability to use sensory cues to guide physical activity The readiness to act; requires the learner to demonstrate an awareness or knowledge of the behaviors needed to carry out the skill The early stage of learning a complex skill; includes imitation; can complete the steps involved in the skill as directed The ability to perform a complex motor skill; the intermediate stage of learning a complex skill The ability to perform the complete psychomotor skill correctly Can modify motor skills to fit a new situation The ability to develop an original skill that replaces the skill as initially learned

Possible Verbs Distinguish, identify, select Assume a position, demonstrate, show

2. Set

3. Guided response

Attempt, imitate, try

4. Mechanism 5. Complex overt response 6. Adaptation 7. Origination

Carry out, operate, perform Adapt, change, modify, revise Create, design, originate.

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Harrow, A. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. A guide for developing behavioral objectives. New York: McKay.

Level 1. Reflex movement 2. Basic-fundamental movements 3. Perceptual abilities 4. Physical abilities 5. Skilled movements 6. Nondiscursive communication

Definition

Possible Verbs

Segmental, intersegmental, and Respond suprasegmental reflexes Locomotor movements, nonlocomotor movements, manipulative movements Kinesthetic, visual, auditory and tactile discrimination and coordinated abilities Endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility Simple, compound, and complex adaptive Assemble, calibrate, skills construct, dissect Arrange, compose, Expressive and interpretive movement create, originate, design

Curriculum planning Instructional delivery Assessment

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REVISED BLOOMS TAXONOMY OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN

REMEMBERING Recall or recognition of specific information UNDERSTANDING Understanding of given information APPLYING Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations ANALYSING Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences distinguish, question, appraise, experiment, inspect, examine, probe, separate, inquire, arrange, investigate, sift, research, calculate, criticize, compare, contrast, survey, detect, group, order, sequence, test, debate, analyze, diagram, relate, dissect, categorize, discriminate EVALUATING Ideas, materials and methods by developing and applying standards and criteria CREATING Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. compose, assemble, organize, invent, compile, forecast, devise, propose, construct, plan, prepare, develop, originate, imagine, generate, formulate, improve, act, predict, produce, blend, set up, devise, concoct, compile

MEANING

list, memorize, relate, show, locate, identify, distinguish, give example, reproduce, quote, repeat, label, recall, know, group, read, write, outline, listen, group, choose, recite, review, quote, record, match, select, underline, cite, sort

explain, interpret, outline, discuss, distinguish, predict restate, translate compare, describe, restate, identify, retell, research, annotate, translate, give examples of, paraphrase, reorganize, associate, report, recognize, review, observe, outline, account for, interpret, give main idea, estimate, define speech, stories, drama, cartoons, diagrams, graphs, summaries, outlines, analogies, posters, bulletin boards

events, people, newspapers, magazine articles, definitions, videos, dramas, textbooks, films, television programs, recordings, media presentations

solve, show, use, illustrate, construct, complete, examine, classify, translate, manipulate, exhibit, illustrate, calculate, interpret, make, practice, apply, operate, interview paint, change, compute, sequence, show, solve, collect, demonstrate, dramatise, construct, use, adapt, draw diagrams. sculptures, illustrations, dramatizations, forecasts, problems, puzzles, organizations, classifications, rules, systems, routines

judge, rate, validate, predict, assess, score, revise, infer, determine, prioritize, tell why, compare, evaluate, defend, select, measure, choose, conclude, deduce, debate, justify, recommend, discriminate, appraise, value, probe, argue, decide, criticize, rank, reject

VERBS

surveys, questionnaires, arguments, models, displays, demonstrations, diagrams, systems, conclusions, reports, graphed information

MATERIALS/ SITUATIONS

recommendations, self evaluation, group discussions, debates, court trials, standards, editorials, values

experiments, games, songs, reports, poems, speculations, creations, art, inventions, drama, rules

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REVISED BLOOMS TAXONOMY OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN

REMEMBERING Make a story map Make a time line of your typical day. Make a concept map of the topic. Write a list of keywords you know about. What characters were in the story? Make a chart showing Make an acrostic poem about Recite a poem you have learnt. UNDERSTANDING Cut out or draw pictures to show a particular event. Illustrate what you think the main idea was. Make a cartoon strip showing the sequence of events. Write and perform a play based on the story. Retell the story in your words. Paint a picture of some aspect you like. Write a summary report of an event. Prepare a flow chart to illustrate the sequence of events. Make a colouring book. APPLYING Construct a model to demonstrate how it will work. Make a diorama to illustrate an important event. Make a scrapbook about the areas of study. Make a papermache map to include relevant information about an event. Take a collection of photographs to demonstrate a particular point. Make up a puzzle game suing the ideas from the study area. Make a clay model of an item in the material. Design a market strategy for your product using a known strategy as a model. Dress a doll in national costume. Paint a mural using the same materials. Write a textbook about... for others. ANALYSING Design a questionnaire to gather information. Write a commercial to sell a new product. Conduct an investigation to produce information to support a view. Make a flow chart to show the critical stages. Construct a graph to illustrate selected information. Make a jigsaw puzzle. Make a family tree showing relationships. Put on a play about the study area. Write a biography of the study person. Prepare a report about the area of study. Arrange a party. Make all the arrangements and record the steps needed. Review a work of art in terms of form, color and texture. EVALUATING Prepare a list of criteria to judge a ... show. Indicate priority and ratings. Conduct a debate about an issue of special interest Make a booklet about 5 rules you see as important. Convince others. Form a panel to discuss views, eg "Learning at School." Write a letter to ... advising on changes needed at... Write a half yearly report. Prepare a case to present your view about CREATING Invent a machine to do a specific task. Design a building to house your study. Create a new product. Give it a name and plan a marketing campaign. Write about your feelings in relation to... Write a TV show, play, puppet show, role play, song or pantomime about...? Design a record, book, or magazine cover for...? Make up a new language code and write material suing it. Sell an idea. Devise a way to... Compose a rhythm or put new words to a known melody.

POTENTIAL ACTIVITIES AND PRODUCTS

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REVISED BLOOMS TAXONOMY OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN

REMEMBERING What happened after...? How many...? What is...? Who was it that...? Can you name...? Find the definition of Describe what happened after Who spoke to...? Which is true or false...? UNDERSTANDING Can you explain why? Can you write in your own words? How would you explain? Can you write a brief outline...? What do you think could have happened next...? Who do you think...? What was the main idea...? Can you clarify? Can you illustrate? Does everyone act in the way that .. does? APPLYING Do you know of another instance where? Can you group by characteristics such as? Which factors would you change if? What questions would you ask of? From the information given, can youdevelop a set of instructions about? ANALYSING Which events could not have happened? If. ..happened, what might the ending have been? How is...similar to...? What do you see as other possible outcomes? Why did...changes occur? Can you explain what must have happened when...? What are some or the problems of...? Can you distinguish between...? What were some of the motives behind..? What was the turning point? What was the problem with...? EVALUATING Is there a better solution to...? Judge the value of... What do you think about...? Can you defend your position about...? Do you think...is a good or bad thing? How would you have handled...? What changes to would you recommend? Do you believe...? How would you feel if...? How effective are. ..? What are the consequences..? What influence will....have on our lives? What are the pros and cons of....? Why is ....of value? What are the alternatives? Who will gain & who will lose? CREATING Can you design a...to...? Can you see a possible solution to...? If you had access to all resources, how would you deal with...? Why don't you devise your own way to...? What would happen if...? How many ways can you...? Can you create new and unusual uses for...? Can you develop a proposal which would...?

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

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KRATHWOHLS TAXONOMY OF THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

RECEIVING Receiving refers to the student's willingness to attend to particular phenomena of stimuli (classroom activities, textbook, music, etc.). Learning outcomes in this area range from the simple awareness that a thing exists to selective attention on the part of the learner. Receiving represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the affective domain. RESPONDING Responding refers to active participation on the part of the student. At this level he or she not only attends to a particular phenomenon but also reacts to it in some way. Learning outcomes in this area may emphasize acquiescence in responding (reads assigned material), willingness to respond (voluntarily reads beyond assignment), or satisfaction in responding (reads for pleasure or enjoyment). The higher levels of this category include those instructional objectives that are commonly classified under interest; that is, those that stress the seeking out and enjoyment of particular activities. VALUING Valuing is concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges in degree from the simpler acceptance of a value (desires to improve group skills) to the more complex level of commitment (assumes responsibility for the effective functioning of the group). Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, but clues to these values are expressed in the student's overt behavior. Learning outcomes in this area are concerned with behavior that is consistent and stable enough to make the value clearly identifiable. Instructional objectives that are commonly classified under attitudes and appreciation would fall into this category. ORGANIZATION Organization is concerned with bringing together different values, resolving conflicts between them, and beginning the building of an internally consistent value system. Thus the emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. Learning outcomes may be concerned with the conceptualization of a value (recognizes the responsibility of each individual for improving human relations) or with the organization of a value system (develops a vocational plan that satisfies his or her need for both economic security and social service). Instructional objectives relating to the development of a philosophy of life would fall into this category. CHARACTERIZATION BY VALUE OR VALUE SET The individual has a value system that has controlled his or her behavior for a sufficiently long time for him or her to develop a characteristic life-style. Thus the behavior is pervasive, consistent, and predictable. Learning outcomes at this level cover a broad range of activities, but the major emphasis is on the fact that the behavior is typical or characteristic of the student. Instructional objectives that are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional) would be appropriate here.

DEFINITION

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KRATHWOHLS TAXONOMY OF THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

RECEIVING asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits erect, replies, uses RESPONDING answers, assists, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes VALUING completes, describes, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works Accepting the idea that integrated curricula is a good way to learn. Participating in a campus blood drive. Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Shows the ability to solve problems. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about. ORGANIZATION adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes Recognizing own abilities, limitations, and values and developing realistic aspirations. Accepts responsibility for ones behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self. CHARACTERIZATION BY VALUE OR VALUE SET acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, uses, verifies

VERBS

EXAMPLES

Listening to discussions of controversial issues with an open mind. Respecting the rights of others. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.

Completing homework assignments. Participating in team problem-solving activities. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them.

A person's lifestyle influences reactions to many different kinds of situations. Shows selfreliance when working independently. Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence.

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SIMPSONS TAXONOMY OF PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

PERCEPTION The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation. SET Readiness to act It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets). GUIDED RESPONSE The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing. MECHANISM This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. COMPLEX OR OVERT RESPONSE The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce. ADAPTATION Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements. ORIGINATION Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.

DEFINITION

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SIMPSONS TAXONOMY OF PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

PERCEPTION chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects, separates SET begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, responds, snows, starts, volunteers GUIDED RESPONSE assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches MECHANISM assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches COMPLEX OR OVERT RESPONSE assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches ADAPTATION adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies ORIGINATION arranges, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, originates

VERBS

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SIMPSONS TAXONOMY OF PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

PERCEPTION Listening to the sounds made by guitar strings before tuning them. Recognizing sounds that indicate malfunctioning equipment. Estimates where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. SET Knowing how to use a computer mouse. Having instrument ready to play and watching conductor at start of a musical performance. Showing eagerness to assemble electronic components to complete a task. Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and limitations. GUIDED RESPONSE Using a torque wrench just after observing an expert demonstrate a its use. Experimenting with various ways to measure a given volume of a volatile chemical. Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. MECHANISM Demonstrating the ability to correctly execute a 60 degree banked turn in an aircraft 70 percent of the time. Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. COMPLEX OR OVERT RESPONSE Dismantling and re-assembling various components of an automobile quickly with no errors. Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano. ADAPTATION Using skills developed learning how to operate an electric typewriter to operate a word processor. Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do. ORIGINATION Designing a more efficient way to perform an assembly line task. Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training program. Creates a new gymnastic routine.

EXAMPLES

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Instructional methods are ways that information is presented to students. Such methods fall into two categories: teacher-centered approaches and student-centered approaches. There is not one "best" approach to instruction. Some goals are better suited to teacher-centered approaches while others clearly need student-centered approaches (Shuell, 1996). Teacher-centered instruction has been criticized as ineffective and grounded in behaviorism (Marshall 1992, Stoddard, Connell, Stgofflett, and Peck 1993); however, this is not the case if delivered effectively (Eggen & Kauchak, 2001). Teacher-centered approach Instruction where the teacher's role is to present the information that is to be learned and to direct the learning process of students (Shuell, 1996). The teacher identifies the lesson objectives and takes the primary responsibility for guiding the instruction by explaining the information and modeling. This is followed by student practice. Methods that fall into the teacher-centered approaches include: o Demonstration involves the teacher showing students a process or procedure such as a science process, a cooking procedure or a computer procedure. Involving students in demonstrations allow this method to be less passive. Direct instruction is used to help students learn concepts and skills. There are various models of Direct Instruction but all include similar steps: introduction and review presentation of new information guided practice independent practice Lecture is the most criticized of all teaching methods, and the most commonly used because: planning time is limited lectures are flexible and can be applied to any content lectures are simple

The most critical fact about lecture is that it puts students in a passive role. o Lecture-discussions is a combination of lecture and teacher questioning of students.

Learner-centered approach Grounded in constructivism, learner-centered approaches involve instruction where the teacher is a facilitator (or guide) as the learners construct their own understandings. There are a number of methods in this category that are listed and explained below: o Case studies involve groups of students working together to analyze a "case" that has been written on a particular situation or problem to find a solution. Case studies allow students to apply new knowledge and skills for solving complex issues. This method is not appropriate for use with elementary students. The case study is completed by discussion of the case, allowing learners to debate their conclusions.

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Cooperative learning involves small heterogeneous student groups working together to solve a problem or complete a task. All students in the group must actively participate with each student maintaining some independence. The success of the group depends on the input of each individual. This teaching method promotes active participation, individual accountability, students' ability to work cooperatively and improvement of social skills. Discussion/Discussion boards designed to encourage thinking skills, discussion allows learners to increase interpersonal skills. Discussions may occur in the classroom or online. One way to implement discussions with twenty-first century students is to use discussion boards. Previously referred to as "bulletin boards" or "message boards", these areas are places where a question can be posted by the teacher and students may post "threads" (comments to the question) asynchronously (at various times). Discussion boards vary in participation and good discussion may result from the expertise of the facilitator. Incentives (bonus points) may be needed to motivate all students and rules must be made clear. Course management software such as Blackboard has built in a discussion board feature making it quite easy to implement. Discovery learning is an inquiry-based learning method in which learners use prior knowledge and experience to discover new information that they use to construct learning. This method is the most successful if the student has some prerequisite knowledge and the experience is structured (Roblyer, Edwards and Havriluk, 1997). Experimentation students individually perform an experiment and then come together as a class to discuss the results. Graphic organizers are found in the form of diagrams, maps and webs and illustrate information in a graphical format. Diagrams may be drawn by hand or designed on the computer with programs such as Inspiration (grades 6-12) or Kidspiration (grades K-5). This strategy/tool can be used when brainstorming ideas, analyzing stories, analyzing characters, comparing and contrasting information, storyboarding (planning projects), prewriting during the writing process and breaking down concepts to show the relationships with parts (such as the parts of a cell). These graphical representations of information have been found to make information easier to learn and understand especially complex information (Dye, 2000). Further, using visual learning strategies have been found to be effective with struggling learners (Bulgren, Schumaker and Deschler, 1998; Gardill and Jitendra, 1999 cited in O'Bannon and Puckett, 2007). Field trips allows students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in class in a realworld context. Field trips would often be followed by class discussions. Films provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the learning experience. Journals/Blogs/Portfolio are often used in classrooms to allow students to record reflections and ideas. Typically written in a notebook and recorded each day, the journal serves as a method of communication between the student and the teacher. A blog is short for web log and is simply an online journal or diary versus its more traditional "notebook" cousin. A new method for reflective writing, blogs can be used to share ideas and/or thoughts on various subjects. These reflections and ideas may be private or public. Blogs are considered great motivators for student writing and offer a novel way for students to engage in reflective writing and sharing information on classroom topics

o o

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K-W-L is a strategy that is typically used to provide structure to the learning process to allow students to recall what they know about a topic, what they want to know about the topic and what is to be learned. This strategy allows students to become actively involved in their learning. Generally, a chart is created on the board, overhead or handout. Students fill in the Know column before they begin their study. They fill in the Want to Know column with all of the information that they want to learn about the topic. After the study, they complete the Learned column with their new knowledge. Learning centers are self contained areas where students work independently or with small groups (pairs or triads) to complete a task. Centers may take the form of chairs placed around a table for group discussion, display boards that present questions/problems/worksheets, or computer/s where students perform hands-on activities or research on the web. Research method is a diligent inquiry or examination to seek or revise facts, principles, theories, applications, et cetera; laborious or continued search after truth. Students will be guided to conduct their own research as a source or guide to their own learning. Role-play deals with solving problems through action. A problem is identified, acted out and discussed. The role-play process provides students with an opportunity to: explore their feelings gain insight about their attitudes increase problem solving skills Scaffolding involves the teacher modeling the skill and thinking for the student. As the student increases understanding, the teacher withdraws the assistance allowing the student to take on more responsibility for the learning. Problem-based learning and inquiry learning involves teacher giving the student a problem where inquiry must be utilized to solve the problem. There are commonly four steps in this model: student receives the problem student gathers data student organizes data and attempts an explanation to the problem students analyze the strategies they used to solve the problem Simulations are used to put the student in a "real" situation without taking the risks. Simulations are meant to be as realistic as possible where students are able to experience consequences of their behavior and decisions. Simulations are commonly used in social studies and science but can be used in other curriculum areas. Computer simulations are quite common in today's virtual world. One example is "dissecting a frog" using the computer. Storytelling/Digital storytelling a great way to strengthen communication skills is to get students involved in creating multimedia stories. Topics can range from biographical stories with photo collections from family archives to community mapping projects, virtual field trips within the community, or more complex stories created by older students. These digital stories can be planned, storyboarded and produced using slideshow software such as PowerPoint or video editing software such as Imovie. This strategy has become quite the rage in recent years with students loving the active learning.

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Comparison of Teacher-centered and Learner-centered paradigms

(Learner-Centered Assessment on College Campuses by Huba and Freed 2000)

Teacher-Centered Paradigm
Knowledge is transmitted from professor to students

Learner-Centered Paradigm
Students construct knowledge through gathering and synthesizing information and integrating it with the general skills of inquiry, communication, critical thinking, problem solving and so on Students are actively involved Emphasis is on using and communicating knowledge effectively to address enduring and emerging issues and problems in real-life contexts Professors role is to coach and facilitate Professor and students evaluate learning together Teaching and assessing are intertwined Assessment is used to promote and diagnose learning Emphasis is on generating better questions and learning from errors Desired learning is assessed directly through papers, projects, performances, portfolios, and the like Approach is investigation compatible with interdisciplinary

Students passively receive information Emphasis is on acquisition of knowledge outside the context in which it will be used Professors role is to be primarily information giver and primarily evaluator Teaching and assessing are separate Assessment is used to monitor learning Emphasis is on right answers Desired learning is assessed indirectly through the use of objectively scored test Focus is on single discipline Culture is competitive and individualistic Only students are viewed as learners

Culture is cooperative, collaborative, and supportive Professor and students learn together

Sources: http://itc.utk.edu/~bobannon/in_strategies.html http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/pd/instr/alpha.html http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/bloomtax.htm http://www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/hrd/bloom.html http://www.kurwongbss.eq.edu.au/thinking/Bloom/blooms.htm http://www.schoolnet.org.za/twt/01/M1_Appendix_B.pdf http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/coursedev/models/id/taxonomy/#table http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_teaching_methods#cite_note-thirteenorg-0 http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/Resources2/krathstax.htm http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behsys/psymtr.html

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Behaviorism a school of thought in psychology which holds the idea that learning occurs through
interactions with the environment. It argues that internal mental states such as feelings, emotions and thoughts are useless in explaining behavior because it is the environment that shapes individuality. The development of this viewpoint was based on the experiments and studies made by the following known personalities:

He is the brain behind the idea of classical conditioning which he accidentally discovered. To experiment on classical conditioning, Pavlov utilized a tuning fork and meat powder. He hit the tuning fork and followed the sound with the meat powder. Pavlov presented the sound (tuning fork) with the meat powder at the exact same time increments. In the beginning, the dog salivated only to the meat powder, but after this was repeated, the dog salivated at the sound of the tuning fork. Even when Pavlov took away the meat powder, the dog continued to salivate at the sound of the tuning fork. In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another. The organism learns that the first stimulus is a cue for the second stimulus. Significance on teaching/learning process- Learners need to be conditioned in any learning activity/ responsibility that they need to experience.

Thorndikes most notable contribution is his idea on law of effect which states that responses which are closely followed by satisfying consequences become associated with the situation, and are more likely to recur when the situation is subsequently encountered. He was able to illustrate this point using the puzzle box experiment where he tested how cats learned to escape from it (puzzle box). His finding was that cats consistently showed gradual learning. He interpreted this finding through the so-called associations or connectionism. He asserted that the connection between the box and the motions the cat used to escape was strengthened by each escape. Significance on teaching/learning process- Thorndike specified the following conditions that maximize learning. o The law of effect stated that the likely recurrence of a response is generally governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or punishment. o The law of recency stated that the most recent response is likely to govern the recurrence. o The law of exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition.

B. F. Skinner is the proponent of operant conditioning which states that the behavior is followed by a consequence, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behavior in the future. This is somewhat synonymous with that of Thorndikes idea on the law of effect.

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It says that organism is in the process of operating on the environment, which in ordinary terms means it is bouncing around its world, doing what it does. During this operating, the organism encounters a special kind of stimulus, called a reinforcing stimulus, or simply a reinforcer. This special stimulus has the effect of increasing the operant -- that is, the behavior occurring just before the reinforcer. To make it more clearly, Skinner used a rat in a cage. This is a special cage (called, in fact, a Skinner box) that has a bar or pedal on one wall that, when pressed, causes a little mechanism to release a food pellet into the cage. The rat is bouncing around the cage when he accidentally presses the bar and a food pellet falls into the cage! The operant is the behavior just prior to the reinforcer, which is the food pellet, of course. In no time at all, the rat is furiously peddling away at the bar, hoarding his pile of pellets in the corner of the cage. In the absence of pellets, the rat will definitely stop pressing the bar. This is called extinction of the operant behavior. Significance on teaching/learning process- Teachers must use positive reinforcement such as praise, commendation, awards and etc. instead of negative reinforcement in order to develop a desired behavior. (e.g. If a teacher wants the classroom rules to be followed, its better for him/her to commend by giving award (tokens, certificate etc.) to student/s who faithfully follow/s it. This will motivate other students to do the desired actions.

Gagne was an educational psychologist who pioneered the science of instruction. He was also involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer based training and multimedia based learning. He is also known for the Gagne Assumption which states that different types of learning exist and that different instructional conditions are most likely to bring about these varied types of learning. Significance on teaching/learning process- According to Gagne, learning will takes place more easily if the teacher gains students attention, informs learners of objectives, stimulate recall of prior learning, presents stimulating learning materials, provide guidance, elicit performance, provide feedback, assess performance and enhance retention transfer.

Constructivism refers to the philosophical belief that people construct their own understanding of reality
based on our schema or prior knowledge. It argues that rather than assimilate a body of knowledge, humans construct meaning based upon their interactions with the environment. As opposed to behaviorism, constructivism believes that there is no external truth or knowledge outside of a knowers experience. In its most radical form, constructivists believe that there is no reality saved for what we create with our own minds. Constructivism has roots in classical Greek antiquity, going back to Socrates dialogues with his followers, in which he asked directed questions that led his students to realize for themselves the weaknesses in their thinking. The Socratic dialogue is still an important tool in the way constructivist educators assess their students' learning and th plan new learning experiences. At the turn of the 19 century, educational theorists advanced radical ideas on teaching/learning process which eventually led to its development.

Deweys theory of education is often summed up as learning by doing. He sought to replace the traditional teaching method of memorization. He believed that the value of an idea lay in the practical purposes to which it could be put. This philosophical idea is known as pragmatism. He stressed the importance of experience in learning. He insisted the idea that education is a process of living and that students must learn to adapt a changing world.

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Significance on teaching/learning process- Students should be allowed to experiment, explore and apply theories and concepts learned not only in physical sciences but in social sciences as well. In order maximize learning, student-centered activities must be employed while rote learning through memorization and pure lectures of teachers are discouraged.

Piagets greatest contribution to learning theory was his idea on the Stages of Cognitive Development which includes the sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational stage. He was one of the first psychologists who coined the term schemas which is significant in the development of Constructivism. He believed that humans learn through the construction of one logical structure after another. He also concluded that the logic of children and their modes of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults. The implications of this theory and how he applied them have shaped the foundation for constructivist education. Significance on teaching/learning process- In introducing a new topic/lesson, eliciting schema or prior-knowledge from the students is crucial in teaching/learning process. Every stage of human development has distinct learning characteristics (learning needs, strengths and modes) which a teacher must know in order to use these in his/her advantage so that learning would likely occur.

Vygotsky has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past decades particularly of what has become known as Social Development Theory. He stressed the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition. He firmly believed the idea that community plays a central role in the process of making meaning. Unlike Piaget, he argued that learning is necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function". This means that social learning tends to precede development. According to him, there is no single principle that could account for development. Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded. He places more emphasis on culture, language and other social factors on the cognitive development of human. Significance on teaching/learning process- Teacher must always be informed of his/her students socio-cultural backgrounds that affects their learning process. Community must be involved in the holistic development of a learner. Language is crucial in the learning development of a student.

Brunner is one of the best known and influential psychologists of the twentieth century but it is in the field of education that his influence has been especially felt. His ideas on how culture shapes the mind of an individual have been influenced by Vygotsky. He also added that culture provides a toolkit by which we construct not only our worlds but our very conception of ourselves and our powers'. In his book The Process of Education, Brunner emphasized four key themes which are the following: o The role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching o Readiness for learning o Intuitive and analytical learning

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o Motives for learning Significance on teaching/learning process- Teachers are challenged to prepare students to be more analytical, intuitive, independent, reflective and more motivated in order to make them life-long learners which is crucial in their social survival.

Influenced by Piaget, he viewed neo-behaviorist assumptions inadequate. His work focused more on verbal learning. He dealt with the nature of meaning, and believes that external world acquires meaning only as it is converted into the content of consciousness by the learner. For Ausubel, meaning is created through some form of representational equivalence between language and mental context through reception and discovery. Subsumption is the term used by Ausubel in explaining how an individual incorporates new material into ones cognitive structures. One of his notable contributions to classroom application was the use of advance organizer. It is a device to activate the relevant schema or conceptual patterns so that new information can be more readily subsumed into the learners existing cognitive structures. Significance on teaching/learning process- For language teachers, Ausubels didactic, expository teaching methods is a useful tool for it encourages rapid learning and retention. Also, the use of advance organizer which is a tool or a mental learning aid help students integrate new information with their existing knowledge which leads to meaningful learning.

Characteristics In the behaviorist classroom, students work primarily alone, learning is achieved through repetition, and the subjects are strictly adhered to and are guided by a textbook. In behaviorism, the teacher is the main focus of the class and all the students must often follow the directions exactly as they are given.

Example of Behaviorist Activities Some activities encouraged in behaviorist classrooms are: o o drill-and-practice as the main form of instruction use of reward and/or punishment

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Characteristics In the constructivist classroom, students work primarily in groups and learning and knowledge are interactive and dynamic. There is a great focus and emphasis on social and communication skills, as well as collaboration and exchange of ideas.

Example of Constructivist Activities Some activities encouraged in constructivist classrooms are: o o o o Experimentation Research projects Field trips Films

Constructivist approaches can also be used in online learning. For example, tools such as discussion forums, wikis and blogs can enable learners to actively construct knowledge. Because existing knowledge schemata are explicitly acknowledged as a starting point for new learning, constructivist approaches tend to validate individual and cultural differences and diversity.

Sources: Brooks, Jacqueline G. et al (1993). In Search of Understanding: The Case for Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com:8100/legacy/college/reys/0471151637/blm/ch02.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_teaching_methods http://www.articlesbase.com/college-and-university-articles/educational-approach-in-constructivism-andbehaviorism-441073.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism

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The four elements of seamless classroom management are strategic planning, adequate pacing, clear transitions, and engaging teacher presence. A well managed class should hum along like a cooking show where the teacher is the host-chef, the materials are organized like the ingredients and supplies, the instruction is clear, and the pace is comfortably brisk. Tying all of the elements together is then like serving an evenly heated meal; sequence and time are of the essence. Strategic Planning: Organization o Planning a class means organizing the teachers instruction and activities in a logical, linear way. The sequence of class events must be clear and make sense to the students. Students need to have something to do, a bell-ringer activity, the minute that class begins. The bell-ringer hooks them into the class, focuses them, and settles them into the class routine. The teacher can then move on to the instruction of the day, practice activities, and an ending re-cap in an appropriate sequence and manner for the students and the subject. Class Events Bell-ringer, or walk-in-the-classroom activity Teacher explanation of class events and what the students will learn to do Review activity New content or skills Practice activities Recap of what was done, or learned in the class Class events can be sequenced in a customized way for different types of classes, like a class devoted to project work or an assessment.

Pacing: Managing Minutes o A students attention span is one-half of his/her age. Keep this in mind when developing activities. Students get frustrated when too little time is given to a task, and too much time on a task invites distractible behavior. Younger students require more simple activities with more repetitions in a single class, where older students need only one or two more complex problems or tasks. A lesson is the sum of its allotted minutes, and it needs to be dissected minute by minute. Each class event should be assigned the time appropriate for the students attention span and the targeted content and skills. A fourth grader will take much longer to copy notes, or look up a word in the dictionary than a tenth grader. Flexibility is key when students take less or more time for an activity because the teacher has to move into another activity or change course instantly.

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Setting the Agenda: Daily Purpose Students are programmed to enter a class and wait for the teacher to lead the action, or to direct them to work independently. Todays students want to know the purpose of a lesson, and when the teacher tells them, they are receptive and ready to go. The teacher sets the pace when he or she tells them what theyll be doing and in what order. Telling students approximately how many minutes they will have for an activity, problem, or assessment augments their focus and lends a bit of urgency to each task.

Transitions: Orchestrating Change o Transition time between class events is challenging to manage, and empty minutes between activities set the stage for students to jump off task and misbehave. Attention grabbers keep the students with the teacher for those vital seconds or minutes. Attention Grabbers Rhythmic hand-claps Gesture Repetitive phrase Chant or song Percussion instrument or noise-maker Symbol, sign or flag A class full of students needs direction in clear, overt ways just like a busy, four-way stop intersection does. The teacher is an adept traffic cop, signaling and directing students to their next task. Each class activity must have a starting signal, direction, and then an ending signal.

Teacher Presence: Move Around and Connect o All teachers can make their classroom presence strong and appealing. Some charismatic teachers draw students to them with little effort, and these pied pipers have the advantage of immediate draw. Employing the basics of teacher presence keep students sustained attention and prevents discipline lapses. Move around the Whole Class Give the opening introduction from a designated spot Move to another area to give instruction Move from student to student during full class practice or Q & A Stand next to students with behavioral lapses Move after during transitions between class events Sit in on each group during group work Connect with Each Student Greet all students Use eye contact will Ask each student about his/her life Laugh with students Solicit student opinion on the effectiveness of activities, tasks and assessments Give students a voice on appropriate issues Ask students for help with classroom tasks

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Sources: http://classroom-managementtips.suite101.com/article.cfm/elements_of_great_class_management#ixzz0fs0fY2Wj

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One of the major components of any speech or presentation is the speaker himself (the source of the message). Many people forget that THEY are the presentation and NOT the visual aids. Many presenters today put so much effort into the visual aids that they forget that those are just aids to the speaker. There are three factors to consider about any speaker:

His / Her motivation in giving the presentation A speaker's motivation can be viewed in terms of: Direct personal reward (e.g. $$$) or indirect rewards (feeling good about helping others) are involved. Immediate rewards ($$ today) or delayed rewards (getting a college degree after 4 years of college play a part.

In essence, a speaker may be motivated by one or BOTH of these factors. Before speaking you should consider what YOUR motivations are.

His / Her credibility as a speaker A speaker's ideas are accepted as believable only to the degree that the speaker is perceived to be credible. The speaker's credibility depends on his/her trustworthiness, competence, and good will. Also, the speaker who is well organized will usually be considered competent while the speaker who is attractive and dynamic will be seen as more credible than one who is not. The most fundamental factor a speaker projects is the attitude he/she has toward himself/herself.

His / Her delivery or speaking style The delivery, the way a message is presented, should compliment the speech's objective. A well written speech delivered poorly can quickly lose effectiveness.

Faculty members must wear their uniforms or appropriate business attire at all times. For PE, RLE and Laboratory classes, faculty members are advised to wear the prescribed teaching attire or uniform (e.g., Chefs uniform during kitchen laboratory classes, proper Laboratory Gown during Science Laboratory classes, White Gown or Nurse Uniform during RLE classes, etc.).

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Table 1 presents the acceptable and unacceptable attire for male and female faculty members. Acceptable MALE

Unacceptable

Long sleeves polo with collar worn with a neck tie Polo Barong (short or long sleeves) worn over a plain undergarment with sleeves Slacks Leather shoes and dress socks Collared blouse with sleeves Non-collared blouse must be worn with blazer at all times Slacks Skirts with a modest hemline worn with stockings (hemline for skirts should be no shorter than 3 inches above the knee) Closed shoes

Denim or denim-like pants T-shirt Walking shorts Corduroy Sports apparel Loafers and gym shoes Plunging neckline Sleeveless, halters, and bustier See-through materials Leggings Denim or denim-like pants Walking shorts Culottes Capri or knee length pants Sports Open sandals and slip on clogs

FEMALE

Table 1 Acceptable and Unacceptable Attire

The way you look and act determine what people think about you. When you wear wrinkled clothing, people will think that you do not care about yourself. Looking always at your best for work can lead to success in getting what you want. Summary of Dos and Donts Do wear clean, ironed clothes. Do empty pockets beware of bulging keys and tinkling change. Dont wear loud, bright colors such as greens, reds or purples. These colors can be used sparingly as accents or accessories. Dont wear jeans or t-shirts. Do wear buttoned shirts, leaving only one or two buttons open at most, not showing chest. Do wear a tie if possible. Make certain that it is knotted firmly, not loosely around the shirt collar. Do wear traditional daytime fabrics. Avoid wearing satins or leather. Dont wear baseball caps or sunglasses.

Shoes

Do wear clean, conservative, and polished shoes. Dont wear athletic shoes, now matter how clean and new (except for PE Instructors) Check your shoes. Employers watch the type of shoes that you wear. Simple pumps are the best bet. Never wear sandals, neither flat nor heels, even if they are dressy. The color of your shoes should match, not contrast, your outfit. Wear beige, black, brown, navy or gray. Do not wear bright colors like red, yellow or gold.

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Hosiery Stockings should be sheer and match the outfit that you wear. They can match your skin tone or be neutral toned (cream, black, brown, navy or gray) to match, but not contrast, your outfit. Patterned, printed, seamed or colored stockings should not be worn. Jewelry Jewelry, when tastefully worn, is always an asset to your outfit. A beautiful pin or a favorite bracelet can add to your outfit and can help you feel comfortable. Do avoid wearing too much jewelry. This means wearing one bracelet or one necklace instead of many to avoid distractions. The same is true with wearing rings. As a rule wear, only three pieces of jewelry at one time, not counting your watch. Be cautious of wearing dangling earrings unless they are small. Also, do not wear multiple earrings. Leave the nose rings, eyebrow rings, lip rings and other piercing at home. Dont wear more than two rings. Dont wear any body piercing paraphernalia (earrings, nose rings, or eyebrow rings) Dont wear chains or distracting necklaces.

Hygiene and Skin Care Hygiene is an ongoing task. Bathe or shower daily. Rinse or wash your face at least two times a day. Brush and floss daily. Use mouthwash or rinse with diluted baking soda if mouthwash is not available. Drink plenty of water to keep your insides clean. This will also help to keep your skin fresh on the outside. Remove underarm and leg hair regularly. Also, remove any facial hairs as they appear. A depilatory or a bleaching cream may be needed if you have heavy facial growth. Do shave your facial hair. If you wear a beard, it should be neatly trimmed. Mustaches should also be trimmed. Wear very little or no perfume. Do use deodorant. Do not use a lot of cologne. Make-up The reason for cosmetics is to make you look prettier and highlight your best features. Do learn how to apply makeup properly. It may take practice. Ask a friend to help you or go to a cosmetic counter in a department store for advice Hair Do wear your hair clean and styled neatly. Your hair should complement your face and complexion. Wear a conservative yet attractive style. Style hair so that it is away and out of your face. Hair color should not be more than one or two shades darker or lighter than your natural hair color. Unnatural colors (burgundy, green, etc.) must be avoided.

A word about tattoos

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They have become very popular and are worn by both older and young women. It is recommended that the tattoo should be covered with clothing, if possible, when teaching.

Hands and Nails Do not have dirty fingernails. Trim nails and scrub hands if necessary. Your hands talk for you! They should be clean and smooth. Keep a small bottle of lotion to keep your hands moisturized. You can have your nails professionally done or you can do them yourself. Heres how: Gently shape nails with an emery board. Soak hands and nails for about two minutes in warm soapy water. Gently push back and remove cuticles with an orange stick or towel. Wash hands and lightly scrub to remove remaining cuticle. Rub a light oil or cream into fingers, nails and cuticles to help moisturize. If you wish, finish with a clear or neutral color nail polish

Women come in diverse shapes and sizes. The clothing that women select should always flatter their form. The list of body types below shall educate the women in this group what clothing styles to practice that complement their figure.

The "Athletic" Figure- Characteristics of your Athletic shape are broad shoulders, toned arms, a toned tummy without much curve and square hips. Your silhouette is generally much more square and muscular compared to the Busty and Pear body types. Some celebrity "Athletic" figures are Cameron Diaz and Nicole Kidman.

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Body Type Athletic Broader hips than shoulders If this is you: create balance between top and bottom. o Use shoulder pads to balance hips with shoulders. o Wear tops with lots of interest, patterns and bright colors. o Bottom pockets should be either angled or sewn flat. o Wear soft, flowing, non clinging material on bottom.

The "Apple" Figure- If your bust, waist and hips are a similar size, then you most likely have an oval or Apple figure. This shape is generally characterized by a larger middle or upper torso, with slim arms and legs, and an undefined waist. The bust may sometimes be larger than the hips, and more often than not the buttocks are flat. Some famous celebrity Apples are Rosie O'Donnell and Camryn Manheim. Body Type Apple Figure Body is straight up and down without defined waistline. Top and bottom are almost the same size. If this is you: Create a gently indented waist o o o o Wear belts to imply your waist, but not too tightly. Avoid three-quarter length sleeves, they call attention to a lack of waist. Keep your neckline interesting, draw attention to your face. Keep clothing loose, not tight-fitting.

The "Pear" Figure- Pear's usually have more prominent hips, thighs and rears with smaller shoulders and bustline. There is almost always a defined waistline and the legs are generally somewhere between average and large. A woman with a Pear body has a bust that is smaller than their lower half and a bottom that is full and fleshy, sometimes round sometimes flat. Some famous celebrity Pears are Beyonce and Jennifer Lopez. Body Type Pear You carry your weight in the middle, a fuller waistline If this is you: Create length and a smaller midsection o Shoulder pads are recommended. o Show your legs to visually add height. o Wear prints or patterns either all over or on the bottom only. o Use thin, draped belts to imply a waist. o Add to long vertical line by using long accessories.

The "Hourglass" Figure- The Hourglass body type is curvy overall and has a defined waistline. The hips and shoulders are usually the same width and they have a medium to large bust. While the lower leg is generally slim and shaply, the upper thighs and rear can be quite full. Some famous celebrity Hourglass' are Salma Hayek and Marilyn Monroe. Body Type Hourglass Even width of shoulders and hips with defined waistline If this is you: keep your proportions as balanced as they appear. o Emphasize your waist. o Wear any color combination, print or pattern. o Prints or patterns should be on top and bottom to keep balance. o If very curvy, lessen by using soft blouses and long tops to create a straight look. The "Inverted Triangle"- The Inverted Triangle body type is characterized by full bust, waistline and upper back but is less full in the hips and has a flat rear. There is often a pronounced tummy and midriff and broad shoulder

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giving a "top heavy" look since the hips, buttocks and lower legs are generally proportionally smaller compared to the upper body. Angelina Jolie and Jessica Biel both have "Inverted Triangle" bodies.

Body Type Inverted Triangle Broader shoulders and/or larger bust than hips, often thin legs If this is you: create balance between top and bottom. o no shoulder pads o wear darker colors on top o wear bright colors and patterns on bottom o avoid tight fitting belts o avoid frills, ruffles and pockets on tops o accessories should be simple

Dont wear your skirt too short. Even if short is fashionable, you dont want to draw attention to your thighs. Keep your skirt length at or below your knee. Sometimes opaque hose can mask a too short skirt. Dont show too much skin. This means cleavage as well as arms. So this means staying away from low-cut and sleeveless tops and also sheer fabrics. Do wear traditional daytime fabrics. Dont wear satin, velvet, glittery or leather fabrics. Dont wear iridescent or neon colors. Do wear pleasant colors women have a wide choice in beautiful colors

Formal Business: A clean, pressed suit is the best way to go. If this is not available, a suit jacket with coordinated slacks to match is the second choice. Tie with white, blue, beige or other light colored shirt that compliments the suit. Dress shoes, black or brown only. Dark socks. Summary of Dos and Donts Do wear clean, ironed clothes. Do empty pockets beware of bulging keys and tinkling change. Dont wear loud, bright colors such as greens, reds or purples. These colors can be used sparingly as accents or accessories. Dont wear jeans or t-shirts Do wear buttoned shirts, leaving only one or two buttons open at most, not showing chest. Do wear a tie if possible. Make certain that it is knotted firmly, not loosely around the shirt collar. Do wear traditional daytime fabrics. Avoid wearing satins or leather. Do wear clean, conservative, and polished shoes. Dont wear athletic shoes, now matter how clean and new (except for PE Instructors) Dont wear more than two rings. Dont wear any body piercing paraphernalia (earrings, nose rings, or eyebrow rings) Dont wear baseball caps or sunglasses. Dont wear chains or necklaces. Do wear your hair clean and styled neatly. Do use deodorant. Do not use a lot of cologne. Do not smoke, chew gum or spit tobacco.

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Do shave your facial hair. If you wear a beard, it should be neatly trimmed. Mustaches should also be trimmed. Do not have dirty fingernails. Trim nails and scrub hands if necessary.

Do you know how to tie a tie? Heres how.

The best color choices for outfits: Grey or navy An excellent color especially for conservative organizations Blue A favored color especially in front of males Black Can be perceived as being "too strong". If black is worn, soften the color by using white or pastel accents. Accent colors: White, cream, light grey or blue Good neutral colors for blouse or shirt Yellow Gives impression of a productive and creative person Red A powerful color for small accents such as a scarf Orange A good accent color encourages conversation

Sources: http://urbanext.illinois.edu/dress/credits.cfm http://labellefilleconsultants.com http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0e/Outline-body.png http://www.presentation-pointers.com/showarticle/articleid/84/

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Audience analysis If at all possible, arrive early and introduce yourself to other early arrivers. Get their names. Learn what they do. Find out what they want to learn from hearing you speak. Gathering this information from several people, you'll get a quick feel for mood and the expectation level. Chances are people will tell you something that relates to your subject matter. When they do, ask if you can refer to that story during your presentation. Reason: You'll be providing an illustration that relates directly to "one of their own." Accordingly, the audience is much more likely to tune in and resonate with what you're saying.

One thought per pair of eyes This unique tip is powerful for connecting with the audience. Many speakers scan their audience while they talk. Sure, they'll be making eye contactfor a microsecondbut it's only a contact, not a connection. For presentations to have impact, contact is not enough. A connection is needed. "One thought per pair of eyes" means looking at someone and speaking your thought directly to that person. Then look somewhere else in the room, connect with another person's eyes, and speak to that person directly - as if you were talking to him or her alone - as you complete your next thought. Then look to someplace else in the room and do it again. In other words, don't just make eye contact. Genuinely connect with individuals one thought at a time, and your whole audience will feel the connection.

Look mostly at people who are giving you positive visual cues in return. This goes hand-in-hand with tip number two, and here's why it's powerful: The majority of communication is body language. When your eyes connect with people who are "getting it," your body communicates that affirmation to the whole audience. Subconsciously, "fence-sitters" might be doubting your message, but they're getting visual cues that you're connecting with others. The conflict often causes them to listen closer: "People that I know and trust are getting this - maybe there's something being said here I don't understand." If nothing else, by focusing on the positive visual cues you're getting, you enhance the idea that you're connecting with your audience. Conversely, when a speaker focuses on people who are disagreeing with them, that disconnect will be picked up by all in the room. The resulting feeling is "this speaker isn't connecting with the audience."

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Co-cultural differences based on ethnicity: Tagalog and other Filipino ethnic group communication patterns

As with other cultural groups, Filipino traditions of familial values, including norms of mutual support and hierarchical patterns of authority, have been described as pervasive (Santos, 1983). Regional divisions and linguistic differences and barriers have thus endured to the present; they have created major difficulties in promoting educational and cultural development (PAPEP, 1982).

Co-cultural differences based on age

Age and generational differences have produced challenges for teachers and students who increasingly must participate in multigenerational groups. Hicks and Hicks (1999) have examined historic events with respect to the four generations and have identified a number of key differences that challenge members of different age groups to communicate effectively. The following generational descriptions are, of course, overgeneralizations; however, significant happenings have influenced each generations value and approach to life. The Builder Generation Individuals born before 1945; key experiences include World War II. Most were adults during the 1950s economic boom, when ordinary people could buy houses, appliances, and cars for the first time. This generation believes in discipline, self-sacrifice, and working toward the common good. People in this generation also tend to value conformity and traditional role relationships between the sexes; they lack spontaneity. The Boomer Generation Individuals born from 1946 to1964. They experienced the civil rights movement and the advent of the birth control pill. This is a confident generation, willing to challenge authority and tackle big causes. The X generation Individuals born from 1965 to 1976, are sandwiched between two very large generations. They want to prove themselves, but arent being given the chance to do so. They are used to change and have a commitment to diversity; which they value more than conformity. The Net generation - Individuals born from 1977 to 1997; the first truly wired generation, comfortable with technology in all forms. They are comfortable in group settings, are openminded and tolerant and are nonlinear thinkers. But they also dont like to conform to bureaucracy and organizational rules.

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Co-cultural differences based on socio-economic class

Numerous studies attest to differences in communication patterns based on socioeconomic class Parents in middle and upper class families socialized their children to observe deadlines and structure their time. Hence, children from this class are trained to do one thing at a time and to complete one task before going on to another. They plan their schedules and adhere to them. The working class families used looser organizational patterns and tended to do several things at once, such as watch television, eat dinner and talk to each other at the same time. Schedules are not planned and are changed spontaneously.

Source: http://www.management-issues.com/2007/6/19/opinion/connecting-with-your-audience.asp

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For education in school to be effective, the learning environment needs to be conducive to learning. It should provide students space and time to interact in order to facilitate teaching-learning process. The organization of classroom is as important as the organizing of the curriculum or organizing of the learning. Of course, the physical setting of your classroom may vary depending on the subject you are going to teach. Since we are dealing with college students, classrooms are typically composed of series of chairs, a teachers table, chalkboard, and device for ventilation. But this usual scene may give a convincing look for students if properly managed. Here are some point you need to consider: Is the learning environment welcoming and convincing? How is this portrayed? o The color of paint on the walls, the curtains, the teachers table, the chairs or even simple decorations on the walls may construct this environment. And of course, on how these things are arranged inside the classroom. Is there enough space in the classroom? o The space of the classroom should provide opportunities for group activities. There are noisy and quiet activities that must also be considered. There are unavoidable circumstances that you may have large number of students that the space is not enough for them in performing the given activity. Well, try re-arranging the seats or have the activity outdoor if possible. Otherwise, theres something wrong with the room assignment, sectioning or to the kind of activity you had assigned to your students. Are there clearly defined areas which provide focus for different learning experiences? o The classroom should speak of what learning experiences the students may acquire after staying inside for 1.5 or 3 hours. Example, during laboratory classes, say chemistry, there should be an area where materials/equipments functions are learned, a space for experiments and a lecture area. What information is available about the classroom? o Each of your subjects is patterned with appropriate classroom. A series of chairs, a table and a podium would mean that the classroom is for a speech class. Computer units will present the Computer Laboratory as well as the drawing tables with the Drawing Room. Signs and labels should also be present inside the room. Among others are layout to the nearest fire exit, number of chairs inside the classroom and if possible policies on the use of the classroom.

Many people associate respect with the discipline given by teachers. Frequently, a respectful classroom environment comes from the students response to how the teacher sets the tone of the classroom and with the involvement of the students, thats why you are going to integrate your organization of the teaching environment. The basic components of a typical classroom include the following: Furniture o teachers table

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chairs/desks

Materials o Whiteboard o Markers o Others (books, handouts, etc) Equipment o OHP o LCD projector

The teaching environment must be organized to ensure the following: Teacher can move around the class easily Teacher can monitor the work of the group Teacher can address the class and involve them in question and answer

The most important feature of room arrangement is not where the furniture goes, but, rather, where the furniture does not go. The objective of room arrangement is to create walkways. You want to be able to get from any student to any other student with the fewest steps. For example, the following diagram shows four rows running from side to side with eight students per row. Imagine yourself working the crowd during Guided Practice as you supervise students' work. What's the shortest distance you can walk that will allow you to read the work of every student in the classroom? It's indicated by the highlighted lines in the diagram. We'll call this pattern of movement an interior loop. An interior loop allows you room to walk around and "work the crowd."

You may want to have students work together in small groups, as in cooperative learning or committee work. The following diagram shows a room arrangement in which students are working in groups of four. They may be seated at large tables, or they may have pushed their desks together. As you can see, this room arrangement looks very different from the previous diagram. However, when you start working the crowd, you will find your interior loop soon enough. An interior loop with tables arranged in a semicircle allows you to work the crowd while students work in groups.

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Optimum Interior Loop

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Central Aisle
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Computer Room
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Free Form
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In general perspective, resource is defined as a source of aid or support that may be drawn upon when needed. When it comes to the classroom learning environment, resources may include people, equipment, facilities, funding or anything else capable of definition required for the accomplishment of the teaching-learning process. Part of the classroom organization is considering the access and use of resources. You, together with your amazing voice and pleasing personality, is already a resource but some students may find it boring staring at you for almost 1.5 or 3 hours. Consider the following in managing your resources: The trainer or learner should readily locate the resources needed. o Of course, you wont want to hear screaming voices of students asking where to get the materials they need. Otherwise, your classroom would look and sounds like a market. Before you start your session with the students, evaluate first the resources you might need in delivering the lesson as well as the resources students may need if youve got an activity for them. Its a BIG NO to tell your students to get the resources they need especially from outside your classroom. Who knows, they stumble over the stair or cause any damage to the resources before they get back to you. Once they are in your class, you are responsible for them. There are also cases that you may need a human resource to operate some device that needs technical person/s. Be sure that before you use the device, the person to help you is already in the area to avoid delays and clamor of students.

Visual clues should be displayed to encourage independence though the use of systems, resources and organization of the classroom.

Student

Student Student

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Before the students make use of the resources, especially technical materials or equipments, they should have enough knowledge on how to use it. Thus, it is vital to provide labels to the materials for those students who arent familiar to it. For laboratory classes, there should always be safety and precaution signs. Properly orient and train your students before letting them use the resources.

The resources provided should meet the needs of your students. o As much as possible, give students the best resources available. Examples, for laboratory experiments, do not just always use replacement things over what is specified in the activity sheet. Although it will make similar results, its still best if you could provide the exact one.

Sources: http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/templates/TC012197821033.aspx http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/visio/HA012071381033.aspx

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The verbal component may be analyzed in terms of 3 basic elements: Content - is what you say about your topic. The content is the MEAT of your speech or presentation. Research your topic thoroughly. Decide on how much to say about each subject. Then decide on the actual sequence you will use. It is important that you consider the audience's needs, time factors, and other items as the content of your speech or presentation is prepared and presented. Style - is manner in which you present the content of your speech. Styles can vary from very formal to the very informal. Most presentations fall between these two extremes and in EVERY case, the style should be determined by what is appropriate to the speaker, the audience, as well as the occasion and setting. In a classroom setting, a teacher may shift from one style to another. For example, when delivering an introductory lecture about a certain topic, he/she may tend to adopt a formal style. However, when facilitating in-classroom activities, such as group works, he/she may opt for a more informal style. Structure - the structure of a message is its organization. There are many organizational variations, but in each case, the structure should include: o An Introduction which should include: an opening grabber such as a quote or shocking statistic (teaser/motivational activity) an agenda (stating of objectives) the purpose or main message of your presentation (introduction of main topic) A Body which should include: your main points or ideas (presentation of main topic) points which support your main message (presentation of sub-topics or supporting details) A Conclusion - which should include: a summary of your main points (recapitulation) a closing grabber (application/ closing activity) time for questions and answers, if appropriate

When speeches and presentations are poorly organized, the impact of the message is reduced and the audience is less likely to accept the speaker or the speaker's ideas.

Tipping the scale: Getting your point across one-sided conversations During conversation power plays, it is difficult to prove your point because someone else doesnt give you an opportunity. Hence, here are helpful tips to tip the scales during conversations. a. Listen and stay quiet the other person will automatically notice the sudden change. This is better than just fantasizing violence or giving up in disgust.

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b. c.

d.

e. f.

Repeat Thats right. Simply reiterate the point you were previously trying to emphasize. And I just said briefly restate what the other individual has just mentioned and immediately say, And I just said and repeat your point-of-view. If the person doesnt respond and goes on with his original point Feedback recast what they have said by using these words, I understand that you (want, believe, intend) to (repeat his point). What I dont understand is how it relates to Now mention your original point again. Put up the pressure by commenting on the responses, I have said this thrice, and you are behaving as if you have not heard me at all. Choose among alternatives: 1. Getting cooperation express your feelings by saying I need your view (or response to what I told you) in order to help you accomplish (a mutual objective). 2. Defuse an ugly situation allow another person to save face by assuming the blame for an uncomfortable conversation. Im sorry, I must not have communicated clearly about

Avoiding words that confuse; Utilizing words that empower Here are usual expressions that should be completely discarded from our vocabulary since it insinuates negative impressions: 1. Let me be honest with you (Other variations include: To be frank with you, and To tell you the truth) Common perception: Dishonesty This phrase implies that, up to that moment, you (speaker) have been deceitful or havent been completely honest that, in some way, youve been holding back. 2. Kinda, Sorta, Wanta (e.g. Its kinda hard to express my feelings to him/her.) Common Perception: Uncertainty These words express uncertainty and inability to communicate your thoughts. Its as if youre saying that You know what to say, but you just dont know how to express it. When we communicate we should make it a point to send clear message and not waste words. 3. Ill try Common perception: Non-commitment This expression translates that youre not committed to doing or seeing an action through. When you say Ill try, what youre really saying is Maybe I will; maybe I wont. In reality, one doesnt try. Its either you do or you dont. 4. I have to Common perception: Powerlessness Once used, it connotes that you have turned complete control of your life over to others. You are dependent upon others to make choices for you. 5. You know or You know what I mean Common perception: Confusion

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There are three major ways how we communicate non-verbally: Eye Contact: We communicate a lot of emotion through our eyes. Eye to eye contact is very important in communication. Lack of eye contact can indicate that the person is hiding something, telling lies, avoiding the communicator etc. It may signal negative self image of the person. Postures: Sitting postures or position also communicate a persons attitude. Rigid posture may indicate stress. Folding of hands may indicate not ready to open up. Leaning towards to the communicator may indicate aggressive attitude or interested also. Gestures: Facial expressions, voice qualities and tempo, body movements, smile, head nods etc, are coming under gestures.

The following is a list of some gestures and their meanings: o o o o o

Erect head: self-esteem, confidence, and courage Bowed head: humility, guilt, and submission Touching nose: fear, stage fright Artificial cough: doubt, surprise Whistling: genuine self-confidence

What is Kinesics? Kinesics is the study of nonlinguistic bodily movements, such as gestures and facial expressions, as a systematic mode of communication. Kinesics is the interpretation of body language such as facial expressions and gestures or, more formally, non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the body or the body as a whole. The term was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of Birdwhistell's work involved making film of people in social situations and analyzing them to show different levels of communication not clearly seen otherwise. The study was joined by several other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson. Drawing heavily on descriptive linguistics, Birdwhistell argued that all movements of the body have meaning (ie. are not accidental), and that these non-verbal forms of language (or paralanguage) have a grammar that can be analyzed in similar terms to spoken language. Thus, a "kineme" is "similar to a phoneme because it consists of a group of movements which are not identical, but which may be used interchangeably without affecting social meaning" (Knapp 1972:94-95). Birdwhistell estimated that "no more than 30 to 35 percent of the social meaning of a conversation or an interaction is carried by the words. He also concluded that there were no universals in these kinesic displays a claim disproved by Paul Ekman's analysis of universals in facial expression.

What is Proxemics? Body spacing and posture, according to Hall, are unintentional reactions to sensory fluctuations or shifts, such as subtle changes in the sound and pitch of a person's voice. Social distance between people is reliably correlated with physical distance, as are intimate and personal distance, according to the following delineations:

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Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering Close phase less than 6 inches (15 cm) Far phase 6 to 18 inches (15 to 46 cm) Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family members Close phase 1.5 to 2.5 feet (46 to 76 cm) Far phase 2.5 to 4 feet (76 to 120 cm) Social distance for interactions among acquaintances Close phase 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m) Far phase 7 to 12 feet (2.1 to 3.7 m) Public distance used for public speaking Close phase 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 m) Far phase 25 feet (7.6 m) or more Hall notes that different cultures maintain different standards of personal space. In Latin cultures, for instance, those relative distances are smaller, and people tend to be more comfortable standing close to each other; in Nordic cultures the opposite is true. Realizing and recognizing these cultural differences improves crosscultural understanding, and helps eliminate discomfort people may feel if the interpersonal distance is too large ("stand-offish") or too small (intrusive). Comfortable personal distances also depend on the culture, social situation, gender, and individual preference.

What is Chronemics? Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. The way we perceive time, structure our time and react to time is a powerful communication tool, and helps set the stage for the communication process. Across cultures, time perception plays a large role in the nonverbal communication process. Time perceptions include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyles, daily agendas, speed of speech, movements and how long people are willing to listen.

Time can also be used as an indicator of status. For example, in most companies the boss can interrupt progress to hold an impromptu meeting in the middle of the work day, yet the average worker would have to make an appointment to see the boss. The way different cultures perceive time can influence communication as well. For example, most Americans will schedule a meeting for a specific time, such as 2:15 p.m., and expect all involved parties to be punctual. In many cultures in Central America and South America, however, they may set a time to meet "sometime in the afternoon" and on many occasions the schedule is broken, changed or deadline unmet. Cultures are usually put into two time system categories: monochronic and polychronic.

What is Paralanguage? Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to modify meaning and convey emotion. Paralanguage may be expressed consciously or unconsciously, and it includes the pitch, volume, and, in some cases, intonation of speech. Sometimes the definition is restricted to vocally-produced sounds. The study of paralanguage is known as paralinguistics. The term 'paralanguage' is sometimes used as a cover term for body language, which is not necessarily tied to speech, and paralinguistic phenomena in speech. The latter are phenomena that can be observed in speech (Saussure's parole) but that do not belong to the arbitrary conventional code of language (Saussure's langue). The paralinguistic properties of speech play an important role in human speech communication. There are no utterances or speech signals that lack paralinguistic properties, since speech requires the presence of a voice

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that can be modulated. This voice must have some properties, and all the properties of a voice as such are paralinguistic. However, the distinction linguistic vs. paralinguistic applies not only to speech but to writing and sign language as well, and it is not bound to any sensory modality. Even vocal language has some paralinguistic as well as linguistic properties that can be seen (lip reading, McGurk effect), and even felt, e.g. by the Tadoma method. One can distinguish the following aspects of speech signals and perceived utterances: Perspectival aspects Speech signals that arrive at a listeners ears have acoustic properties that may allow listeners to localize the speaker (distance, direction). Sound localization functions in a similar way also for non-speech sounds. The perspectival aspects of lip reading are more obvious and have more drastic effects when head turning is involved. Organic aspects The speech organs of different speakers differ in size. As children grow up, their organs of speech become larger and there are differences between male and female adults. The differences concern not only size, but also proportions. They affect the pitch of the voice and to a substantial extent also the formant frequencies, which characterize the different speech sounds. The organic quality of speech has a communicative function in a restricted sense, since it is merely informative about the speaker. It will be expressed independently of the speakers intention. Expressive aspects The properties of the voice and the way of speaking are affected by emotions and attitudes. Typically, attitudes are expressed intentionally and emotions without intention, but attempts to fake or to hide emotions are not unusual. Expressive variation is central to paralanguage. It affects loudness, speaking rate, pitch, pitch range and, to some extent, also the formant frequencies. Linguistic aspects These aspects are the main concern of linguists. Ordinary phonetic transcriptions of utterances reflect only the linguistically informative quality. The problem of how listeners factor out the linguistically informative quality from speech signals is a topic of current research.

Some of the linguistic features of speech, in particular of its prosody, are paralinguistic or pre-linguistic in origin. A most fundamental and widespread phenomenon of this kind is known as the "frequency code" (Ohala, 1984). This code works even in communication across species. It has its origin in the fact that the acoustic frequencies in the voice of small vocalizers are high while they are low in the voice of large vocalizers. This gives rise to secondary meanings such as 'harmless', 'submissive', 'unassertive', which are naturally associated with smallness, while meanings such as 'dangerous', 'dominant', and 'assertive' are associated with largeness. In most languages, the frequency code also serves the purpose of distinguishing questions from statements. It is universally reflected in expressive variation, and it is reasonable to assume that it has phylogenetically given rise to the sexual dimorphism that lies behind the large difference in pitch between average female and male adults.

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In text-only communication such as email, chatrooms and instant messaging, paralinguistic elements can be displayed by emoticons, font and color choices, capitalization and the use of non-alphabetic or abstract characters. Nonetheless, paralanguage in written communication is limited in comparison with face-to-face conversation, sometimes leading to misunderstandings.

Sources: http://www.ljlseminars.com/aspects.htm http://socyberty.com/relationships/effective-non-verbal-communication/

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Noise refers to influences on effective communication that influence the interpretation of conversations. While often overlooked, noise can have a profound impact both on our perception of interactions with others and our analysis of our own communication proficiency. There are two types of noise a speaker must contend with:

External Noise - consists of sounds, people talking, coughing, shifting patterns, poor acoustics, temperature (too warm, too cold), poor ventilation, and visual interference such as poor lighting, or an obstructed view. Examples are Speakers voice Speakers mannerism Distractions Interruptions Internal Noise - if a speaker is confused or unclear about what he or she wants to express, this is due to internal noise. Internal noise can also arise if the speaker does not know or misanalyzes the audience. Examples are: Expectations Interests Emotional state Bias and assumptions Values and attitudes Memories and past experiences

Semantic Noise This is noise caused by the sender. i.e, the encoder. This type of noise occurs when grammar or technical language is used that the receiver (the decoder) cannot understand, or cannot understand clearly. Channel Noise This type of noise occurs when the medium or media used in relaying information causes disruption in the meaningful transmission of message.

Use more than one channel of communication at the same time (verbal and non-verbal) Use repetition and restatement

Source: http://www.ljlseminars.com/aspects.htm

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The process through which the speaker receives information about how his or her message has been received by the listeners and, in turn, responds to those cues. The feedback process is not complete until the speaker has responded to the listener. This process includes the listener's reactions to the speaker's response and so forth. You can ask your audience questions and even ask them what their understanding is of the point you have just made. Watch for non-verbal clues from your audience and be prepared to respond to the reactions of your audience throughout your presentation

From the message, you will receive responses from your audience. How will you use your message to adjust your message? Feedback in higher education complicates interaction processes between the teachers and the students. It plays a significant role in the teaching learning process. It could provide motivation, information, improvement, explanation and even clarification. With that, questioning had proven to be an effective way of soliciting/giving feedback. There are two main types of questions: Convergent and Divergent. o Convergent questions have only one correct answer and test rote knowledge of concrete facts. o Divergent questions have no single correct answer and are analytical. They are intended to test the students ability to synthesize information, offer educated opinions or create hypothesis based on their knowledge. Asking the right questions will help you understand the perspective of the person you are talking to and will contribute to significant improvements in learning.

The questioning techniques that follow correlate positively with learning gains. Phrase questions simply and clearly. Use words that learners understand easily. Avoid clutter (additional questions or explanations). Appropriate: "What are adult learners' needs?" Too much clutter: "Adults need certain things to succeed in classrooms to function effectively. What are those needs that help them become more successful learners in classrooms and help them function better?" Pause. Ask a question, and pause three to five seconds before calling on a participant. Waiting gives learners time to think things through, which leads to more participation and better responses. Pausing--rather than rapid-fire drill--contributes to an environment of learning discussion. If possible, find part of the answer that's correct and reinforce it. Trainer: "Why might coins no longer be necessary? Learner: "People don't like the weight in their pockets." Trainer: "Good thinking. Coins are heavier than paper, but why might they become obsolete?"

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Probe learners' answers to help them clarify ideas, support a point of view, or extend their thinking. Trainers develop their own repertoire of questions to move learners toward deep understanding of concepts, issues, and situations. Examples: * "What makes you think that...?" * "Are you able to be more specific about...?" * "Can you tell me more about...?" * "What do you mean by...?" Trainer: "What is patriotism?" Learner 1: "Using flags and singing an anthem." Learner 2: "Using symbols for the country." Trainer: "Those are interesting ways of looking at patriotism. Can you tell me more about the concept of patriotism?" In that example, the trainer acknowledges the learners' attempts and probes for a deeper understanding. An alternative is probing to help learners connect their answers to something that occurred earlier. Refocus participants by connecting their answers to previously discussed subject matter. Trainer: "What are important issues in providing feedback to learners about their answers?" (No response.) Trainer: "Do you remember that earlier we discussed the importance of informative feedback?" Repeat the question. State the question again; perhaps some participants didn't hear it. Rephrase the question. Repeat the question with a slight variation--for example, "In other words...." Restructure the question. Modify it to be less complex, make more sense, or be more complete. Trainer: "What should be incorporated into your planning process before a lesson actually begins, (pause) Lewis?" Learner: "I don't know." Trainer: "How would you gain and maintain learner attention?" Learner: "A motivational statement or question." Ask closed-ended and open-ended questions. Closed-ended questions limit learners' answers to one or a few answers, requiring only simple recall of information. Then the answer is judged as correct or incorrect. Examples: "What is reinforcement?" "When did B.F. Skinner coin the term, reinforcement?" In contrast, an open-ended question encourages a broader range of answers. Learners use such thought processes in analyzing, problem solving, predicting, and evaluating. Example: "Why might negative reinforcement eliminate inappropriate behaviors?" Paraphrase learners' comments. Restate in your own words what a participant has said to check for mutual understanding between them and you.

There's no simple formula for arranging questions in meaningful sequences. A specific type of sequence depends on the learning goals and content, and on learners' abilities. You can begin with high cognitive-level questions and proceed to questions requiring simple recall. Such a sequence can include possible applications of an idea, followed by probing for details about how those applications might work.

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In contrast, a sequence of low-level followed by high-level questions can direct learners' attention to important facts and stimulate them to integrate facts and draw conclusions. The following strategies include types of sequences and their purposes: Extending A sequence of questions at the same cognitive level on the same topic. Extending often occurs in rapid-fire drills. Be certain that learners know the necessary facts for a given topic. Extending and lifting A sequence of questions at the same level followed by a leap to a higher level. Ensure that learners know the facts before asking challenging questions.

Extending probes are questions that ask the student to say more. They can be as simple as: "Can you add to that?" "And then what?" "Please go on." Example: Student: If were searching for extraterrestrial life with radio telescopes or, um, looking for signs of travel Teacher: Can your expand a little bit on your reasoning there? Clarifying probes ask the student to explain more clearly or to go beyond a simple answer. "Would you rephrase, please?" "What would be an example to that?" "What do you mean by (x)?" Example: Student: Maybe it would be one that matches type of replication or reproduction that we currently find within our own species and other species on the planet. Teacher: Could there be other reasons why replication would be important? Justifying probes ask the student to think critically, to identify evidence, assumptions, or reasoning. "What evidence suggests that?" "How did you come to that answer?" Example: Student: The search were on right now is a valid one, but I think the way were looking, we probably wont find it tomorrow. Teacher: Why not tomorrow? Redirecting probes ask other students to respond to the same question or a response from another student. "What do you think about it?" "What makes you agree or disagree with (y)?" Example: Teacher: Andy, I saw your hand up. Student: Youd sort of need an atmosphere conductive to generating water. Teacher: And how would an atmosphere be important?

Sources: Vandercar, Ashley (2002), Positive Reinforcement vs. Punishment, http://www.essortment.com/all/positivereinfor_rave.htm Theijsmeijer, Heather (2010), The Art of Questioning, http://www.cascaeducation.ca/files/proAstro_questions.html CET, SFSU (2003), Probing Techniques, http://oct.sfsu.edu/implementation/questions/htmls/probing.html http://www.ljlseminars.com/aspects.htm

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A. Nonverbal 1. gestures 2. facial expressions 3. body movement 4. posture B. Pictorial 1. diagrams 2. charts 3. graphs 4. pictures 5. objects Aural 1. 2. 3.

C.

tone of your voice variations in pitch and volume other vocal variety

Non-Projected Display Materials Chalkboard or Whiteboard o A chalkboard has a smooth surface, usually painted black or dark green, for writing on with chalk. o A whiteboard has a smooth shiny white surface, which can be written on with special pens and wiped clean with a dry cloth. Flannel, Cork or Magnet Board o A flannel board is covered in felt or other fabric, where paper with a rough backing is placed. o A cork board is a bulletin board made of cork where paper is stapled or tacked firmly in place. o A magnet board is made of metal on which images mounted on magnetic backing can be placed and moved about. Flip Chart o A flip chart is a series of paper sheets fastened together at the top which can be flipped over the top so that the next sheets can be used. Wall Display, Banner or Poster o A wall display is a collection of many different types of items put up on a wall to make an interesting and informative visual.

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o o

A banner is a long piece of cloth with words and pictures painted on or attached to it. A poster consists of pictures and words drawn on a large, flat sheet of paper or card.

Realia and Model o A realia is a real object used by a speaker to illustrate everyday living. o A model duplicates as accurately as possible a real object, sometimes smaller than the original.

Projected Display Materials Overhead Projector (OHP) & Transparencies o An OHP is an electric light box which projects the words and images on an acetate onto a screen or a white wall. o Also known as acetates, OHTs (overhead transparencies) are see-through sheets of plastic which have words and images written or printed on them. Slide Projector o A slide projector projects an enlarged image of a photographic slide/film onto a screen. It has four main elements: a fan-cooled electric light bulb a reflector and condensing lens to direct the light to the slide a holder for the slide/film a focusing lens LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Projector & Computer o An LCD projector is a type of video projector for displaying video, images or computer data on a screen or other flat surface. It is a modern analog version of the slide projector and overhead projector. Video Player & Television o A video player is a device that plays mediaoptical discs (VCD, DVD) or magnetic cassette tapes (VHS)and displays the moving pictures on a TV screen.

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Despite the increasing use that is being made of data projectors to display computer-generated materials to classes, the overhead projector is still probably the most useful visual aid available to anyone who wishes to carry out expository teaching of virtually any type. It is also extremely useful in many group-learning situations, both for presenting information to a group (eg in a seminar, or the briefing for an exercise of the game/simulation/case study type) and in enabling members of a group to display material that they themselves have produced (eg in a group project or case study). When linked with a laptop or personal computer via a liquid-crystal display tablet, the OHP simply performs these same functions in a less sophisticated way.

Some Strengths of the OHP The OHP has a number of definite advantages over most other methods of presenting visual information. A lecturer can, for example, use it in exactly the same way as a chalkboard or markerboard (for writing out notes, working through calculations and proofs, drawing graphic material, and so on) but with the great advantage of always facing the class, and thus being able to maintain eye contact with the learners. Such eye contact, which is, of course, impossible when a lecturer is writing on a chalkboard or markerboard, can play an extremely useful role in both expository and facilitative teaching, serving both as an outward non-verbal communication channel for the teacher and as a means of obtaining feedback from a class on how a session is going. Another important advantage over the chalkboard or markerboard is that the OHP can also be used to show preprepared material, thus enabling teachers and lecturers to build up banks of notes, diagrams, tables etc. that can be used over and over again. When well planned and designed, such sets of overhead transparencies can often also provide all the cues and aides mmoire that are needed during a lesson, so that no conventional teaching notes are required. As we will see later, such material can be prepared using a wide variety of production methods (free-hand writing or drawing, typing, photocopying, desktop publishing, and so on) and can incorporate a wide range of presentation techniques (progressive disclosure, use of overlays, use of animation, etc.). Overhead transparencies are also relatively compact compared with some other types of visual aids (eg charts), and are therefore easy to store in suitable boxes, large envelopes, folders or files. When computer disk files are used, back-up copies should always be kept. Compared with other projected aids, the OHP also has the great advantage that it does not require the room to be blacked out, thus allowing students to take notes; indeed it can be used in all but the very brightest light (eg direct sunlight), an advantage that tends to be lost when direct transmission of coloured electronic images is introduced, however. The OHP is also clean, quiet, and 'user friendly', requiring no technical skill or knowledge on the part of the operator apart from the ability to change the occasional lamp.

Some Weaknesses of the OHP Disadvantages of the OHP include the fact that it requires a power supply, and needs a suitable flat (preferably white) surface on which to project its image. Also, unless this surface is inclined forward at the correct angle, the image will probably suffer from 'keystoning'. Unlike chalkboards, OHP's do also require a certain amount of routine maintenance. They are also liable to break down occasionally (generally at extremely inconvenient times), so it is always advisable to have a spare bulb close at hand (most modern machines do in fact have a built-in spare bulb that can be brought into use at the turn of a knob.) A further disadvantage is that some lecturers find the glare from the OHP troublesome, although this can generally be overcome by attaching a suitably-positioned shade to the machine. Apart from these possible 'hardware' difficulties, the main problems associated with the overhead projector stem from the fact that many users do not give sufficient thought to the production of their display material. In many cases,

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writing is too small or too untidy to be read easily (both in some cases), quite apart from the fact that it frequently extends beyond the visible area of the transparency. Teachers and lecturers tend to forget that the illuminated projection area in most overhead projectors is not the same size as the acetate sheets that are used to produce OHP transparencies. Most OHP projectors have platens that are roughly 10 inches (250mm) square, with the corners either truncated or rounded. Thus, neither the old square acetate sheets that used to be common nor the newer A4 sheets that have largely replaced them fit properly on the standard square platen. The square acetate sheets are bigger all round, while the A4 sheets are bigger in the vertical or horizontal direction, depending on whether they are used in 'portrait' or 'landscape' format. Some newer OHP projectors, it is true, actually have A4-sized platens, so, provided that A4 acetate sheets are used, the problem neither does nor arise with them. Most OHP's are still of the traditional 'square' variety, however. Finally, teachers and lecturers tend, if anything, to overuse the overhead projector just because it is so convenient, employing it in situations where other forms of visual aid might, on occasions, be more effective.

Pre-write your notes on the flip chart page in faint pencil so you can refer to them as you present. (Your participants will not be able to see your writing, but you will.) Test your markers in advance. 1. Pre-write your notes on the flip chart page in faint pencil so you can refer to them as you present. (Your participants will not be able to see your writing, but you will.) 2. Test your markers in advance. Better yet, travel with your own markers. 3. Use dark-colored markers. The contrast between dark ink and paper will make your writing easier to read. 4. Print in large letters so people can easily see your words. Use a mix of capital and lower case letters. 5. Remember the KILL principle: Keep It Large and Legible 6. Use no more than 5 words across or 5 lines down the page. 7. Use two flip charts to display contrasting ideas or "pros and cons" 8. Write only on the upper two-thirds of the page (it is difficult to see the bottom third from the back of the room.) 9. Ask for a volunteer to write for you so you can focus on the participants. But, be sure to help the volunteer interpret what is being said and help them edit the participant's responses. 10. The most important tip: "Touch, Turn and Talk." Have you ever seen anyone read from his or her flip chart while talking? All you see is the back of their head while they block your view of the page. Instead, stand beside the flip chart, TOUCH the bullet point you are about to discuss, then TURN and face the audience (so they can see you clearly) and lastly, TALK. If you remember to "touch, turn and then talk," you will always be facing the audience while you are speaking.

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While everyone seems to be interested in creating high-tech computer generated presentations, the flip chart still continues to be the most effective presentation media of all. One should not assume that investing a lot of money in high tech visual aids & equipment will "make" your presentation. The best visuals have been and still are the simplest. Remember, the purpose of using visual aids is to enhance your presentation, not upstage it. Since most presentations are delivered before small groups of 35 people or less, the flip chart is the perfect size. I feel the flip chart will continue to be the workhorse of most training seminars. There are several advantages of using a flip chart. Here are just a few: 1. 2. 3. 4. Flip charts do not need electricity - You don't need to worry if the bulb will burn out or worry that you forgot the extension chord. Flip charts are economical - They do not require you to use any special films or printers to produce them. Color can be added very easily - An inexpensive box of flip chart markers allows you all the creativity you want. Flip charts allow spontaneity - Any last minute changes can be easily made.

In today's world of high tech computers, fancy software and sophisticated infomercials, many presenters today feel they have to create a presentation which shows off their ability to use computers and their latest clip art library. Although the software available today does allow everyone the ability to create colorful slides and overheads, we often find that the visuals become the presentation and not the speaker. As a speaker, your visual aids should not be the presentation. You are! Even though flip charts are low tech, they are reliable and don't require any special skill to use them but here are some tips to help you use them effectively. 1. The best flip chart stands have clamps at the top and will hold most type of flip chart pads. Most allow you to hang your flip charts while some stands will only allow you to prop them up. Don't wait until the last minute to find this out. Make sure the flip charts you use will fit the flip chart stand you will be using. Some have different spaced holes at the top. Flip chart pads are usually sold in packages of two and come either plain or with grid lines on them. Using the pad with grid lines makes your job easier for drawing straight lines and keeps your text aligned. Also, make sure the pad has perforations at the top to allow easier removal of sheets. I have seen many presenters struggle to tear off a sheet evenly. When preparing your charts, it is best to first design your charts on paper first before drawing them on the actual flip chart pad. Lightly write your text in pencil first before using the actual flip chart markers. This will allow you to make any adjustments with text spacing and any figures you will be drawing. Do NOT use all block letters (UPPER CASE). Using upper and lower case letters makes it easier to read. I like to use the 7 x 7 rule. Have no more than 7 words on each line and no more than 7 lines to a sheet. Using a 6 x 6 rule is even better.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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6.

Use flip chart markers and not regular magic markers. Flip chart markers will not "bleed" through the paper. Also, they do not have as strong a smell as regular markers. You can also find "scented" markers. They usually come in various fruit scents. Avoid using the colors yellow, pink, or orange. These are extremely difficult for the audience to see. Don't make your audience have to strain their eyes to see your points. Avoid using too many colors. Using one dark color and one accent color works best. You can write "lightly in pencil" any notes next to key points you need. The audience won't be able to see them. You may also write what is on the next sheet. Knowing this will allow you to properly introduce your next sheet. If you make any mistakes you can use "white out" to correct any small errors. For larger areas, cover the mistake with a double layer of flip chart paper and correct the error.

7.

8.

9.

10. Have a blank sheet of paper between each of your text sheets. This will prevent the written material from other sheets to "peek" through. 11. Properly store and transport your flip charts in a case or the cardboard box that some come in. This will protect your flip charts and keep them fresh and ready to use each time. Take great care of your flip charts.

Making "prepared" flip charts can take a considerable amount of time. Make sure you start preparing your charts early enough so you can review them and make any changes or corrections beforehand. It takes practice to learn how to print neatly. If you do not have neat printing, ask someone who does prepare them for you. A poorly prepared flip chart can be very distracting. The most important point to remember in preparing your flip charts is to start preparing them early.

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Quite simply, music making seems to activate and synchronize neural firing patterns that orchestrate and connect multiple cognitive brain sites. Thus, the brain's efficiency and effectiveness is enhanced. The key systems impacted are well connected between the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes, as well as the cerebellum. (Jensen, 2000b, p. 30) In any case, music can contribute to a positive atmosphere in the classroom, creating relaxation and in turn enhancing learning. Brewer & Campbell (1991) suggest the following uses of music in the classroom: to create a relaxing atmosphere to establish a positive learning state to provide a multisensory learning experience that improves memory to enhance active learning sessions to serve as background sound for learning activities to increase attention by creating a short burst of energizing excitement to release tension by using music with movement to align groups to develop rapport to accentuate theme-oriented units to provide inspiration to add an element of fun (p. 230)

Quite an impressive list. When it comes to music, we see that it has an impact physically on the brain, and emotionally. Passive music, so called because it induces a passive learning state, is music that has a fairly slow rhythm. This type of music is appropriate as background music for fairly quiet activities such as discussions, reading, lectures, or teacher review. Passive music promotes relaxation and rejuvenation and can help relieve tension and stress. Active music, on the other hand, can be used to get attention, stimulate awareness, or create greater focus. When combined with movement, more active music can restore flagging energy and promote blood circulation and deep breathing. In Music with the Brain in Mind, Jensen (2000b) also suggests two general categories of music: complex and simple. Complex music, he suggests, increases activity in many areas of the brain. Music that has structural complexity (like the piece used for the Mozart experiments--Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major) is good to include in your mix of music selections. Other pieces in this category include Haydn's Symphonies 42, 45, 56, 94, and 100. Some samples of music that have rhythmic complexity include Master Drummer from Ghana, by Mustapha, and Tettey Addy or Trichy Sankaran's Laya Vinyas (in Music of the World 120). (Jensen, 2000b, p. 33) On the other hand, music with a simple structure is well suited to background music. Music which has structural simplicity is best for background music. Consider using popular jazz instrumentals like George Benson, Kenny G. or David Sanborn. Environmental music can work wonders, too. Ocean sounds, waterfalls, and rain forest soundtracks are usually well received. (Jensen, 2000b, p. 41)

Music as One of Your Classroom Strategies Situation 1: Two university summer courses were preparing to get underway. These sessions were being held in classrooms directly next door to each other. In the room on the left, background music was being played. In the room on the right, no music was being played. Standing in the hallway, looking into both rooms, an observer could easily

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notice a clear distinction between the manner in which the students were interacting in each room. In the room with the music on, most students were engaged in conversation with each other, while in the other, students were sitting quietly, staring forward, waiting for the class to begin. Situation 2: It was 10:30 in the morning. The teacher asked the students to assist him by moving the tables and chairs to the sides of the room. As the students stood up, the teacher turned on upbeat, lively music, with the volume fairly high. The students moved rapidly to accomplish the task, and energetically moved to the next activity. Later that day, the same task needed to be accomplished once again. This time, as the students stood to move, no music was turned on. While students still accomplished the task, their movements were sluggish and it took much longer to achieve the same objective. As the next activity began, the teacher struggled to get the students fully engaged. Clarification: Music is a powerful tool which can be added to most, if not all, learning situations. It has a direct physical, emotional, and psychological effect on both the students and the teacher (Jensen, 2000). Properly employed, it can create a heightened social learning context, motivate students to engage themselves more rapidly, and provide a sense of safety that might not otherwise be possible. Each of these factors adds considerably to the development of a powerful learning environment (Burko & Elliot, 1997, Weinberger, 1998). As far as this book is concerned, application is everything, so here are some distinct ways in which a teacher might consider adding music to their learning contexts.

Four Places For Music Music Before Class. Imagine a silent room on the first day of a new course. Students might not know each other, so they are more reticent about saying hello to someone. Even if they did decide to introduce themselves to someone else, there is a danger, because the room is silent, and so any words spoken would be heard by everyone. Suddenly, merely talking to one other person becomes an adventure in public speaking; everyone can hear what is being said. Also, since there is no other noise present in the room, speaking up almost feels out of place. Have music playing as students enter the classroom.With music playing in the background, it is as if permission has unconsciously been given for people to speak to each other. Since there is already noise, it does not seem so threatening to simply "add to it," and subtly, students are invited to interact. With the music playing, when they engage in conversation, people across the room won't be able to hear. Thus the internal feeling of risk is greatly reduced. Given these circumstances, it is not surprising that students in the first example described above, who had the benefit of music in their environment, were already talking to each other, building a social learning environment. Most teachers realize this is a useful component in any learning context. In a way the students have already begun the class, independently moving to achieve one important objective of this first session. Music at the start of a session can also serve to set the tone, the atmosphere for the session. If the class is going to be activity based, or if lively group discussions are anticipated, it might be useful to have more "up-tempo" songs on, beginning to build the energy in the room. In this situation, music may act to subtly bring to mind a party type atmosphere, a useful mind set for the delivery of certain lessons. However, if the lesson plan calls for a more quiet, contemplative, or perhaps even emotionally challenging session, the choice of music might be softer songs, or gentle classical and baroque selections. There is one other direct benefit for teachers to have music playing at this point in the course of instruction. When it's time to begin the class, the music is simply turned off. Even in the few moments before instruction begins, students will already have been primed to having something auditory present in their environment. The loss of the music will cause them to turn their heads, knowing that something is happening. Seizing the moment, instruction now officially begins. This saves the teacher from having to start their classes by using such phrases as "OK, could you all look at me?" or "Well, I guess it's time to begin." or "Everybody, could you please get quiet so we can start?" With the successful use of music in this manner, the teacher can move directly to the lesson with the first words they speak.

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Music During Movement. When students are moving, it is rarely necessary for them to be listening to any words from the teacher. Therefore, this is an excellent place to include faster paced music. For example, as in the second situation illustrated in the opening to this section, perhaps students are required to move their chairs. In other situations, they may be forming groups, or moving to get supplies. Whenever movement is introduced into the learning setting, music can be used to help motivate the students to accomplish the task more rapidly, and with a sense of animation and enjoyment (Jensen, 1996). Upbeat, bright, energetic music is best in these situations. Since the overall goal is to move rapidly to the next direction or activity, music can auditorily stimulate the students' physical movement. The sense of energy brought into the learning setting by the inclusion of this type of music can be captured and built on by the teacher, as they segue directly into the next section of their lesson. It saves the teachers from having to expend their own precious energy to get the students up and motivated. Every time there is movement on the part of the students, turn on music that matches the mood you want to create with the students. Use of music at these important moments is one of the keys to maintaining a successful learning environment over the long term. Music Behind Small Group Discussions. Many times, students will be given the opportunity to discuss various aspects of the information they are learning with other students. Sometimes they will be talking with just one other person, while other times it might be within a small group. In either case, with several different groups holding conversations in the same room, there is a chance that volume level of the conversation from one group may intrude on the conversation of another group. Music played lightly in the background can lessen this sense of interference. This effect is referred to as a musical "pad." Physical padding is used to soundproof rooms in a home, walls in an apartment building, or a musical studio. In the classroom, the use of light background music effectively "pads" the room so that sound from one group will not interfere with sound from another group. In a silent room, if one group should break into laughter, the sudden intrusion of sound can be quite disruptive to other conversations. However, with a pad of music playing the effect of the interruption can be significantly diminished. Similar to the discussion of the use of music at the start of a class, this pad can also encourage conversation within a group. In a silent room, it may be a bit intimidating for some students to speak up and voice their opinions even in a very small group, since they don't know if people from other groups will hear what they have to say. With the sense of protection and privacy that the use of a pad offers, students frequently feel freer to engage themselves in the interaction. This effect facilitates both the initiation and the continuation of the interaction. There is one more aspect of using music behind group conversations that might be useful to consider. Since students will be talking during this time, decide whether to choose songs with or without lyrics. Sometimes, songs with words may prompt people to listen closely to the song, which in turn causes them to tune out of the conversation in which they are supposed to be participating. In most cases, this is definitely not the effect you are trying to create. In general, there are three choices to consider regarding lyrics: (1) none (2) unfamiliar, or (3) familiar. First, music without words can sometimes provide a gentle pad that supports the conversation by providing a low level of background sound. Second, songs with lyrics they don't know may be useful in some cases, since the mere presence of words may encourage them to talk and interact. Personally, I occasionally use gentle Hawaiian music in these circumstances. This is partly because the melodies are nice background choices, but mostly because people don't know how to speak Hawaiian!

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Finally, in rare cases, songs with lyrics they do know may work, especially if the words somehow relate to the current lesson. Remember that it's always your choice on what to use, simply make sure it helps create the atmosphere you feel is most useful in each learning situation. Music After Class. As the class ends, students gather their belongings and begin to file out of the room. This is a wonderful opportunity for music to be playing. The selections chosen at this time should leave students with a positive impression of the session that has just been completed. Since this is the final image they take away from your classroom, it will frequently be the first thing they think about when they begin to organize their thoughts for their next class with you. Obviously, it is much more useful for students to begin the subsequent session with a positive rather than a negative feeling about the last session they attended. These four places are excellent starting points when deciding how to use music in the classroom. However, if this is the first time you are considering the inclusion of this form of auditory stimulus in your lesson plans, organizing even these isolated moments might be an overwhelming experience, given everything else that is simultaneously happening in most classrooms. Give yourself time to learn, and feel free to experiment with a variety of musical choices while looking for what works best in the environment you are trying to create.

Sources: http://www.nalanda.nitc.ac.in/misc/general/ciced/Ch15.html http://ezinearticles.com/?10-Quick-Tips-For-Using-Flip-Charts&id=1158906 http://jobfunctions.bnet.com/abstract.aspx?docid=385767 http://www.ljlseminars.com/aspects.htm http://www.songsforteaching.com/richallen/strategies.htm Communication Arts 3 courseware (2009). Week 15 Sessions 40-42 Use of Audio-Visual Aids. STI Headquarters

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What exactly can presentation graphics do? It lets you tell a story in a way conventional graphics program cannot. With the use of PowerPoint presentation you can plan what gets shown to your audience and how. You decide what key points to emphasize and how to emphasize it. You choose the order of the information to introduce and determine the pace of the entire experience in delivering the presentation. PowerPoint presentations are now a requirement in the corporate world. Its impossible to sit through a conference, seminar or trade show without seeing at least one PowerPoint presentation. As nice as PowerPoint can be, it can be a hindrance if you dont know how to use it wisely.

To be able to create a PowerPoint presentation, you should know the parts of the PowerPoint Window. Here are the important areas of the PowerPoint window in Normal View:

Application Title Bar displays the name of the current application. Presentation Slide shows the name of the current presentation. Menu Bar contains the range of menus. Clicking the menu displays a drop-down menu. Toolbars contains buttons for frequently used tasks, such as opening, saving and printing. Slide Thumbnails in Normal View, this alternates with the Outline View when these tabs are clicked. Toggle Tab / Outline View accessing this will organize the text in your presentation.

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Drawing Toolbar contains buttons for drawing and formatting objects. Normal View Button simultaneously displays the area where one can work an outline that can be revised, and notes for the speaker or audience. Slide Sorter View Button displays thumbnails of each slide that can be zoomed. Slide Show Button - presents the slide one at a time in an onscreen slide show. Current Slide Indicator indicates the number of the slide currently on the screen. Template Name displays the name of the current template. Double-clicking this area lets you apply another template. Notes Area area in Normal view that you can enter speakers notes for the current slide. Slide Area the work area where one creates, formats and modifies slide elements. Slide Scroll Bar displays other slides in the presentation. Previous Slide Button displays the previous slide in the presentation. Next Slide Button displays the next slide in the presentation. Task Pane can quickly apply layouts or designs to the current slide. Layouts automatic formats and placeholders for slide elements.

Task pane system opens many formatting options and some are the following:

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Using the task pane and the toolbars, you could create a simple PowerPoint presentation by following these simple steps: 1. Click on the Start button from the taskbar of your computer and select MS PowerPoint 2003 from the installed Programs. 2. Click on Create new presentation. Link in the Getting Started pane to start working on the first slide of your presentation. 3. Click the Design button on the Formatting toolbar to make use of a slide design or a color scheme. Scroll through the templates or color schemes, select one, glance at the slide on-screen, and decide which design is appropriate for your planned presentation. 4. The default slide layout will have two placeholders: Title and subtitle. Key in the text for these placeholders. 5. To insert a new slide, click on Insert menu, then select New Slide. Whenever you insert a new slide, you should also select your desired slide layout from the Slide Layout pane. When you select a layout in the task pane, the slide adopts the layout. 6. After you have decided what your presentation is all about and how it looks like, the next step is to enter the text on slides. The easiest way to enter text on slides is to click on a text frame and start typing where the placeholder frame is. You can do that one slide at a time, or if youre comfortable with Microsoft Word, import the presentation text from a word document. 7. If you want to change the appearance of your text, you make use of the Formatting toolbar. First select the text/s then choose from among the options in the toolbar. You may change the font face, color, style or size. 8. When your key points in the presentation need to be bulleted or in list, just click on Numbering or Bullets still on the Formatting toolbar and start typing the contents. 9. Tables, graphs, pictures or diagrams are also essential in conveying information during presentation. Just click Insert menu and select from the options on what you are going to insert. Every time you insert an object, a popup toolbar will be displayed if you want to modify it. 10. If youre done with the contents, design or style of your presentation, save it in your desired location by pressing <Ctrl + S>.

Here are some other points on how to format presentations:

Decide if your presentation is meant to entertain, inform or persuade. Is a light-hearted or a more formal approach most appropriate to the subject and your audience? Your presentation should speak your objectives. The Formatting Toolbar gives access to the most common formatting commands you can apply to a text or paragraph such as font type, color, style and alignment. When you are creating presentation, slide layouts are useful in helping you choose what you want your slide to look like. It contains placeholders where you can type titles or bulleted lists and insert objects like charts, pictures and videos. If you want all slides to have the same format throughout the presentation, make use of the Slide Master. An example is when you want to include clip art as your companys logo or a saying or a quote on all the slides of your presentation. Slide Master controls the appearance of your slide: background color, font style or any reoccurring text or picture. You could also add the date and time as well as the page number of your slides. But if you have a different approach on creating your presentation, you could use different slide layouts. Just make sure it matches your purpose.

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Applying animation to the elements of a slide or to the slide itself will make it impressive. But please do not overdo animation.

The most basic animation is the one that happens to the entire slide as the show moves from one slide to the next. These are known as transitions. Youve already seen this when you watch television but you probably dont pay attention to it. Transition effects can help direct the attention of your students and add a professional touch to it.

Just bear in mind these tips:

You can choose a transition and apply it to the Slide Master, automatically creating a global transition for your entire presentation. Wipe, fade and dissolve are all transition for widespread use. Then, if you truly need to highlight one or two slides, you can use a more dramatic transition and its effect will be applied on those slides. If you choose Random Transition, you give PowerPoint permission to choose any transition for any slide. Please dont do so, as this can be very distracting for the students.

Whereas a transition effect controls the display of an entire slide during the slide show, an animation controls how a particular object or piece of text appears on a slide. For example, you can create a slide title whose characters appear to be typed, one character at a time, as if they were coming from an old typewriter.

Please take note also of this tip:

Animation schemes might apply a number of animations to various objects on a slide. Furthermore, the schemes often add more than one type of animation to an object they may apply an entrance, emphasis and an exit animation to an object. Always preview and scrutinize the effect, and if your slides contain many objects, do not use preset animation schemes. Instead, apply custom animation. You can liven up your PowerPoint slide shows by adding sound effects, playing songs or even tracks from a music CD in your CD-ROM drive. Just go to the Insert Menu to do it. Of course, be reminded of these tips:

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If you hide the sound icon, make sure that its setting plays it automatically. Otherwise, you wont be able to click it during the slide show and it will be useless. Make sure the volume of the clip is acceptable. If it needs adjustment, you can do so from Sound Settings, although you will usually get better results by increasing the volume in a sound setting program.

PowerPoint can insert and play movies that were recorded in a variety of formats such as AVI (Audio Video Interleave), WMV (Windows Media Video) and MPEG (Moving Pictures Expert Group) videos. PowerPoint can also accept Macromedia Flash files, but inserting those is not so straightforward and is not advisable for new users.

In inserting multimedia to our presentation, please be reminded of the following:

Very important: Only the first frame of your movie is in PowerPoint. Your movies are linked from the source file, so if you move your presentation, the link to the movie may break. The best way to keep this from happening is to copy the movie into the same folder with the PowerPoint presentation file before you insert the movie into PowerPoint. Then you can move the entire folder around as you may. You can start and stop the movie during a slide show by clicking it. (If you click outside the movie, you stop the movie and advance the slide or introduce the next object.)

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PowerPoint gives you everything you need to create slide with a variety of different formats and you can convey your message visually in several ways. You can easily revise your graphics content right up until the time it is presented and you can customize your slides for any specific audience. Though, moderation is advised on this area, as it is easy to get carried away and continue to squeeze a presentation until it is nothing more than an over-designed and over-animated thing. Here are some tips in creating effective PowerPoint Slides: Use Design Templates o Design templates control the look of your presentation color scheme, text formatting and repeating graphical elements -- and you apply it with a single command. Standardize position, colors and styles o Changing the position, color and style of every content in every slide may distract the attention of your audience. Once they lose focus on your presentation, the lesser the probability that they understand what you are talking about. Include only necessary information o Avoid too many contents in your slide. Keep the design clean and uncluttered. You may just include additional points of the topic in the discussion than crowding your slide with information. Content should be self-evident o Of course, you dont want your audience to have a guessing game while staring at your slides. Even the graphics or objects inserted on your slide should clearly tell them what the topic is all about. Use colors that contrast o Limit the number of colors on your screen. Try also checking the colors on a projection screen before the actual presentation. The color on your computer monitor may sometimes vary when it is already projected. Be consistent with effects, transitions and animation o Do not create an over-animated and over-designed presentation. You are not just going to entertain your audience. Though animation and effects could convey information, using random transition and animation may distract your audience. They might be overwhelmed with your animation but not with the conveyed information. Too many slides can lose your audience. o Lesser number of slides that emphasizes key points is more effective than a presentation containing every word you intend to say during discussion. It is a boring scenario staring at the screen flashing one slide after the other without getting the thought of even a single slide. Know your topic and audience. o One of the most important factors of creating your presentation is to know what are you are going to present and to whom are you are going to deliver such information. The contents, designs, animations and transitions may reflect your topic and your audience.

Sources: Altman, Rick and Altman, Rebecca (2004), Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2003 for Windows, Peachpit Press Krieger, Stephanie (2010), 12 Tips for creating Better Presentations, http://www.microsoft.com/atwork/skills/presentations.aspx Montecino, Virginia (1999), Creating an Effective PowerPoint Presentation, http://mason.gmu.edu/~montecin/powerpoint.html

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Literally, assessment means "to sit beside and observe". In the context of classrooms, assessment is the systematic and ongoing process of collecting, describing and analyzing information about student progress and achievement in relation to curriculum expectations.

The primary purpose of assessment is to improve student learning. Assessment practices must be fair and equitable for all students. Communication about assessment is ongoing, clear and meaningful. Professional development and collaboration support assessment. Generally, students and parents are involved in the assessment process. Assessment practices are regularly reviewed and refined.

On the part of the students, the primary purpose of assessment is for them to receive multiple attempts to practice and to demonstrate understanding of content and to develop skills by receiving specific and timely feedback by the teacher in order to improve student achievement. On the part of the teachers, the primary purpose of assessment is for them to analyze student progress for the purpose of modifying and refining the teaching/learning cycle to better meet student needs.

Three types of assessment: (according to Elvira DiGesu) Diagnostic: Getting to Know My Students o Diagnostic assessment occurs at the beginning of the teaching/learning cycle. This type of assessment will provide the teacher with an understanding of the prior knowledge and skills a student brings to a unit, as well as the strengths and specific learning needs of an individual or groups of students in relation to the expectations that will be taught. Diagnostic assessment is conducted prior to and during teaching and learning to determine: what existing knowledge, skills, attitudes, interests, and/or needs the student has the range of individual differences what program plans and/or modifications are required to meet the needs of individuals or groups of students

Formative: Keeping Track of Progress o Formative assessment is an ongoing collection of information that occurs throughout the day/unit/term that enables teachers to track, support and guide students' continuous progress and improvement towards achievement of the expectations. It is this ongoing

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assessment that determines what the student knows and is able to do and can apply, and points to the next steps for teaching and learning. o Formative assessment is conducted throughout teaching and learning to: keep the teacher and students focused on the purpose of the lesson/activity/unit/program provide information to the teacher and students about the progress being made determine the effectiveness of instruction in helping students to achieve the purpose

Summative: Evaluating the Achievement o Summative assessment occurs at the end of a period of learning and provides students with opportunities to demonstrate their achievement of the important/enduring learning addressed during that period of time. It is used in combination with data from formative assessment to: describe what students know, can do and value evaluate student growth relative to the purpose of the lesson/activity/unit/program evaluate student growth relative to the curriculum expectations Purpose of Assessments of Learning and Teaching Types of Assessment Diagnostics Learning Assessment* Identifies learning needs and problems to support instructional decisions on planning and design*** Teaching Assessment** Determine level of competence, expertise; problem or areas of development

Formative Summative

Monitors student development to increase learning. Certifies amount of learning acquired for educational accountability of schools

Provide feedback for professional growth

Support administrative decisions on professional accountability

Sources: *Hagstrom (2006); **Murtha, Stec & Wilt (2006); Gronlund (2006)

Other categories of assessment: (based on Wikipedia) Objective and Subjective o Objective assessment is a form of questioning which has a single correct answer. o Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one correct answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer).

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Examples: Objective questions include true/false answers, multiple choice, multiple-response and matching questions. Subjective questions include extended-response questions and essays.

Referencing (criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and ipsative) Test results can be compared against an established criterion, or against the performance of other students, or against previous performance: o Criterion-referenced assessment, typically using a criterion-referenced test, as the name implies, occurs when candidates are measured against defined (and objective) criteria. Criterion-referenced assessment is often, but not always, used to establish a persons competence (whether s/he can do something). The best known example of criterionreferenced assessment is the driving test, when learner drivers are measured against a range of explicit criteria (such as Not endangering other road users). o Norm-referenced assessment (colloquially known as "grading on the curve"), typically using a norm-referenced test, is not measured against defined criteria. This type of assessment is relative to the student body undertaking the assessment. It is effectively a way of comparing students. The IQ test is the best known example of norm-referenced assessment. Many entrance tests (to prestigious schools or universities) are norm-referenced, permitting a fixed proportion of students to pass (passing in this context means being accepted into the school or university rather than an explicit level of ability). This means that standards may vary from year to year, depending on the quality of the cohort; criterion-referenced assessment does not vary from year to year (unless the criteria change). o Ipsative assessment is self comparison either in the same domain over time, or comparative to other domains within the same student. Informal and Formal o Formal assessment usually implicates a written document, such as a test, quiz, or paper. A formal assessment is given a numerical score or grade based on student performance. o Informal assessment does not contribute to a student's final grade. It usually occurs in a more casual manner and may include observation, inventories, checklists, rating scales, rubrics, performance and portfolio assessments, participation, peer and self evaluation, and discussion.

Sources: http://www.gecdsb.on.ca/d&g/onlinepd/Assessment%20&%20Evaluation/Purpose.htm http://www.gecdsb.on.ca/d&g/onlinepd/Assessment%20&%20Evaluation/Diagnostic.htm http://www.gecdsb.on.ca/d&g/onlinepd/Assessment%20&%20Evaluation/Formative.htm http://www.gecdsb.on.ca/d&g/onlinepd/Assessment%20&%20Evaluation/Summative.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assessment

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When considering assessment methods, it is particularly useful to think first about what qualities or abilities you are seeking to engender in the learners. Nightingale et al (1996) provide eight broad categories of learning outcomes which are listed below. Within each category some suitable methods are suggested.

Thinking critically and making judgments (Developing arguments, reflecting, evaluating, assessing, judging) Essay Report Journal Letter of Advice to.... (about policy, public health matters .....) Present a case for an interest group Prepare a committee briefing paper for a specific meeting Book review (or article) for a particular journal Write a newspaper article for a foreign newspaper Comment on an article's theoretical perspective Solving problems and developing plans (Identifying problems, posing problems, defining problems, analyzing data, reviewing, designing experiments, planning, applying information) Problem scenario Group work Work-based problem Prepare a committee of enquiry report Draft a research bid to a realistic brief Analyze a case Conference paper (or notes for a conference paper plus annotated bibliography) Performing procedures and demonstrating techniques (Computation, taking readings, using equipment, following laboratory procedures, following protocols, carrying out instructions) Demonstration Role Play Make a video (write script and produce/make a video) Produce a poster Lab report Prepare an illustrated manual on using the equipment, for a particular audience Observation of real or simulated professional practice Managing and developing oneself (Working co-operatively, working independently, learning independently, being self-directed, managing time, managing tasks, organizing) Journal Portfolio Learning Contract Group work

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Accessing and managing information (Researching, investigating, interpreting, organizing information, reviewing and paraphrasing information, collecting data, searching and managing information sources, observing and interpreting) Annotated bibliography Project Dissertation Applied task Applied problem Demonstrating knowledge and understanding (Recalling, describing, reporting, recounting, recognizing, identifying, relating and interrelating) Written examination Oral examination Essay Report Comment on the accuracy of a set of records Devise an encyclopedia entry Produce an A - Z of ... Write an answer to a client's question Short answer questions: True/False/ Multiple Choice Questions (paper-based or computer-aidedassessment) Designing, creating, performing (Imagining, visualising, designing, producing, creating, innovating, performing) Portfolio Performance Presentation Projects Communicating (One and two-way communication; communication within a group, verbal, written and non-verbal communication. Arguing, describing, advocating, interviewing, negotiating, presenting; using specific written forms) Written presentation (essay, report, reflective paper etc.) Oral presentation Group work Discussion/debate/role play Participation in a 'Court of Enquiry' Presentation to camera Observation of real or simulated professional practice

Sources: Nightingale, P., Te Wiata, I.T., Toohey, S., Ryan, G., Hughes, C., Magin, D. (1996). Assessing learning in universities. Professional Development Centre, University of New South Wales, Australia. Brown, S., Rust, C., Gibbs, G. (1994). Strategies for diversifying assessment. Oxford Centre for Staff Development, UK. http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/methods.html

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The most important aspect of student evaluation in most classrooms involves the tests teachers make and administer to their students (Gronlund & Linn, 1990). Teachers, therefore, need to understand the different types of test and their uses in the assessment and evaluation of the students learning. Test Defined A test is a systematic procedure for measuring an individuals behavior (Brown, 1991). This definition implies that it has to be developed following specific guidelines. It is a formal and systematic way of gathering information about the learners behavior, usually through paper and pencil procedure (Airisian, 1989). Through testing, teachers can measure the students acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values in any learning area in the curriculum. While testing is the most common measurement technique teachers use in the classroom, there are certain limitations in their use. As pointed out by Moore (1992), test cannot measure student motivation, physical limitations and even environmental factors. The forgoing indicates that testing is only one of the techniques teachers can employ in gathering information about the students learning and achievement. Uses of Test Tests serve a lot of functions for school administrators, supervisors, teachers, and parents, as well (Arends, 1994; Escarilla & Gonzales, 1990). School administrators utilize test results for making decisions regarding the promotion or retention of the students; improving or enriching the curriculum; and conducting staff development programs for teachers. Through test results, school administrators can also have a clear picture of the extent to which the objectives of the schools instructional program is achieved. Supervisors use test results in discovering learning areas needing special attention and identifying the teachers weaknesses and learning competencies not mastered by the students. Test results can also provide supervisors baseline data on curriculum revision. Teachers, on the other hand, utilize tests for numerous purposes. Through testing, teachers are able to gather information about the effectiveness of instruction; give feedback to students about their progress; and assign grades. Parents, too, derive benefits from tests administered to their children. Through test scores, they are able to determine how well their sons and daughters are faring in school and how well the school is doing its share in educating their children.

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Types of Tests Numerous types of tests are used in school. There are different ways of categorizing tests, namely: ease of quantification of response, mode of preparation, mode of administration, test constructor, mode of interpreting results, and nature of response (Manarang & Manarang, 1983; Louisell & Descamps, 1982).

As to mode of response, test can be oral, written, or performance. 1. Oral Test a test where the test taker gives his answers orally. 2. Written Test a test where answers to questions are written by the test taker. 3. Performance test one in which the test taker creates an answer or a product that demonstrates his knowledge or skill, as in cooking and baking. As to ease of quantification of response, test can either be objective or subjective. 1. 2. Objective Test a paper and pencil test wherein the students answer can be compared and quantified to yield a numerical score. This is because it requires convergent or specific response. Subjective Test a paper and pencil test which is not easily quantified as students are given the freedom to write their answer to a question, such as in an essay test.

As to mode of administration, tests can either be individual or group. 1. 2. Individual Test a test administered to one student at a time. Group Test one administered to a group of students simultaneously.

As to test constructor, test can be classified into standardized and unstandardized. 1. Standardized Test a test prepared by an expert or specialist. This type of test samples behavior under uniform procedures. Questions are administered to students with the same directions and time limits. Results in this kind of tests are scored following a detailed procedure based on its manual and interpreted based on specified norms or standards. Unstandardized Test one prepared by teachers for use in the classroom, with no established norms for scoring and interpretation of results. It is constructed by a classroom teacher to meet a particular need.

2.

As to the mode of interpreting results, test can either be norm-referenced or criterion referenced. 1. 2. Norm-referenced Test a test that evaluates a students performance by comparing it to the performance of a group of students on the same test. Criterion-referenced Test a test that measures a students performance against an agreed upon or preestablished level of performance.

As to the nature of the answer, test can be categorized into the following types: personality, intelligence, aptitude, achievement, summative, diagnostic, formative, socio-metric, and trade. 1. Personality Test is a test designed for assessing some aspects of an individuals personality. Some areas tested in this kind of test include the following: emotional and social adjustment, dominance and submission, value orientation, disposition, emotional stability, frustration level, and degree of introversion or extroversion. Intelligence Test a test that measures the mental ability of an individual. Aptitude test a test designed for the purpose of predicting the likelihood of an individuals success in a learning area or field of endeavor.

2. 3.

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4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Achievement Test a test given to students to determine what a student has learned from formal instruction in school. Summative Test a test given at the end of instruction to determine the students learning and assign grades. Diagnostic Test a test administered to students to identify their specific strength and weaknesses in past and present learning. Formative Test a test given to improve teaching and learning while it is going on. A test given after teaching the lesson for the day is an example of this type of test. Socio-metric a test used in discovering the learners likes and dislikes, preference, and their social acceptance, as well as social relationships existing in a group. Trade Test a test designed to measure an individuals skill or competence in an occupation or vocation.

Identify the instructional objectives and learning outcomes. The first step the teacher has to undertake when constructing a test is identifying instructional objectives and learning outcomes to guide him/her in writing test items. List the Topics to be covered by the test. After doing the first step, a teacher needs to outline the topics to be included in the test. In this way he/she ensures the test covers all the necessary content areas. Prepare a Test Blue Print/Table of Specification (TOS). This shows the content coverage and the objective to be tested. It will serve as a guide in writing the test afterwards. Select the appropriate type of test. Based on the TOS, the teacher has to select the type of test that will enable him/her to measure the instructional objectives in the most appropriate and effective way. Whatever format will be used depends on what shall be measured. Write the test items. After deciding on what type of test to used, the teacher continues to write the suitable test items. Sequencing the items. The teacher has to arrange the test items based on difficulty. As the general rule dictates, items have to be arranged from easiest to the most difficult for psychological reasons. Write test directions/instructions. Teacher has to write clear and simple directions Prepare the answer sheet and scoring key. The teacher has to provide answer key in advance to facilitate checking of the students answers.

As builders use blue print to guide their building construction, teachers use blue print to guide their test construction. The test blue print is known in a teachers term table of specifications. The blue print for a building ensures that the builder will not overlook details considered essential to a good test. More specifically, it ensures that a test will sample whether learning has taken place across the range of (1) content areas covered in class and readings and (2) cognitive process considered important. It ensures that your test will include a variety of items that tap different levels of cognitive complexity. (Kubiszyn, T. & Borich G., 2007) A test blueprint/table of specification is an indispensable tool toward creating a good test. It will not only ensure that the test covers all important content areas and processes such as the levels of cognitive complexity, but also will be used in planning and organizing the instruction. Table of specification must be created prior to actually beginning a unit. Table 1 illustrates a test blue print appropriate for a unit on instructional objectives being taught in education course.

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Test Constructor must consider each component of the blue print and once he/she understands how the components are interconnected, the clearer he/she understands its worth.

Table 1 Test Blueprint for a Unit on Instructional Objectives (adapted from Kubiszyn, T. & Borich G., 2007, Educational Testing and Measurement)

Comprehension

Application

Content outline 1. Role of Objectives a. The student can state purposes for objectives in education. b. The student can describe a classroom system model and the role of objectives in it. 2. Writing Objectives a. Given a general educational goal, the student will write an instructional objective that specifies that goal. b. The students can match instructional objectives with their appropriate level in the cognitive domain. c. The student can identify the three parts of an objective: behavior, conditions, criteria. d. The student can distinguish learning activities from learning outcomes when given examples of each. 3. Decoding Ready-Made Objectives a. Given instructional objectives in need of modification, the student will rewrite the objective so that it is a suitable instructional objective. Total Percentage Content Outline 4

(Number of Items) 4 1 4 1 12% 3%

14%

5 5 10

5 5 10

14% 14% 29%

5 21 60% 5 14% 5 14%

5 35 100%

14%

12%

The content outline lists the topic and the important objectives included under the topic. It is for these objectives that you will write test items. Try to keep the total number of objectives to a manageable number, certainly no more than what are needed for any one unit. Categories The categories serve as a reminder or a check on the cognitive complexity of the test. Obviously many units over which you want to test will contain objectives that do not go beyond the comprehension level. However, the

Percentage

Knowledge

Evaluation

Synthesis

Analysis

Total

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outline can suggest that you try to incorporate higher levels of learning into your instruction and evaluations. In the cell under these categories, report the number of items in your tests that are included in that level for a particular objective. For example, five items are to be constructed to measure comprehension level objective 2b in table 1. Number of Items Fill in the cell in Table 1 using the following procedure: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Determine the classification of each instructional objective in the cell corresponding to the category for that objective. Record the number of items that are to be constructed for the objective in the cell corresponding to the category for that objective. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for every objective in the outline. Total the number of items for the instructional objective and record the number in the Total column. Repeat Steps 1 and 4 for each topic. Total the number of items falling into each category and record the number at the bottom of the table. Compute for the column and row percentages by dividing each total by the number of items in the test.

Functions The information in Table 1 is intended to convey to the teacher the following: How many items are to be constructed for which objectives and content topics Whether the test will reflect a balanced picture of what was taught. Whether all topics and objectives will be assessed and their level of cognitive complexity.

(adapted from Carlito D. Garcia, Educational Measurement and Evaluation) Writing a Multiple-Choice Items The most widely used form of the test it the multiple choice item. This is because of its versatility. It can be used in measuring different kinds of content and most type of cognitive behavior, from factual knowledge to analysis of complex data. Furthermore it is easy to score. A multiple-choice item is composed of a stem, which sets up the problem and ask a question, followed by a number of alternative responses. Only one of the alternatives is the correct answer, the other alternatives are distracters or foils. To be able to write effective multiple-choice items, the following guidelines should be followed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Each item should be clearly stated, in the form of a question or in an incomplete statement. Do not provide grammatical or contextual cues to the correct answer. For instance the use of before the options indicates that the answer begins with a vowel. Use the language that even the poorest readers will understand. Write the correct or best answer and several plausible distractors. Each alternative response should fit the stem in order to avoid giving cues to its correctness. Refrain from using negatives or double negatives. They tend to make the stems confusing and difficult. Use all of the above and none of the above only when they will contribute more than another plausible distractor.

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8.

Do not use items directly from the textbook. Test for understanding not memorization.

Writing Alternate-Response Items An alternate-response item is one wherein there are only one possible answer to the stem. The true- false format is an alternate-response item. Some variations of the basic true-false item include yes no, right wrong, and agree disagree items. Alternative-response items seem easy to construct. Writing good alternate-response items, however, requires skills so as to avoid triviality. Writing good true- false items is difficult as there are few assertions that are unambiguously true and false. Besides, they are sensitive to guessing. Some guidelines to follow in writing alternate-response items are given below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Avoid using negatives. Avoid trick items that appear to be true but are false because of an inconspicuous word or phrase. Dont make true items longer than false items. Refrain from creating a pattern of response. Present a similar number of true and false statements. Be sensitive to use of specific determiners. Words such as always, all, never, and none indicate sweeping generalization, which are associated with false items. Conversely, words like usually and generally are associated with true items. A statement must only have one central idea. Avoid quoting exact statements from the textbook.

7. 8.

Alternate-response items allow teacher to sample a number of cognitive behaviors in a limited amount of time. Even the scoring of alternate-response items tends to be simple and easy. Nonetheless, there are content and learning outcomes that cannot be adequately measured by alternate-response items, like problem-solving and complex learning.

Writing Matching Items Matching items are designed to measure the students ability to single out pairs of matching phrases, words or other related facts from separate lists. It is basically an efficient arrangement of a set of multiple-choice items with all stems, called premises, having the same set of possible alternative answers. Matching items are appropriate to use in meaning verbal associative knowledge (Moore, 1997) or Knowledge such as inventors and inventions, titles and authors, or objects and their basic characteristics. To be able to write good matching items, the following guidelines have to be considered in the process: 1. Specify the basis for matching the premises with the responses. 2. Be sure that whole matching exercise is found on one page only. 3. Avoid including too many premises on one matching item. 4. Put premises and responses in a systematic order. 5. Both the premises and responses should be in the same general category or class. 6. Premises or response composed of one or two words should be arranged alphabetically.

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Writing Completion Items Completion items require the students to associate an incomplete statement with a word or phrase recalled from memory (Ahman, 1991). Each completion test item contains a blank, which the student must fill in correctly with one word or short phrase. Inasmuch as the student is required to write the correct response, the completion item is a form of supply item. Completion test items are useful for the testing of specific facts. Guidelines in constructing completion items are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. As a general rule, it is best to use only one blank in a completion item. The blank should be placed near or at the end of the sentence. Give clear instructions indicating whether synonyms will be correct answer and whether spelling will be a factor in scoring. Be definite enough in the incomplete statement so that only one correct answer is possible. Avoid using direct statements from the textbook with a word or two missing. All blanks for all items should be of equal length and long enough to accommodate the longest response.

Writing Arrangement Items Arrangement items are used for testing knowledge of sequence and order. Some guidelines on preparing this type of test item are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Items to be arranged should belong to one category only. Provide instructions on the rationale for arrangement or sequencing. Specify the response code students have to use in arranging the items. Provide sufficient space for the writing of the answer.

Writing Completion-Drawing Items As pointed out in the previous chapter, a completion-drawing item is one wherein an incomplete drawing is presented which the student has to complete. The following guidelines have to be observed in writing the aforementioned type of test item: 1. 2. Provide instruction on how the drawing will be completed. Present the drawing to be completed.

Writing Corrections Items The correction type of test is similar to a completion item, except that some words or phrases have to changed to make the sentence correct. The following have be considered by the teacher in writing this kind of test item. 1. 2. 3. Underline or italicize the word or phrase to be corrected in a sentence. Specify in the instruction where the students will write their correction of the underlined of italicized word or phrase. Write items that measure higher levels of cognitive behavior.

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Writing Identification Items As pointed out in chapter 3, an identification type of test items is one wherein an unknown specimen is to be identified by name or other criterion. In writing this type of item, teachers have to observe the following guidelines: 1. 2. 3. The direction of the test should indicate clearly what has to be identified, like persons, instruments, dates, events, steps in a process and formulas. Sufficient space has to be provided for the answer to each item. The question should not be copied verbatim from the textbook.

Writing Enumeration Items An enumeration item is one wherein the student has to list down parts or elements/ components of a given concept or topic. Guidelines to follow in writing this type of test item include the following: 1. 2. The exact number of expected answers has to be specified. Spaces for the writing of answers have to be provided and should be of the same length.

Writing Analogy Items An analogy item consists of a pair of words, which are related to each other (Calmorin, 1994). This type of item is often used in measuring the students skill in sensing association between paired words or concepts. Examples of this type of item are given below. Example 1: black is to white, as peace is to ____________ (a) Unity (c) harmony (b) Discord (d) concord

Example 2: Bonifacio is for the Philippines, while ____________ is for the United States of America (a) Jefferson (c) Madison (b) Lincoln (d) Washington The following guidelines have to be considered in constructing analogy items (Calmorin, 1994): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The pattern of relationship in the first pair of words must be the same pattern in the second pair. Options must be related to the correct answer. The principle of parallelism has to be observed in writing the options. More than three options have to be included in each analogy item to lessen guessing. All items must be grammatically consistent.

Writing Interpretive Test Item The interpretive test is often used in testing higher cognitive behavior. This kind of test item may involve analysis of maps, figures, or charts or even comprehension of written passages. Airisian (1994) suggested the following guidelines in writing this kind of test item:

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1. 2. 3. 4.

The interpretive exercise must be related to the instruction provided the students. The material to be presented to the students should be new to the students but similar to what was presented during instruction. Written passages should be as brief as possible. The exercise should not be a test of general reading ability. The students have to interpret, apply, analyze and comprehend in order to answer a given question in the exercise.

Writing Short Explanation Items This type of item is similar to an essay test but requires a short response, usually a sentence or two. This type of question is a good practice for the student in expressing themselves concisely. In writing this type of test item, the following guidelines have to be considered: 1. 2. Specify in the instruction of the test, the number of sentences that students can use in answering the question. Make the question brief and to the point so that the students not to be confused.

Constructing the Essay Test Essay questions are designed to provide the students the opportunity to answer questions in their own words (Ornstein, 1990). They can be used in assessing the students skill in analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating, thinking logically, solving problems, and hypothesizing.. According to Gronlund and Lim (1990), there are 12 complex learning outcomes that can be measured effectively with essay items. These are the abilities to:

Explain cause-effect relationships; Describe application of principles; Present relevant arguments; Formulate tenable hypotheses; State necessary assumptions; Describe the limitations of data; Explain methods and procedures; Produce, organize, and express ideas; Integrate learning in different areas; Create original forms; and Evaluate the worth of ideas.

The following guidelines should be considered in writing better essay questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Make directions specific, indicating just what the student is to write about. Word each question as simply and clearly as possible. Allow sufficient time for the student to answer the questions. Give the student a choice of questions. Determine the worth of each question and establish how much weight will be given to components of each question.

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Anatomy of a Multiple-Choice Item A standard multiple-choice test item consists of two basic parts: a problem (stem) which may be in the form of either a question or an incomplete statement a list of suggested solutions (alternatives) which contains one correct or best alternative (answer) and a number of incorrect or inferior alternatives (distractors)

The purpose of the distractors is to appear as plausible solutions to the problem for those students who have not achieved the objective being measured by the test item. Conversely, the distracters must appear as implausible solutions for those students who have achieved the objective. Only the answer should appear plausible to these students. Sample:

Why Use Multiple Choice? (adapted from Brigham Young University Testing Services and The Department of Instructional Science)

applicability in measuring higher-level objectives, such as those based in application, analysis and evaluation covers a broader sample of course content in a given amount of testing time less susceptible to guessing than are true-false test items essentially immune to the influence of bluffing and writing ability factors amenable to rapid scoring objectively scored and not affected by scorer inconsistencies scoring is more clear-cut than short answer test item scoring because there are no misspelled or partial answers to deal with test scores will likely be more representative of the students overall achievement in the course options chosen by the student may be used to diagnose misconceptions of the student or weaknesses in the teachers instruction reporting of test results to the student so that any follow-up clarification of instruction may be done before the course has proceeded much further amenable to item analysis, which enables the teacher to improve the item

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Tips in Constructing Multiple Choice Tests (according to Grayson H. Walker Teaching Resource Center, The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga)

Stem should present single, clearly formulated problem Stem should be in simple, understood language; delete extraneous words Avoid "all of the above"--can answer based on partial knowledge (if one is incorrect or two are correct, but unsure of the third...) Avoid "none of the above" Make all distractors plausible/homogenous Don't overlap response alternatives (decreases discrimination between students who know the material and those who don't) Don't use double negatives Present alternatives in logical or numerical order Place correct answer at random (A answer is most often) Make each item independent of others on test Way to judge a good stem: student's who know the content should be able to answer before reading the alternatives List alternatives on separate lines, indent, separate by blank line, use letters instead of numbers for alternative answers Need more than 3 alternatives, 4 is best

Item analysis is a process of examining class-wide performance on individual test items. There are three common types of item analysis, which also provide different types of information.

Difficulty Index (p) tells how difficult the item is or how many exam takers got the item correct. To compute for the difficulty index, just get the ratio of students who got the item correct to the total number of students who took the exam. The larger the difficulty index, the more students have learned the content measured by the test item. Discrimination Index (d) The discrimination index is the basic measure of the validity of an item. It is a measure of an items ability to discriminate between those who scored high on the total test and those who scored low. Though there are several steps in its calculation, once computed, this index can be interpreted as an indication of the extent to which overall knowledge of the content area or mastery of the skills is related to the response on an item. Analysis of Response Options In addition to examining the performance of a test item, we are also interested in examining the performance of individual distractors on multiple-choice items and this can be obtained by calculating the proportion of students who chose each answer option. Through this, we could identify which distractors are working and appear attractive to students who do not know the correct answer,and which distractors are simply taking up space and not being chosen by many students. The higher the proportion, the better the distractor.

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Guides in Interpreting Difficulty and Discrimination Indices The following table may serve as a guide to determine whether to retain an item for future use or discard it based on the p and d values: Difficulty Index: Index Range 0.10 - 0.20 0.21 0.80 0.81 1.00 Discrimination Index: Index Range 0.40 and Above 0.30 0.39 0.20 0.29 0.19 and Below Discrimination Level Very Good Reasonably Good Marginal Poor Action Retain Retain Reject/Revise Reject/Revise Difficulty Level Very Difficult Difficult to Easy Very Easy Action Reject Retain Reject

How can the use of item analysis benefit your students? The fairest tests for all students are tests which are valid and reliable. To improve the quality of tests, item analysis can identify items which are too difficult (or too easy if a teacher has that concern), are not able to differentiate between those who have learned the content and those who have not, or have distractors which are not plausible. If items are too hard, teachers can adjust the way they teach. Teachers can even decide that the material was not taught and for the sake of fairness, remove the item from the current test, and recompute scores. If items have low or negative discrimination values, teachers can remove them from the current test and recomputed scores and remove them from the pool of items for future tests. A teacher can also examine the item, try to identify what was tricky about it, and either change the item or modify instruction to correct a confusing misunderstanding about the content. When distractors are identified as being non-functional, teachers may tinker with the item and create a new distractor. One goal for a valid and reliable classroom test is to decrease the chance that random guessing could result in credit for a correct answer. The greater the number of plausible distractors, the more accurate, valid, and reliable the test typically becomes.

Reliability and Validity of Tests Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any measuring procedure yields the same result on repeated trials. Without the agreement of independent observers able to replicate research procedures, or the ability to use research tools and procedures that yield consistent measurements, researchers would be unable to satisfactorily draw conclusions, formulate theories, or make claims about the generalizability of their research. In

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addition to its important role in research, reliability is critical for many parts of our lives, including manufacturing, medicine, and sports. Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. While reliability is concerned with the accuracy of the actual measuring instrument or procedure, validity is concerned with the study's success at measuring what the researchers set out to measure.

(according to Shirley Lesch and the University of Toronto Schools)

refers to the process of judging the learner's performance in relation to a standard a decision made about learner achievement and/or program effectiveness these judgments are made in relation to the achievement of curriculum and program goals, and expectations and outcomes, using information gathered by a variety of assessment tools

For example, a nursing teacher who observes a student changing a dressing would be engaging in assessment. This assessment would likely be done according to a set of pre-determined criteria. When the teacher makes the judgment that the dressing was completed according to an acceptable standard or level of performance based on the criteria, then the teacher is evaluating the performance. Although the two terms are used interchangeably, it could be argued that evaluative judgments are embedded in the process of assessment and recording of data. That is, what is noticed or attended to by the person doing the assessment has implications for making a judgment about the success, or lack of it, in reaching an acceptable standard of performance. In other words, even with pre-established criteria, a subjective element exists when assessments and evaluations are made.

The Differences between Assessment and Evaluation Assessment is the analysis and use of data by students, faculty, and/or departments to make decisions about improvements in teaching and learning. Evaluation is the analysis and use of data by faculty to make judgments about student performance. Evaluation includes the determination of a grade or a decision regarding pass/fail for an individual assignment or a course. Assessment is the gathering of information about something, such as student performance Evaluation is the act of setting a value on the assessment information Assessment is information Evaluation is a judgment Assessment is qualitative Evaluation is quantitative Assessment pinpoints specific strengths and weaknesses Evaluation ranks and sorts individuals within groups Assessment is diagnostic and formative, as well as summative Evaluation is only summative

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Assessment is most useful to teachers and students Evaluation is most useful to administrators, politicians and parents Assessment focuses on the individual student Evaluation focuses on the group Assessment is an educational measure Evaluation is a political/administrative measure Assessment is referenced by criterion Evaluation is referenced by norm

TYPES OF EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK There are various types of feedback which include the following: Informal, Formal, Direct, Indirect, Formative, and Summative (Flinders University Online, 1).

Informal feedback is giving of examples of in class work. Formal feedback is in written form (examples: a check list or a rubric, a note). Direct/Individual feedback is one on one, communication between the teacher and student. Indirect/Generic feedback is communicating to the entire class. Formative feedback is discussion of information while giving a lesson, unable to make any changes before completion of information being discussed. Last but not least, Summative feedback is information given after the lesson has been presented, with the purpose to help the students realize their academic achievements (Flinders University Online, 1).

These are all types of effective feedback. Each one benefits the student, the teacher, or both. Teachers need to know different types of feedback. In knowing these types of feedback, the teacher will be able to determine which type of feedback is appropriate for a certain situation.

Consider this quote as an example of effective feedback and what it does: Students must have routine access to the criteria and standards for the task they need to master; they must have feedback in their attempts to master those tasks; and they must have opportunities to use the feedback to revise work and resubmit it for evaluation against the standard. Excellence is attained by such cycles of model-practice-perform-feedback-perform. ~ Grant Wiggins (Academic Leadership The Online Journal, 1).

In summary of the quote, effective feedback is to improve the students performance in academically and socially. That's why there are the student/teacher conferences and the parent/teacher conferences to help improve the students overall performance.

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ISSUES AND PROBLEMS WITH ASSESSMENT FEEDBACK Students often report having an unsatisfactory experience of getting feedback on their learning and assessment, and in particular that they would like more feedback, and they would like it be more useful and usable. Staff often report that they spend a lot of time providing valuable feedback but cannot see the evidence of students learning from it. These are amongst the most commonly reported concerns of students:

Feedback is too late to influence learning. This concern is often the result of the teacher providing assessment feedback too late in the unit, leaving little or no opportunity for the student to learn from it and adjust their approaches accordingly. Assessment feedback that is too late represents wasted effort by the academic and wasted opportunity for students unless they are required to act upon it. Feedback is cryptic. When feedback consists of pithy and cryptic responses by the marker (for example, more, good, whats this?, link?, or simply ticks and crosses or punctuation marks), students are left to guess whether it is meant to be positive or negative, whether and how the feedback is related to their mark, and what they might do to improve their learning performance. Feedback provides no explanation for action. When feedback consists mainly of editing of grammar or spelling, and provides little or no explanation for them to act on, students report that they are often left not knowing what they have done well, what they need to change and why they have achieved the grade they have. Good students miss out. It is often students who do well who get the least feedback, often receiving little more than excellent on their work without gaining an insight into what they have done well and what they could do to enhance their performance. Often the opportunities to encourage a good student to perform even better are missed out by not providing useful feedback. Feedback is one-off. Many assessment tasks are one-off, intended to demonstrate students achievement for a summative grade, but lacking the opportunity for them to try again based on feedback from the first try. Such tasks do not encourage risk-taking, experimentation, creativity and practice. Feedback is not progressive. If assessment tasks and feedback does not acknowledge the progression of learning, students do not get a sense of where they are in achieving progress towards longer-term learning goals and what they have yet to achieve.

Academic staff also report concerns regarding their experience in giving assessment feedback, including the following:

Preparing feedback is time-consuming. Preparing and giving useful assessment feedback can be very time-consuming for academics, particularly in large classes, and its value is completely negated if students dont read it or act on it.

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Giving feedback can be repetitive and unproductive work. It is not uncommon for academics to find themselves giving the same or very similar feedback to many students; nor is it uncommon to give the same feedback to repeated efforts by one student, with little change occurring over time in student performance. Feedback is too late to influence teaching. Just as students express concerns when feedback is provided too late for them to benefit from it, academic staff loses the benefit that early assessment and feedback to students provides for them to adjust their teaching as a result of students performance.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK ON ASSESSMENT To address the typical concerns and problems encountered by students and staff with assessment feedback, the following principles can be used to guide the processes of preparing and providing feedback:

Feedback should be part of the assessment design, with the processes of receiving and responding to feedback built into and made explicit in subsequent learning experiences and grading. Feedback should be constructive, so that students feel encouraged and motivated to improve their practice, and contributing to their positive self-esteem as learners. Feedback should be timely, so that students can use it for subsequent learning and work to be submitted. Feedback should be prompt, so that students can recall what they did and thought at the time. Feedback should be justified, by being based on clear and explicit explanations of performance against stated criteria and standards. Feedback should be supportive of learning, so that students have clear indications of how to improve their performance in a developmental progression. Feedback should be focused, on achievement, not effort; and on the work, not the student. Feedback should be expressed in terms of the learning outcomes, so that students can relate their assessment to the learning outcomes, seeing how they can close the gap between their current and their desired achievement of these outcomes. Feedback should be consequential, so that it engages students by requiring them to attend to the feedback as part of the grading. Feedback should be focused on independence, so that it leads students to being capable of assessing their own work, by facilitating their development of critical reflection and self assessment. Feedback should be efficient, so that staff can manage it effectively. Feedback is NOT editing, spell-checking or grammar-checking. Students should be required to edit their own work, and where possible to resubmit edited work based on feedback about what needs to be done.

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SOME STRATEGIES FOR GIVING ASSESSMENT FEEDBACK 1. Designing the optimal balance of feedback modes Assessment feedback can be provided to students in different modes, at different times and places, and with different goals. In designing for feedback, it is useful to consider the balance across the modes of feedback.

Informal e.g. in tutorial discussions, explanations and worked examples in class Individual e.g. in personal consultations, through comments on individual assignments Formative given early or mid semester, enabling learning improvement and risk taking

Formal e.g. by annotated exemplars, written commentaries

Generic e.g. in lectures and tutorials, via group discussion to compare performances Summative given later or at the end of a topic, confirming learning achievement

2.

Designing formative feedback processes By designing opportunities into the learning and teaching processes for formative feedback, students can be expected to take more responsibility for critically reflecting on their own learning and how to improve it. Here are some possible strategies to consider:

Test at the beginning of semester on what needs to be known at the end Test early in the semester for peer assessment to explore divergent conceptualizations through class discussion Regular (weekly) independent, on-line, low stakes tests for students to assess the accuracy of their understanding of key concepts Weekly worked examples on problems at the beginning or end of lectures, with students to comparing their own (or peers) work with the example Students required to nominate, when submitting assignments, the emphasis of feedback that they are particularly seeking. Students required to include, in submitted work, evidence of peer feedback they have sought, and how they have acted on peer advice. Students required to outline their own personal goals for their next assignment based on feedback received on a previous assignment. Joint construction through class discussion of a grading rubric. Students required to self-assess their assignment using the grading rubric, and including their own assessment with the submission. Students required to self-assess their work using a prepared checklist to review and report on their selfassessment as part of the submission. The assessor can use their own instance of the same checklist, giving the student a way of comparing assessment on specific elements. Generic one-page handout summarizes how the class has performed overall and describing the qualities of performances that attracted specific grades.

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Class discussion on the differences between your assessment and theirs on the different attributes in the rubric.

3.

Providing feedback to large groups Lectures are a good venue for providing feedback efficiently to the whole cohort. Engaging students in producing brief responses for you to collect can be both motivating for students, and a source of information for you to ascertain students extent of understanding and to adjust your own teaching technique if needed. Students contributions can be anonymous or named so you can keep a record of their attendance. In the case of very large classes, you might analyze only a random sample of responses each time. A common pattern is to use the last 5 minutes of one lecture to invite students to write, and then to use the first 5 minutes of the next lecture to address common misconceptions displayed in their brief papers. Here are some techniques (amongst many outlined by Angelo and Cross, 1993) which can be used to frame such writing tasks:

The one minute paper Students write for one minute on what their understanding is of the main idea (of the lecture, for example) or the most intriguing point and one or two questions that remain uppermost in their mind. The five main points Students summarize in one minute the five main points that they think the lecture was about. This helps the lecturer to see whether students are able to distinguish between key messages, examples, anecdotes, and so on. The concept map Students are given a few minutes to illustrate in their own concept map the relationship between ideas; or to fill in a pre-drawn concept map with the links provided, but the concepts removed. The practical applications Students brainstorm some of the ideas discussed (in the lecture, for example) and then select two and illustrate ways that these ideas may be applied to everyday life. The muddiest point Students write for one minute the idea that is least clear to them at that moment.

Here are some ideas on how to follow up tasks such as these in a subsequent lecture by providing feedback on their contributions, and addressing any particular aspects of their learning that were highlighted:

Prepare a one-page summary about their responses (including common misconceptions or questions and links to resources for further practice) for distribution at the subsequent lecture. Use the first 5 minutes of the subsequent lecture to address misconceptions. Explain the structure and content of the subsequent lecture in terms of how it responds to the issues their contributions have identified.

There are many advantages with these kinds of activities:

They are low cost in terms of time taken by the teacher and the student. They are learning focused and can be used to increase students metacognitive awareness. Teachers get an instant insight into how students are interpreting lecture content and have an opportunity to clear up misconceptions.

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Students receive quick feedback on their perceptions and interpretations while they are constructing its meaning. Students can be creative and take risks because it is not for grades. Students are actively engaged in the lecture and are motivated to attend.

4.

Example answers Providing example answers to students, both before and after their completion of assessment tasks, can be a very useful way of making requirements and standards of performance more explicit. Examples of responses on the same task, but completed at different levels of performance, help students understand the way that assessment criteria and standards are applied. Students can be asked to assess example answers in class, giving justifications for their assessments.

5.

Generic assessment feedback Providing generic feedback about all students performance on assessment tasks allows them to see where their learning fits into the range of achievements in the class. Additionally, it is an efficient way to provide assessment feedback, and can be used in conjunction with private written/verbal feedback to each student.

Sources: http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/ http://testing.byu.edu/info/handbooks/betteritems.pdf http://www.utc.edu/Administration/WalkerTeachingResourceCenter/FacultyDevelopment/Assessment/testquestions.html http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/relval/pop2a.cfm http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/relval/pop2b.cfm http://liad.gbrownc.on.ca/programs/insadult/evalno1.htm http://www.utschools.ca/utseducation/assessmentandevaluation.aspx

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It is a set of criteria and standards linked to learning objectives that is used to assess a student's performance on papers, projects, essays, and other assignments. Rubrics allow for standardized evaluation according to specified criteria, making grading simpler and more transparent. The rubric is an attempt to define consistent assessment criteria. It allows teachers and students alike to assess criteria which are complex and subjective and also provide ground for selfevaluation, reflection and peer review. It is aimed at accurate and fair assessment, fostering understanding and indicating the way to proceed with subsequent learning/teaching. This integration of performance and feedback is called "ongoing assessment."

Common Features Scoring rubrics includes one or more dimensions on which performance is rated, definitions and examples that illustrate the attribute(s) being measured and a rating scale for each dimension. Dimensions are generally referred to as criteria, the rating scale as levels, and definitions as descriptors. Herman, Aschbacher, and Winters distinguish the following elements of a scoring rubric:

Criteria: One or more traits or dimensions that serve as the basis for judging the student response Five categories to consider: Impact the success of performance, given the purposes, goals and desired results Work quality/craftsmanship the overall polish, organization, and rigor of the work Methods the quality of the procedures and manner of presentation, prior to and during performance Content the correctness of the ideas, skills or materials used Sophistication of the performance the relative complexity or maturity of the knowledge used.

Descriptor: Definitions and examples to clarify the meaning of each trait or dimension

Writing to Persuade Rubric L CRITERIA e v e l Attention to s Audience o f 1 Needs work The writer minimally addresses the needs and characteristics of the identified audience. 2 Good The writer adequately addresses the needs and characteristics of the identified audience. 3 Excellent The writer effectively addresses the needs and characteristics of the identified audience.

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Performance (Rating Scales): A scale of values on which to rate each dimension

Writing to Persuade Rubric CRITERIA Attention to Audience 1 Needs work The writer minimally addresses the needs and characteristics of the identified audience. 2 Good The writer adequately addresses the needs and characteristics of the identified audience. 3 Excellent The writer effectively addresses the needs and characteristics of the identified audience.

Scoring Procedure: Weight assignment for each identified criterion Writing to Persuade Rubric CRITERIA Development 1 Needs work The writer tries to support or refute that position with relevant personal and/or factual information 2 Good The writer identifies a clear position and fully supports or refutes that position with relevant personal and/or factual information. The writer presents an organizational plan that is logical and maintained, but with minor flaws. The writer adequately addresses the needs and characteristics of the identified audience. The writer frequently uses language choices to enhance the text. 3 Excellent The writer identifies a clear position and fully supports or refutes that position with relevant personal and/or factual information. The writer presents an organizational plan that is logical and consistently maintained. The writer effectively addresses the needs and characteristics of the identified audience. The writer consistently uses language choices to enhance the text. Weight ___ x 2

Organization

The writer presents an organizational plan that is only generally maintained.

__ x 2

Attention to Audience

The writer minimally addresses the needs and characteristics of the identified audience. The writer frequently uses language choices to enhance the text.

__ x 1

Language

__ x 2

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During the pre-assessment phase, rubrics are used to clarify expectations and grading methods with learners. As a result, learners can perform a self-assessment prior to submission of their work. During the assessment phase, rubrics help evaluators to remain focused on the preset standards of excellence and objectively assess the learner. During the post-assessment phase learners are given a scored rubric with clear explanation of their grade. They are made aware of their weaknesses and strengths.

1.

Create a goal-task sheet.

2.

Construct a rubric grid.

3.

Label the rubric appropriately.

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4.

Generate potential dimensions or criteria.

5.

Establish a point system and assign a qualitative description for each level of performance.

6.

Define the sub-components of each dimension, if necessary.

7.

Define benchmark descriptors for each dimension by using concept words.

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8.

Determine scoring procedure and weight distribution.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubric_(academic)

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