THE GRAMMATICAL COHESION OF READING TEXT OF YEAR SEVEN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK SMART STEPS PUBLISHED BY GANECA

EXACT

A Final Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Pendidikan in English

by RINI SUSANTI 2201402003

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT LANGUAGES AND ARTS FACULTY SEMARANG STATE UNIVERSITY 2007

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S First and foremost, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to Allah SWT the Almighty for the blessing in finishing this final project. I wish to convey my deepest appreciation to my first advisor, Dra. Dwi Rukmini, M.Pd., who has provided me with careful guidance, helpful correction and encouragement from the beginning until this thesis was completed. I am equally grateful to Drs. Djoko Sutopo, M.Si., my second advisor who has given valuable suggestions and correction for the improvement of this final project. My deep gratitude goes to Drs. Triyanto, M.A., the chairman and Drs. Alim Sukrisno, M.A., the secretary, as well as the team of examiners, especially Drs. Warsono, M.A., the first examiner who has given valuable correction and guidance for the perfection of the final project. I would like to thank all lectures of the English Department for their guidance during my study at this university. And finally, big thanks go to my parents, siblings, and close friends (Bib, Yas, Lik, Rin, Fa, Ist, Yan, Git, Vie and Gi) for their understanding and support during the months I was busy writing this final project.

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TABLE CONTENT

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ABSTRACT.................................................................................................. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................ ii TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................ iii LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................ vi LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................... vii I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study ................................................................... 1 1.2 Reason for Choosing the Topic ......................................................... 4 1.3 Statement of the Problem................................................................... 5 1.4 Objective of the Study ....................................................................... 5 1.5 Significance of the Study................................................................... 6 1.6 Limitation of the Study...................................................................... 6 1.7 Outline of the Study........................................................................... 6 II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Types of Meaning in Language ......................................................... 8 2.2 Definition of Cohesion ...................................................................... 11 2.3 Grammatical cohesion ....................................................................... 12 2.3.1 12 2.3.2 16 2.3.3 16 2.3.4 17 iii Reference....................................................................... Substitution ...........................................................................

Ellipsis................................................................................... Conjunction...........................................................................

2.4 20

Lexical Cohesion ...............................................................................

2.4.1 Reiteration............................................................................. 20 2.4.2 Collocation ............................................................................ . 21 2.5 Reading Text.......... 22 2.6 Textbook ....................................................................... 22 III. METHOD OF INVESTIGATION 3.1 Object of the Study. ..................................................................... 25 3.2 Procedure of Collecting Data........................................................... 25 3.2.1 Selecting the Textbook ........................................................... 25 3.2.2 Selecting the Reading Text ..................................................... 26 3.3 26 Analyzing the Data ...................................................................... 3.3.1 Dividing and Numbering Sentences into Clauses. .. 26 3.3.2 Identifying the Grammatical Cohesion within the Clauses..... 27 3.3.3 Putting the Number of Cohesive items into Tables................. 27 3.3.4 Counting the Number of Grammatical Cohesion.................... 28 3.3.5 Interpreting the Result ........................................................... 29 3.3.6 Taking Conclusion ........................................................... 29 IV. RESULT OF THE ANALYSIS 4.1 The Grammatical Cohesion of reading Text 1 ................................. 30 4.2 The Grammatical Cohesion of reading Text 2 ................................. 32 4.3 The Grammatical Cohesion of reading Text 3 ................................. 34 4.4 The Grammatical Cohesion of reading Text 4 ................................. 36 4.5 The Grammatical Cohesion of reading Text 5 ................................. 38

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4.6 The Grammatical Cohesion of reading Text 6 ................................. 41 4.7 The Grammatical Cohesion of reading Text 7 ................................. 44 4.8 The Grammatical Cohesion of reading Text 8 ................................. 46 4.9 The Grammatical Cohesion of reading Text 9 ................................. 48 4.10 The percentages of Grammatical Cohesion..................................... 50 V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions................................................... 51 5.2 Suggestions ........................................................... 51 BIBLIOGRAPH .................................................................................... Y 53 APPENDICE . ..................................................................................... S 55

LIST TABLES

OF

Table 4.1 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 1 ....................... 31 4.2 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 2 ....................... 33 4.3 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 3 ....................... 35 4.4 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 4 ....................... 36 4.5 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 5 ....................... 38 4.6 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 6 ....................... 41 4.7 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 7 ....................... 44 4.8 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 8 ....................... 46 4.9 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 9 ....................... 48 4.10 The percentages of grammatical cohesion............................................ 50

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LIST FIGURES

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Figure 2.1 context in relation to discourse-semantic and lexico-gammar. 9 2.2 Classification of reference.. 13

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTIO N 1.1 Background of the Study People live in what the so called social life, which always need companion. In this case, in order to facilitate their efforts to provide themselves with the necessities of life, human beings have to cooperate with one another which can only be carried out in a community. In doing so, they need a means of communication which is called language. With language they can interact with other people to establish and maintain relations between them and to express their ideas or view points on things in the world. Halliday in Feez and Joyce (1998:5) mentions language arises in the life of the individual through an ongoing exchange of meanings with significant others. Languages are found among counties and English is one of the foreign languages that play an important role for the international relationship between English and non-English speaking countries. Harmer (2002:1) argues, English as a lingua franca. He adds it is a language widely adopted for communication between two speakers whose native language is different from each others and where one or both speakers are using it as a second language. English itself has been taught in Indonesia as a first foreign language since the proclamation of Indonesia on 17
th

of August 1945 (Ramelan 1992:1). The

teaching of English is aimed to develop listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. Today, reading appears to be an essential skill for people. It is intended to

get them always keep up with the development of sciences and technologies. Besides, it is indeed, useful for students for the sake of literacy mastery. Wong (1974:186) argues the importance of reading in his article The Educational Role and Cultural Orientation of English Reading Materials by writing: if young is to grow up viable in literacy society, they should be taught how to read. Reading is the infrastructure on which rest much of the knowledge made commonly available today. Students of foreign language should be prepared to read to have them deeply internalise the English they learn (Paul,2003:83). Furthermore, reading text can be used to improve and build up reading skill. Having a good reading skill benefits student to be able to speak well. Scott and Itreberg (1990:49) propose that the printed words become the main source of expanding and strengthening the language. Reading is also the language skill, which is easiest to keep up. It is true that reading is essential for learners of foreign language as well as other subject of learning. Mikulecky (1986:1) makes the point that reading may be the only way for us to use English if we live in non-English speaking country. He adds why reading is more important when you are learning a new language in these following reasons: 1.) reading helps you think in the new language. 2.) reading helps you build a better vocabulary. 3.) reading makes you comfortable with written English. You can write better English if you feel comfortable with the language.

4.) reading may be the only way for you to use the English if live in a nonEnglish speaking country. 5.) reading can help if you plan to study in an English speaking country. Above all, reading in the student native language is definitely different from the foreign language. In their native language, it is believed that students easily comprehend the text they read, as they are familiar with the vocabulary and grammatical rules used. Reading in the foreign language requires them of adequate knowledge of the language, which has a different vocabulary and grammatical system. In this case, it is necessary to prepare student to read with understanding each new unit of reading lesson. Thus, teacher is in an important role in choosing appropriate reading materials for the students. A textbook is one of the material references of the English teaching at school. It is used to run English learning process. Reading text can be useful in running the reading class. It means that reading texts presented in the textbook should be meaningful. Although a text is made up of grammatical units (clauses, phrases, etc.), the text is not just a collection of clauses. As it is mentioned by Eggins (1994: 112), that to be text, there must be texture, created through patterns of cohesion. Before presenting in a final version, furthermore, written texts are preplanned, drafted, and edited. The reader may be separated from the writer by both time and geographical distance, thus the writer cannot assume a shared context or shared knowledge with the reader. Hammond and Burns (1992:6) argue written texts must be deconstructing in the sense that they must be independent

of the actual physical context in which they were created. Written text must be cohesive within itself. Baker (1992: 180) suggests that: Cohesion is the network of the lexical, grammatical, and other relations or ties organize, and to some extend, create a text, for instance by requiring the reader to interpret words and expressions by reference to other words and expressions in the surrounding sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion is surface relation, it connects together the actual words and expression that we can see or hear. The language used in the textbook should be comprehensible. In this case, the text book writer should take note of the main functions of language usage in writing the reading text. One of the language functions, as mentioned by Halliday (1985: 23) is textual function. It is needed to attain cohesion and coherence in arranging text, as a result, the reader or hearer is easy to understand the text. It is hoped that reading texts in the text book serve a good cohesive ties.

1.2 Reason for Choosing the Topic It is thought that students of junior high school, particularly year seven, are beginner learners of English. Therefore, they need more attention in learning this foreign language, mainly in reading class. They require to comprehend materials they learn. In this case, the reading materials they use are usually taken from an English textbook. For that reason, the reading text should be well organized. Moreover, it is better if the reading texts in the textbook present good level of cohesion. Thus, they will comprehend the reading texts well. Irwin and Champman in Hornings article accessed from http//jac.gsu.edu/jac/11.1/Articles/g.htm (9 Aug.2006 makes clear of the ) importance of cohesion to reading and comprehending. In their studies they find
th

that increasing the level of cohesion in text improves reading comprehension. In this case, cohesion plays a main role in reading comprehension. The more cohesive ties the text has, the more fully and easily the student will understand a text. As it is mentioned by Irwin in Hornings article that cohesion plays an important role in reading comprehension, and if writers increase the number of ties, readers will understand text more fully and easily. Grammatical cohesion as one of the cohesive devices seems to be important in the reading text. In this study I analyzed the realization of grammatical cohesion in reading text.

1.3 Statement of the problem The problems of the study are stated in the following questions: (1) How is grammatical cohesion of reading texts in the students textbook written? (2) What is the dominant kind of grammatical cohesion found in the reading texts?

1.4 Objectives of the study The purposes of the study are stated as follows: (1) To explain the realization of grammatical cohesion in each reading text. (2) To find out the dominant kind of grammatical cohesion in the reading texts.

1.5 Significance of the study By conducting this study, it is expected that: (1) Teachers could use the finding as a consideration in selecting appropriate textbook for the teaching instrument. (2) Students textbook writers can take the result of the final project into concern in presenting reading text.

1.6 Limitation of the Study There are two kinds of cohesion, grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. In this study, I limit the discussion on the analysis of grammatical cohesion in reading texts. Here, the source of the data is taken from junior high school textbook. The book consists of nine reading texts and I analyzed all of them.

1.7 Outline of the Study To present the study easily, I organised the outline of this final project as follows: Chapter I is introduction. It covers background of the study, reason for choosing the topic, statement of the problem, objective of the study, significance of the study, outline of the study. Chapter II is review of related literature. It discusses the theories which are used as the bases of the research. It tells us about the types of meaning in language, the definition of cohesion, kinds of cohesion, reading text, and definition of textbook.

Chapter III deals with method of investigation, which explain the source of the data, collecting the data, and analysing the data. Chapter IV presents the result of the study which tells about the grammatical cohesion found in the reading texts. Chapter V puts conclusions and suggestions of the study.

CHAPTER REVIEW RELATED II OF LITERATURE 2.1 Types of Meaning in Language language as a means of communication in order to accomplish their People use necessities in everyday social life. Such a thing leads systemic linguist to advance four main theoretical claims about language. It is mentioned that language is functional; that its function is to make meanings; that these meanings are influenced by the social and cultural context in which they are exchanged; and that the process of using language is a semiotic process, a process of making meanings by choosing (Eggins 1994: 2). It can be seen that the meaning language made is influenced by context of culture and context of situation. Gerot and Wignel (1994: 10) argue that all meaning is situated in a context of culture and in a context of situation. Furthermore, there is a claim by Malinowski that language only become intelligible when it is placed within a context of situation (Eggins 1994: 50). It other words, contextual information about the situation should be provided in interpreting text. There are three features of context of situation describes by Halliday. The description is in terms of a simple conceptual framework of three headings, the field, the tenor, and the mode. These concepts serve to interpret the social context of text, the environment in which meanings are being exchanged. The field of discourse refers to what is happening to the nature of the social action that is taking place. The tenor of discourse refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their status and roles. While the mode of discourse refers to what part the language is playing, what it is that participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation. Those three features are linked to the three types of meaning language is structured to make, the experimental, the textual, the interpersonal (Eggins, 1994: 78). Furthermore, she considers that people represent experience in language, then it is called experiential meaning. In this case, language is used to talk about something or someone doing something. Simultaneously, people use language to make interpersonal meaning. She explains that interpersonal meaning

Figure 2.1 context in relation to discourse-semantic and lexico-gammar Source : Eggins 1994: 79 Discourse-

is meaning about peoples role relationship with others and their attitude to each other. At this point, people use language to express an attitude and to take up a role. Finally, in any linguistic event, people always make textual meaning, that is meaning about how what people are saying hangs together and relates to what was said before and to the context around them. The relationship between context and language are represented in figure 2.1. Considering the figure above, it can be seen that types of meaning can be related both upwards (to context) and downwards (to leico-grammar). Halliday in Eggins (1994: 78) suggests that the upwards link is that each register can be associated with one of these types of meanings. Thus, field is expressed through patterns of experiential meaning in text; mode is expressed through textual meaning, and tenor through interpersonal meaning. The downwards link is that the types of meanings being realized through the associated lexico-grammatical patterns, Mood, Transitivity and Theme. Eggins (1994: 306) points out that the essential contribution made by textual meaning is to actualize a range of different textual structures which operate at all levels of text, and whose function is to enable the experiential and interpersonal meanings we have chosen to make to be realized in a cohesive and coherent text. It indicates that to express meaningful text there should be cohesive ties.

2.2 Definition of Cohesion The term cohesion is familiar in the study of language. It is part of the system of a language. The simplest definition of cohesion proposed by Halliday and Hasan is that it refers to relation of meaning that exist within the text and that define it as a text. Halliday and Hasan (1976:4) state: Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another. That one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by resource to it. When this happens a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text. In Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish it is clear that the word the in the second sentence refers back to the six cooking m apple in the firs sentence. The word the gives cohesion to the two sentences, s that we interpret them as a whole. Halliday and Hasan (1976:4) give details of m so the example that the word the presupposes for its interpretation something other than itself. This requirement is met by the six cooking apples in the preceding m sentence. The presupposition and the fact that is resolved, provide cohesion between the two sentences, and in so doing create text. Halliday and Hasan, moreover, put forward that the function of cohesion is to relate one part of a text to another part of the same text. In other words

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cohesion functions as a tie to link one sentence to another. Baker (1992:180) supports that cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relation which provide links between various parts of a text. This relationship functions to convey meaning from the speakers mind, idea or thought, in order to make a sentence convey meaning and to get readers easier to understand the whole meaning. In this case, it is clear that cohesive relation plays a major function related to the readers comprehension in reading a text. The actualization of cohesion in any given instance, Halliday and Hasan examine, does not depend merely on the selection of some option from within those resources, but also on the selection of some other element which resolves the presupposition that this sets up. For example when there is a word apple we s cannot see that it has cohesive power by itself, a cohesive relation is set up only if the same word or a word related to it suc as fruithas arise previously. Halliday h and Hasan (1976:5) point out the cohesion lies in the relation that is set up between the sentences. 2.3 Grammatical Cohesion 2.3.1 Reference The term reference is traditionally used in semantics for the relationships, which holds between a word and what it points to in the real world (Baker 1992:181). According to Halliday and Hassan (1976: 308-309) reference is the relation between an element of the text and something else by reference to which it is interpreted in the given instance. Reference is a potentially cohesive relation because the thing that serves as the source of the interpretation may itself be an element of text. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 33) classify reference into exophora and endophora. It can be seen in figure 2.2. Reference (situational) exophora (to preceding text) anaphora (textual) endophora (to following text) cataphora
Figure 2.2 Classification of reference

From the figure above, as a general rule, reference items may be exophoric or endophric: and if it is endophoric, it may be anaphoric or cathaphoric. Exophora, according to them is one, which does not name anything; it signals that reference must be made to the context of situation. Endophora is textual reference, that is, referring to anything as identified in the surrounding text. Endophora reference is further classified into anaphora (reference to preceding text) and cataphora (reference to following text).

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Baker adds reference is limited to the relationship of identity which holds between two linguistic expressions. For example, in Mrs. Thatcher has resign. She announced her decision this morning, the pronoun sh points to Mrs. Thatcher within the textual world itself. The e resulting cohesion lies in the continuity of reference, whereby the same thing enters into the discourse a second time (Halliday amd Hasan 1976:31). Reference, in the textual sense occurs when the reader has to retrieve the identity of what is being talked about by referring to another expression in the previous context. Every language has certain item which has the property of reference in the textual sense (Baker1992: 181). She identifies the potential function of these reference items are to direct the readers to look elsewhere for their interpretation. The most common items in English and a large number of other languages are pronouns. Apart from personal reference, English also uses items such as the, this, and those to establish similar links between expressions in the text. In Mrs. Thatcher has resigned. This delighted her opponents, the reader has to go back to the previous stretch of discourse to establish what Thi refers to. So, reference is a device which allows reader/hearer to trace s participant, entities, events, etc. in a text (Baker 1992: 181). There are three type of reference: personal, demonstrative, and comparative reference (Halliday and Hassan 1976: 37). (a.) Personal reference is a reference by means of function in the speech situation, through the categories of person, such as I, me, you, mine, her, them, etc. The category of personals includes the three classes of personal pronoun, possessive pronouns (mine, yours, etc.) and possessive identifiers (my, your, etc.). For example: e.g. Mrs. Mary was absent yesterday. She was attended a meeting in Jakarta. In the second sentence, she refers to Mrs. Mary in the preceding sentence. The word she is called personal reference, as she follows it linguistic reference of Mrs. Mary. (b.) Demonstrative reference is a reference by means of location, on a scale of proximity. In the case of demonstrative, the words this, these, that, those, here, the, now, and then are used. Halliday and Hassan add this, these, and here imply proximity to the speaker; that, those, and there imply distance from the speaker. e.g. Pick these up! How would you like a cruise in that yacht? Leave that there and come here! (Halliday and Hasan 1976:58) Last year we went to Devon for holiday. The holiday we had there was the best weve ever had. (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 73)

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In second example, th is both cataphoric, pointing forward to we had e there, and also anaphoric, referring the second occurrence of holiday back to that in the preceding sentence. (c.) Comparative reference is cohesion in the form of reference that shows comparison between one thing and another. e.g., Its the same cat as the one we saw yesterday. Its a similar cat as the one we saw yesterday. Its a different cat from the one we saw yesterday. (Halliday and Hasan1976:78) The referent was the one we saw , and the comparative same yesterday , similar, and different was pointing forward to it . 2.3.2 Substitution In her point of view, Mc Carthy (1991: 45) outlines that substitution is similar to ellipsis, in that, in English it operates as nominal, verbal or clausal. Baker (1992: 187) states that items commonly used in substitution in English are : do, and one, the as in the following examples from Halliday and Hassan (1976: 89; 105): same (a.) Do You think John already knows? I think everybody doe . (Doe replaces knows) s s (b.) One My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharpen on . (On replaces axe) (c.) The same e e A: Ill have two poached eggs on the toasts, please. B: Ill have the . (the replaces two poached eggs on toast) It brings to an samethat insame idea substitution, an item/s is replaced by another item /s. Substitution, furthermore, is a sort of counter which is used in place of the repetition of a particular item (Halliday and Hasan 1976:89). For example, in a.) My axe is too blunt. I must get the sharper one. b.) You think Joan already knows? I think everybody does. on and doe are both substitutes: on substitutes for ax , and doe for know . e s e e s s 2.3.3 Ellipsis Ellipsis involves the omission of an item. In ellipsis, in other words, , an item is replaced by nothing (Baker 1992: 187). She adds that ellipsis does not include every instance in which the hearer or reader has to supply missing information, but those where the grammatical structure itself points to an item or items that can fill the slot in question. Mc. Carthy (1991: 43) also stands in the same flow together with the definition above by saying that ellipsis is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the speaker or writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be raised. Ellipsis is distinguished by structure having some missing elements. Here are some examples of ellipsis:

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Joan bought some carnations and Catherine some sweet peas. (ellipted item: brough in second clause) Here are thirteen cards.t Take any. Now give me any three. (ellipted items: card after any in second clause and cards after any three in third clause). Have you been swimming? - Yes I have. (elliptic item: been in the second clause) swimming Halliday and Hasan 1976:143;158;167) 2.3.4 Conjunction The fourth and final type of cohesive relation that is found in the grammar is that of conjunction. Halliday and Hassan (1976: 226) point out that conjunctive elements are not primarily devices for reaching out into the preceding (or following) text, but they express certain meanings presuppose the presence of other components in the discourse. Conjunction involves the use of formal markers to relate sentences, clauses, and paragraphs to each other (Baker 1992: 190). Unlike reference, substitution, and ellipsis, the use of conjunction does not instruct the reader to supply missing information either by looking for it elsewhere in the text or by filling structural slots, Baker adds. It means that conjunction indicates the way the writer wants the reader to relate what is about to be said to what has been said before. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 321) offers the specific relatives conjunctive relation are those of and, yet, so, and then which used not just to turns, linking one speakers turn of the current speaker, or else marking a shift in topic or sub-topic (often with but). Here is a further set of examples of each from Halliday and Hassan (1976: 321): a. and : They gave me fish to eat. And I dont like fish. b. yet : They looked after him well. Yet she got no better. c. so : Were e having guests tonight. So dont be late. d. then : He stayed there for three years. Then he went on to New Zealand. Furthermore, Baker (1992: 191) outlines a number of points to be borne in mind. First, the same conjunction may be used to signal different relations, depending on the context. Second, these relations can be expressed by a variety of means; the use of conjunction is not the only device for expressing a temporal or causal relation. In English, a temporal relation may be expressed by means of adverb such as followor preced , and causal relation is express by caus and lea e e d t . Third, conjunctive relations do not just reflect relations between external o phenomena, but may also be set up to reflect stages in the unfolding text. For example is the use of firs, second , and third in this paragraph. There are also many variations in using conjunction in daily life, however it can be said that there are four types of conjunction considered as the most types used. Those four types are additive, adversative, causal and temporal. The first is additive type, it is a type of conjunction which functions to give additional information to the sentence related, where the whole sentence are considered as

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one complex sentence. Example of this category are and, (and) also, andtoo . For example, Jane bought some oranges yesterday. And she made a glass of orange juice. The next type is adversative conjunction. It includes those conjunctions, which signal that the information following conjunction is contrary expectation. Example for this category are but, yet, though, however, etc . For example, She is not French but she is very famous in Paris. The third type is causal conjunction. This type of conjunction signals that the information in the preceding clause refers to the cause of the content of the clause that follows the conjunction. The form of causal relation is expressed by so thus, hence, therefore , as a result, because of that, because, etc. , The last type is temporal conjunction. This type is related to sequence in time, where the one is subsequent to the other. In other words, this kind of conjunction establishes a temporal relationship between units in discourse. The simplest form of this type is expressed by the . n 2.4 Lexical Cohesion Lexical cohesion is the cohesive effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 274). Lexical cohesion refers to the rule played by the selective of vocabulary in organizing relations within a text. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 318) add that lexical cohesion is phoric cohesion that is established through the structure of the lexis or vocabulary and hence as well as substitution at lexico-grammatical level. They divide lexical cohesion into two main categories: reiteration and collocation. 2.4.1 Reiteration Reiteration is the repetition of lexical item, or the occurrence of a synonym of some kind in the context of reference; that is, where the two occurrences have the same referent (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 318). Typically, therefore, reference item, usually the or demonstratives accompanies a reiterate lexical item. The complex one consisting of the plus reiterated lexical item is stated to be cohesive by reference since reiteration is cohesive in its own right, as shown by the fact, cohesion takes places even where there is no referential relation. Baker (1992:203) suggests that a reiterated item may be a repetition of an earlier item, a synonym or near-synonym, a superordinate, or a general word. The following example is adapted from Halliday and Hasan (1976: 283): Theres a boy climbing a tree. a. the boys going to fall if he doesnt take care. (repetition) b. the lads going to fall if he doesnt take care. (synonym) c. the childs going to fall if he doesnt take care. (superordinate) d. the idiots going to fall if he doesnt take care. (general word) 2.4.2 Collocation Halliday and Hasan in Baker (1992: 203), propose collocation as a sub-class of lexical cohesion, covers any instance, which involves a pair of lexical items that are associated with each other in the language in some way. They put forward the

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following type of association as examples, but admit that there are other instances where the association between lexical items cannot readily be given a name but it nevertheless felt to exist. Various kinds of oppositeness of meaning, e .g., boy, /girl; love/hate ; have the association between pairs of word from the same ordered series, e.g., Tuesday Thursday; August/ December; dollar/ cent ; association between pairs of words / from unordered lexical sets, e.g. part-whole relations: body/arm; car/brake; partpart relations: mouth/chin: verse/ chorus; co-hyponymy : red/green (both hyponyms of color); Chair/table (both hyponyms of furniture). Principally, lexical cohesion is not a relation between pairs of words as the above explanation might suggest. On the contrary, lexical cohesion typically operates through lexical chains (such as socialism, communist, East ) that run through a text and are linked to each other in various ways (Baker 1992: 204)

2.5 Reading Text In learning a new language reading appears to be an essential thing since it helps people think in the new language, it also build a better vocabulary Mickulecky (1986:1). It means that in order to deeply internalize the language learners learn, they need to read much. Reading itself is defined as the cognitive process of understanding a written linguistic message. ( http//jac.gsu.edu/jac/11.1/Articles/g.htm retrieved 2nd Nov It means, in the process of reading there must be a written material. 2006). Furthermore, it is mentioned that reading by humans are mostly done from paper with ink: a book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or notebook. While a text, according to Halliday and Hasan (1976:1), refers to any passage, spoken or written of whatever length, that does form a unified whole. It is also said that a text is regarded as a semantic unit: a unit not of form but of meaning. To be regarded as a text, any passage spoken or written must be held together cohesively through meaning. Then it can be said that reading text is a meaningful material to read and it is in the written form. Students, in their English class, usually use textbook as one of the learning instruments. Besides exercises, a textbook usually provides reading texts in it. The reading texts are used in the reading class as a material reference. 2.6 Textbook A book plays an important role in modern life. It functions to get information and knowledge. Bookstores and libraries are places where people can find books as sources of science and technology. The definition of textbook offered in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textbook (retrieved 4th October 2006) is a manual of instruction or a standard book in any branch of study. Textbooks are usually published by specialty printers to serve every request for an understanding of every subject that can be taught. In accordance with that definition, Oxford Dictionary (Hornby, 1986:893) defines a textbook as a book giving instruction in

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a branch of learning. It means that a textbook is a kind of book used in some studies at school. Textbook, furthermore, is frequently become an important teaching tool because it can determine not only what will be taught but also how it will be taught (The Encyclopedia America vol. 26, 1998: 563). Moreover, about half the book produced in the world are textbooks. It brings to an end that textbook is a book that presents a branch of knowledge used as a teaching tool in a school or college courses. A textbook has much function in order to contribute the teaching learning process. Greeny and Petty, quoted by Sanjojo (1991: 6), gives details a number of functions of textbooks that fall into: (1) to express a thought and modern views of lessons and also demonstrate its application in the teaching materials. (2) to present various readable subject matter which is suitable with the students needs and interests, as source of the learning program to make a real condition just like in the students real life. (3) to provide an arranged, gradual source in the expressional skills of communication. (4) to present together with the supplementary books. (5) to provide an evaluation and remedial teaching program which is suitable and useful for both teacher and students. (6) to present exercises and practical tasks.

CHAPTER III METHOD INVESTIGATION

OF

The final project was conducted in a ways namely library research. In library research, I searched for some reference textbooks for the related subject matter. I explored the core of the textbooks and jotted down necessary information and ideas to support my ideas. 3.1 Object of the Study Selection of object of the study is an important step in conducting a research study. In this research, the data were reading texts taken from English textbook for junior high school entitled Smart Steps, published by Ganeca Exact in 2006.

3.2 Procedure of Collecting Data In selecting the data of the research I conducted several steps. The steps are as follows: 3.2.1 Selecting the Textbook In this final project I chose one textbook of junior high school entitled Smart Steps, published by Ganeca Exact, since the book is used by junior high school students as their learning material. Besides, the book has been approved by the minister of national education as the official English textbook.

17

18

3.2.2 Selecting the reading text After choosing the textbook, the next step I did was selecting the reading texts. There are nine reading texts in the textbook and I took all of them to analyse. As suggested by Suharsimi Arikunto, if the object of the study is less than a hundred in quantity, then take the whole as the data (Arikunto, 1992:120) The tittles of the reading texts are as follows: (1) A Top Model, (2) David Holbe, (3) My School, (4) Mr. Ardis Family, (5) Daily Activities, (6) A Successful Shop Owner, (7) A Good Manager, (8) My Garden, and (9) Lazy Shop Assistants.

3.3 Analysing the Data The data was analysed through the following steps: 3.3.1 Dividing and Numbering Sentences into Clauses. The selected reading texts are divided into clauses, then numbered in order to find the grammatical cohesion items within the clauses in terms of grammatical cohesion. For example:

19

Marlina is the girl with the long hair.

5

The one who is beautiful

and

always wear glasses. 4 I think

you met her at my house.

The text above consists of three sentences but there are five clauses.

3.3.2 Identifying the Grammatical Cohesion within the clauses. In this step, I underlined every cohesive items of grammatical cohesion I found. For example: David is a student of junior high school. His hobbies are reading and travelling. He wants to visit Jakarta. He would like to go to Taman Mini Indonesia Indah. The underlined words are items of grammatical cohesion. The words in the text point to Davi . d 3.3.3 Putting the Number of Cohesive items into Tables Based on the Types of Grammatical Cohesion The table of grammatical cohesion from reading text 1 is presented as the example. The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 1 Number of clause 1 2 3 4 5 She She She She Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction s But h and his e

20

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 0 1

Her Her Her Her She She It, her She, her She

3.3.4 Counting the Number of Grammatical Cohesion in the Form of Percentages The purpose of this section is to know what kind of grammatical cohesion used mostly in each reading text. Furthermore, I counted the types of grammatical cohesion into percentages. I employ a simple formula as follows: X= where, X = the percentage of types of grammatical cohesion in reading text, N = the number of each types of grammatical cohesion in the reading text, and
N

N N

x 100%;

= the total number of grammatical cohesion items in the reading

text.

21

3.3.5 Interpreting the Result The result of the grammatical cohesion analysis would be interpreted based on the realization of grammatical cohesion in each text and the number of ties in every type of grammatical cohesion. The dominant kind of grammatical cohesion used in the reading text would be clear after they were interpreted.

3.3.6 Taking Conclusion After finishing the process of analysis, the last step I did was concluding the result of the analysis.

CHAPTER IV RESULT OF ANALYSIS

THE

After analyzing the data I found out how grammatical cohesion in the reading texts is written. Besides, the dominant kind of grammatical cohesion can be identified as well. I present the result of the analysis in the form of table. There are also percentages of the realization of each kind of grammatical cohesion in the reading texts. The following text is the example of analyzing the data. Reading text 1 Title: A Top Model
1

Anne Mary is a young girl.

5

She is American.

She is not French

but she is very famous in Paris.

6

She is a top model at Channel Fashion House. Her father I African.

8

Her mother is Korean.

10

Her hair is curly.

12

Her

eyes are slanted.

She is tall.
13

11

She is very interesting.

14

It makes Channel

Fashion House wants her.

She like her profession.

She is rich now.

4.1 The Grammatical Cohesion of Reading Text 1 Grammatical cohesion involves reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. Based on the analysis of them, I can summarize the analysis in each reading text. The condensed result of the grammatical cohesion analysis is shown in the following table:

22

23

Number of clause Reference 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 She She She She Her Her Her Her She She It, her She, her She -

Substitution -

Ellipsis -

Conjunction

But -

S 15 0 0 1 Table 4.1 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 1. From the table above, it is found no occurrence of substitution and ellipsis in the text, while the occurrence of reference dominates the text. Most of the reference items found in the text are pronoun. According to McCarty (1990:35) reference items in English include pronouns (e.g. he, she, it, him, they, I, etc). in this text, the reference are expressed by words such as: she, and it. her , The word sh in She is (clause 2), have the potential for e American directing the readers to look elsewhere for their interpretation. Baker (1992:181) states reference occurs when the reader has to retrieve the identity of what is being talked about before referring to another expression in the immediate

24

context. It is found that the referent item for s mentioned in the previous clause.

h e

isAnne Mary,

which is

There are three types of reference, personal, demonstrative and comparative reference. In this text, only personal is realizes. The items are she ,

her and it. Personal reference is a reference by means of function in the speech , situation, through the categories of person, such as I, me, you, he, she, her, his, it, they, etc (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 37-8). The occurrence of personal reference found in the text can be seen in the example below:
1

Anne Mary is a young girl. She is very interesting.

12

She is American.

11

It makes Chanel Fashion House wants her. it

The word sh and he in the clauses refer text Anne Mary. Meanwhile, the word e r refers to clause (11). The other grammatical cohesion used in the text is conjunction. The only conjunction found in the text is bu in clause four. This conjunction is used to state t contrary of what is said before, and it is called adversative. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 250) state that the basic meaning of the adversative relation is contrary to expectation. Moreover, adversative relation involved

yet, bu , howeve , etc. The t r use of conjunction but in the text can be seen in the following example:
3

She is not French

but she is very famous in Paris.

4.2 The Grammatical Cohesion of Reading Text 2 The condensed result of grammatical cohesion analysis of reading text 2 is shown in the table below:

25

Number of clause Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 His He His His His They, him He His He He And And Because Because -

S 11 0 0 4 Table 4.2 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 2. The table shows that reference and conjunction are realized in the reading text. Reference is realized the most. Meanwhile, substitution and ellipsis are not found in the text. Personal reference is applied in the text. It includes I, we, you, he, she, him, etc (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 44). In clause two, there is a reference item hiswhich points to David in the preceding clause. Similarly, the other items Holbe of personal reference such as he and him found in the text also point to Davi d Holb . To find the reference such as h and hi found in the text also point to e e m David According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), reference is the specific Holbe.

26

nature of the information that is signaled for retrieval. Another item of personal reference found in the text is they. The referent for that word is Guy Holbe and

Monique mentioned in the previous clauses. Holbe Another item of grammatical cohesion in the text is

an . This item belongs d to conjunction, especially additive. Additive relation includes the words: and, or also, furthermore, besides, etc (Baker 1992: 191). In the text, additive relation is used in clause (5) and (7). This item gives additional information to the clause related. For example:
4

an d

His nose is pointed

and his skin is not black.

The word an in clause (5) signals that it gives additional information to clause d (4). The other type of conjunction found in the text is casual. Baker (1991:191) mention items included casual relation such as: consequently, because, so, for, etc. Casual relation between clauses related. There are two occurrences of the word because in the text, they are in clause (9) and (12). For example:
8

They proud of him

because he is clever and diligent.

The word becaus in clause (9) is the reason for the statement in clause (8). Here, e the casual relation occurs.

4.3 The Grammatical Cohesion of Reading Text 3 The condensed result of grammatical cohesion analysis of reading text 3 is shown in the following table:

27

Number of clause Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 My 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 S 11 0 0 0 Table 4.3 The Number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 3. I I, the My It There There I, My, The -

As it is shown in the table, the only grammatical cohesion found in the text is reference. There are eight clauses in the text. Every clause realizes cohesive item. It is found there are two kinds of reference, personal and demonstrative reference. Personal reference signaled by the use of pronoun (Halliday and Hasan 1976:43). The example of this kind is in clause (1), My names Agus In Setiyawan. this clause, the word m refers to Agus . The other personal reference y Setiyawan found in the text is I . it also refers to Agus Setiyawan. The next kind of reference used in the text is demonstrative reference. This reference signals the scale of proximity. According to Haliday and Hasan (1976: 58-9) the words that, those, and there imply distance from the speaker which may or may not involve proximity. The example of this kind and (7). For example:
4

is realized in clause (6)

28

My school is very large.

It has many rooms.

There are 19 classrooms,

two canteens, a teachers office, a laboratory, a large library, 5 restrooms, and a computer room. The other item of demonstrative reference in the text is the word th . This e item refers to specific entity, person, or object. The occurrence of this item can be seen in the following example:
8

I have the map of my school. ma . It is called cataphoric reference or p

The word th in clause (8) is referring to e reference forward.

4.4 The Grammatical Cohesion of Reading Text 4 The condensed result of grammatical cohesion analysis of reading text 4 is shown in the table below: Number of clause Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 This 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 It Their They The, the, their He She -

29

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 S 17 0 0 2

She Her, her He She Her He They

Because Because -

Table 4.4 The Number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 4. The table shows that there are two types of grammatical cohesion applied in the text. They are reference and conjunction. In the meantime, the two others grammatical cohesion, substitution and ellipsis are not found in the text. Reference shows dominant realization. Most of the realization are personal reference items, such as it, their, they, he, she, and her. As it is atated by Halliday and Hasan (1976: 37-8) personal reference is a reference by means of function in the speech situation, through the categories of person, such as I, me, you, he, she, it, they, etc. The example found in the text is as follows:
9

He works hard everyday. Mr .

The word h , in the clause refers to participant in the previous clause that is e Ard . The other referents of personal reference items in the text can also be i confirmed by looking back in the text. As said by Baker (1992:181) that

30

reference occurs when the reader has to retrieve the identity of what is being talked about by referring to another expression in the immediate context. There is also demonstrative reference item in the text. The item is seven. The clause is in the following:
7

th in clause e

The members of the family have their own activities.

There are two demonstrative reference items in the clause, that is

th , which e occurs two times. Th in the first occurrence is pointing forward to members, e while the second occurrence of th is pointing backward to family in the previous e clause, tat is clause one. The next grammatical cohesion found in the text is conjunction. There are two occurrences of becaus in the text. This item of cohesion belongs to a causal e conjunction. According to Baker (1992:191) causal relation includes so, consequently, for, because, etc. causal relation signals causal relation between the clauses containing the item and its previous clause. In the text, clause fourteen and seventeen. becaus occurs in e

4.5 The Grammatical Cohesion of Reading Text 5 The condensed result of grammatical cohesion analysis of reading text 5 is shown in the following table: Number of clause Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 I 2 3 4 I I -

31

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 S 19 0 0 6

I I I I I, my My We We, the We, it I It, the, the

Then And After that Then And But -

Table 4.5 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 5 From the table above, it can be seen the occurrences of reference dominates the text. The table shows that there is another type of grammatical cohesion realized in the text, conjunction. Meanwhile, substitution and ellipsis are not found in the text. Nevertheless, the text is written cohesively in terms of grammatical cohesion. Text five presents personal and demonstrative reference. The personal reference found in the text are realized by I, we 2 I live in Barcelona, Spain. my, , and it. For example:

In that clause, the word I refers to a participant mentioned in the preceding clause, Vanessa The presupposed item of reference in the text can be easily found by . tracing participants, entities, or events in the text. Baker (1992: 181) argues that

32

reference is a device which allows reader or hearer to trace participant, entities, events, etc. in the text. The next grammatical cohesion occurs in the text is conjunction. There are six items of conjunctive relation in the text. They are after that, and, then , and bu , t in which the and an occur twice. Considering those conjunction items, it n d implies that the text realizes three types of conjunction, additive, adversative, and temporal. The first conjunction relation is additive. it gives additional information to the clause related, where the whole sentence is considered as one complex sentence. The items include: and, or, also, in addition. for example is the relation between clause (7) and (8) as follows:
7

I always drink milk

and sometimes I have orange juice.

By applying the additive item an in clause eight, the information in clause seven d is added by clause eight. The second type of conjunction is adversative. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 250) state that the basic meaning of the adversative relation is contrary to expectation. Moreover, adversative relation involved yet, but, however, etc. For example:
13

We usually see a movie at the movie theater

14

but sometimes we go

shopping. The word bu in clause (14) states contrary statement toward clause (13). Even t though the participants usually see a movie, they also sometimes do another activity, go shopping.

33

The third type of conjunction found in the text is temporal. This type signals sequential events. The forms of this type are: then, after that, next, at last, etc (Baker 1992: 191). In text five, clause (5) realizes the use of then and clause (9) applies after that . The clauses are as follows:
4

I usually get up late on Sunday. I always drink milk

8

Then, I have breakfast.

9

and sometimes I have orange juice.

After that, I

usually clean my room.

4.6 The Grammatical Cohesion of Reading Text 6 The condensed result of grammatical cohesion analysis of reading text 6 is shown in the following table: Number of clause Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 My, his 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 He He He, he He, his His, him He, his, his He, there He He His Him His He, the He, there His father -

Therefore And There

34

16 17 18 19 S 31 0 1 4

He, his He, his He, his He

Because -

Table 4.6 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 6 The table shows that reference, conjunction, and ellipsis are applied in the reading text; whereas substitution is not realized in the text. There are two types of reference used in the text, persona and demonstrative reference. Most of the reference items belong to personal reference. They include personal pronoun (he), possessive adjectives (my, his) and possessive pronoun (him). As proposed by Halliday and Hasan (1976: 43) that personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation through the category of person, which includes personal pronouns, possessive adjectives, and possessive pronouns. Here is the example of the actualization of personal reference:
3

He was very diligent student. His father was very proud of him. Jimm . The y

The word h , hisand hi refer to the person mentioned in clause (1), e m other pronouns used in the text also refer to Jimmy. The next type of reference in the text is demonstrative reference. It is a

form of verbal pointing. The items involve demonstrative (this, that, those, there), and the article the (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 57). The example is as follow:
7

he continued his study at a senior high school nearby his village.

He

studied there for three years.

35

The word therein the clause implies distance from the speaker. The reference points to a senior high school mentioned in the preceding clause. Considering the table above, there is only one ellipsis n the text. The occurrence of elliptical item can be seen in the example below:
11

His father was poor

12

and (his father) could not afford a higher

education for him. The word his father in clause (12) is omitted, but the item is obvious from the context and therefore, they are replaced by nothing. According to Baker (1992: 187) ellipsis involves the omission of an item and the item is replaced by nothing. Conjunction items found in the text are an , therefore and becaus . There d e are two types of conjunction in the text, additive and causal. Additive functions to give additional information to the sentence related. The items include: and, or, (and) also, etc. For example:
13

His first job was a book keeper

14

and he was able to use the computer

well. The next type of conjunction in the text is causal. This type signals that the information in the preceding clause refers to the clause, which follows the conjunction. Causal relation is expressed by: so, thus, hence, because, therefore, etc (Baker 1990: 191). These following clauses are the example of the occurrence of causal relation.
16

He quitted his job

17

because he decided to run a shop in his village.

36

4.7 The Grammatical Cohesion of Reading Text 7 The condensed result of grammatical cohesion analysis of reading text 7 is shown in the following table: Number of clause Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 His, this 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 S 31 0 3 5 Table 4.7 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 7 As it is shown in the table, I found that there are three types of grammatical cohesion in the text. The first is reference. It consists of personal He He, there He, his His He His, him Her He His He, his, his His, him They His She, him She, his The She, the, him His He He He She -

And Then And And Then -

37

reference and demonstrative reference. It can be seen that personal reference dominates the text. The items of this type comprises: I, he, she, her, my, etc. The clauses which realize personal reference are shown below:
1

Ron Marton came to his office early this morning. He went to work by car.

The pronoun hisand h in the clauses point to Ron Marton. To find the referent e for hisand h , readers need to confirm the item by looking back in the text. e The next type of reference found in the text is demonstrative reference. It includes: this, that, there, her, the, etc. The examples are as follows:
3

When he arrived there,

he parked his car.

The word therein clause (3) signals distance from the speaker. This reference refers to officein cause (1). It also found that there is ellipsis in the text. Baker (1992: 187) argues that ellipsis involves the omission of an item and is replaced by nothing. For example:
9

Then he studied statistic

10

and (he) wrote a report to his boss, Mr.

Siregar. The word h in clause (10) is omitted but the item is obvious from the context and e therefore it is replaced by nothing. The last grammatical cohesion in the text is conjunction. There are two types of conjunction in the text, additive, and temporal. Additive relation gives additional information in the clause related. The i9tems include: and, or, also, besides, furthermore, etc (Baker 1992: 191). The example is as follows:

38

16

She also opened his mail

17

and read the mail carefully.

Another type of conjunction is temporal. The form of this type is expressed by: then, next, after that, etc (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 26). It is found an item the in the text. For example: n 8 Mr. Marton talked to her for a while.

Then he studied the statistic.

The word the in clause (9) relates two sequences of events in those clauses. n

4.8 The Grammatical Cohesion of Reading Text 8 The condensed result of grammatical cohesion analysis of reading text 8 is shown in the table below: Number of clause Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 I, my 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 S 19 0 1 2 Table 4.8 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 8 The It There, my The They They They I, my, the I, it, my It I, it The garden is -

But But -

39

As it is shown in the table, the grammatical cohesion that dominates the text is reference. This is realized by personal reference and demonstrative reference. Personal reference in the text includes: I, my, it and they. It is said by Halliday and Hasan (1976: 38) that personal reference uses the category of person such as: I, my, it, they, he, she, etc. The example of the occurrence of personal reference in the text is as follows:
1

I have a nice garden in front of my house. It has many flowers.

The second type of reference found in the text is demonstrative reference. It is a form of verbal pointing which includes item such as: this, that, those, these, the etc (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 57). The use of this type is in the following example:
1

I have a nice garden in front f my house.

The garden is small

But

beautiful. The word th in clause (2) points to specific thing, that is e previous clause. garde mentioned in the n

The next grammatical cohesion in this text is ellipsis. It is only realized once in the text. The clause is as follows:
2

but (the ) beautiful. garden In here, bu beautiful are elliptical nominal groups. The nominal groups t that are elliptical presuppose the garden is , which is not mentioned in the clause.
3

The garden is small

According to McCharty (1991: 43) ellipsis is the omission of elements normally

40

required by the grammar which the speaker or writer assume are obvious from the context and therefore need not be said. The table also shows that there is conjunction relation in the text. Here, the conjunction is realized only by one type, adversative. It is used to state contrary of what is said before. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 250) propose that the basic meaning of the adversative relation is contrary to expectation. This relation involves: yet, however, but, etc. The use of conjunction relation is as follows:
8

They are not expensive flowers

but they look very interesting.

The word bu in clause (9) states a contrary statement toward clause (8). The t flowers are interesting although they are not expensive.

4.9 The Grammatical Cohesion of Reading Text 9 The condensed result of grammatical cohesion analysis of reading text 9 is shown in the following table: Number of clause Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 He He, there He The, him He, he He He The, the The -

Then Just then

41

12 13 14 S 15 0 0 2

Him The -

Table 4.9 The number of grammatical cohesion in reading text 9 As shown in the table, there are two kinds of grammatical cohesion found in the text, reference and conjunction. Reference appears the most. The occurrence is realized by two types of reference, personal and demonstrative reference. Personal reference includes: I, he, she, they, his, her, it, etc. The following clauses are the example of personal reference usage:
1

One day, Mr. Eko went shopping in a big electronic shop.

He wanted to

buy an emergency lamp.

5

The shop assistant didnt serve him well.

The words h and hi in those clauses refer to the same participant, Mr. Eko e m mentioned in clause (1). The next grammatical cohesion in this text is conjunction. The conjunction items used in this text are the and just then . For example: n 6 He said that he didnt have emergency lamps. another shop assistant.
10

Then Mr. Eko asked

Mr. Eko got annoyed.

11

Just then the manager came.

The words the and just then in the clauses show sequential events. According to n Halliday and Hasan (1976: 262) temporal relation is paralleled by the sequence of the sentences themselves.

42

4.10 The Percentages of Grammatical Cohesion This section puts percentages of the data analyzed in the form of table. From the table below, the kind of grammatical cohesion which appears most will be obvious. The table is as follows: Number of text Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 93.7% 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 73.3% 100% 89.5% 76% 85.8% 79.4% 86.3% 88.2% 2.8% 7.7% 4.5% -

6.3% 26.6% 10.5% 24% 11.2% 12.8% 9.1% 11.7%

Table 4.10 The percentage of grammatical cohesion As it is shown in the table, the kinds of grammatical cohesion realized in the reading texts are reference, ellipsis, and conjunction. All reading texts I analyzed apply reference. Moreover, the occurrence of reference appears to be the most in the reading texts. the next kind of grammatical cohesion applied in the text is ellipsis. Only three texts use ellipsis. The percentages of ellipsis are the lowest. The last kind of grammatical cohesion found in the texts is conjunction. All reading texts except text 3 have conjunctions. Nevertheless, the percentages of conjunction in each reading text are lower than the percentages of reference.

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS SUGGESTIONS

AND

This chapter presents the important points of the whole discussion in this study. Furthermore, it also suggests some recommendations for academic teaching and for further research.

5.1 Conclusions Considering the result of the study in chapter four, I conclude that: (1) the kinds of grammatical cohesion found in the texts comprises reference, ellipsis and conjunction. All of them are appropriately applied in the texts, therefore cohesive reading texts are established. (2) all reading texts apply reference. There are two reading texts, text 6 and 7, that use ellipsis. And all reading texts except text 3 have conjunctions. (3) reference is the dominant kind of grammatical cohesion in the reading texts. This can be seen by considering the percentage calculation of reference used in the reading texts which is the highest compared to the other types of grammatical cohesion in every analyzed text.

5.2 Suggestions From the study I have done, I can put the following suggestions: (1) As it is stated above that cohesion in text improves reading comprehension, then it is hoped that the textbook writers make use of the various cohesive

43

44

devices in presenting reading texts in the textbook. (2) Teachers should consider the availability of cohesive devices in the reading text which is presented in the textbook they will use for their classes. (3) I suggest that further research be done to analyze the grammatical resource which maintains cohesion in text, such as a theme structure.

BIBLIOGRAPH Y Arikunto, S. 1996. Prosedur Penelitian Suatu Pendekatan Praktek . Bandung: Rineka Cipta Baker, M. 1992. In Other Words: Routledge A Course Translation Book on . London:

Best, JW. 1981. Research in Education. Fourth Edition Prentice Hall Inc Brown, J.D. Understanding Research 1988. New York: Cambridge University Press Learning in

. Engelwood, USA: Language .

Second

Eggins, S. 1994. An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistic Pinter Publishers

. London:

Feez, S. and Joyce, H. 1998. Text-Based Syllabus Design . Sydney: Ligare Pty Ltd Gerot, L. and Wignell, P. 1994. Sydney: Gerd Stabler Making Sense Grammar of Functional . London: .

Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Longman

Cohesion in English

Hallisay, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. Language, Context, and Text, Aspect 1985. language in Social Semiotic Perspective of . Oxford: Oxford University Press Harmer, J. 2002. Longman The Practice of English Language Teaching . London:

Horning, A. Readable Writing: The Role of Cohesion and Redundancy. http//jac.gsu.edu/jac/11.1/articles/g.htm ( retrieved August, 9 th 2006) Klippel, F. 1994. Keep Talking. Communicative Fluency Activities for Language . New York: Cambridge University Press Teaching Leech, G. and Margareth D. 1982. English Grammar for . London: Today Macmillan Education Ltd

45

46

McCarthy, M. 1991. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers . New York: Cambridge University Press Miles, M.B. and A. Michael H. 1994. Sage Publications Mickulecky, B. S. 1986. Reading Publishing Company Power Qualitative Data Analysis . London: . Massachusetts: Addison Wesley

Ramelan. 1992. Introduction to Linguistic . Semarang: IKIP Semarang Press Saleh, M. 1997. Praktik Penelitian Pengajaran Bahasa Semarang Press . Semarang: IKIP

Saleh, M. 2004 . Introduction to Linguistic Research. Handouts and Assignments State University of Semarang . Scott, W and Ytreberg, L.H. 1990. Teaching English to Children . New York: Longman Inc Weissberg, R and Baker, S. 1990. Writing up Research : Experimental Research Report Writing for Students of English . New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc Wong, R.H.K. The Educational Role and Cultural Orientation of 1974. English Reading Materials. -----. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Textbook. (retrieved October, 4
th

2006)

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Appendix 1 The Data Analysis

Text 1 Title : A Top Model

1

Anne Mary is a young girl.

She is American. 3 She is not French 4 but she is ref. ref. conj. ref.
2

very famous in Paris.

She is a top model at Channel Fashion House. Ref

5

Her mother is Korean. 7 Her father is African. 8 Her hair is curly. ref. ref. ref. Her eyes are slanted. 10 She is tall. 11 She is very interesting. 12 It makes Chanel ref. ref. ref. ref. Fashion House wants her. 13 She likes her profession. ref. ref. ref.
14

She is rich now.

Text 2 Title : David Holbe

1

David Holbe is a good boy.

His nickname is David. 3 He is handsome. ref. ref. ref.

2 6

His

nose is pointed

and his skin is not black. ref. ref.

His father is Guy Holbe conj.

9

and

Monique Holbe is his mother. 8 They are proud of him ref. ref. ref. conj. ref. diligent.
10

because he is clever and

David is in Indonesian now. because Indonesian people are kind. His

11

David Holbe likes Indonesia Conj. ref.

12

13

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hobbies are reading and traveling. to visit a museum and temples. Text 3 Title : My School
1

14

He wants to go to Jakarta . ref.

15

He would like ref.

Hi My names Agus Setiyawan. ref. ref. first year. ref.

4

Im student at SMP 35 Jakarta. ref. ref.

6

Im in the

My school is very large. 5 It has many rooms. ref. ref.

There are 19

classroms, twoo canteens, a teachers office, a laboratory, a large library, 5 restrooms, and a computer room. ref school yard. ref ref
8 7

There is also a large garden and a large

Look ! I have the map of my school.

Text 4 Title : Mr. Ardis Family

1

This is Mr. Ardis family. 2 It consists of Mr. and Mrs. Ardi, Bilal, and Susi. ref. ref. Mr. and Mrs. Ardi are husband and wife,
5 4

while Bilal and Susi are brother and

6

sister. ref.
7

Their grandparents stay there, too. ref.

They are Mr. and Mrs. Danu. Mr. Ardi is a taxi driver.

The members of the family have their own activities. ref. ref. ref.

He works hard every day. 10 Mrs. Ardi is a seller. 11 She has a shall in the ref. ref. market. 12 Bilal goes to school every morning. 13 Susi is at home 14 because she conj. ref.

58

is still three years old.

15

Her grandmother takes care of her.

16

Mr Danu does

ref. not work 17 because he is old and weak. conj. ref.

18

Mr. Ardi has a sister.

19

She is Kiki.

ref. a policeman.
22

Her husbands name is Heri. 21 He is ref. ref.

20

They live near Mr. and Mrs. Ardis house. ref.

Text 5 Title : Daily Activities

1

Hi! Im Vanessa. 2 I live in Barcelona, Spain. 3 Today is Sunday. 4 I usually get ref. ref. ref. up late on Sunday. 5 Then , I have breakfast. 6 I usually eat toast, butter and jam. conj. ref. ref. I always drink milk ref.
8

and sometimes I have orange juice. 9 After that, I usually conj. ref. conj. ref.
11

clean my room. 10 Then, my friend, Jane and I go down town. ref. conj. ref. our friends conj. ref. movie theater conj. Sunday. ref.
16 12

We always meet

and sometimes we go shopping. ref.

14

13

We usually see a movie at the I like

but sometimes we rent a video to watch it at home. ref. ref. ref.

15

Its the best day of the week! ref.

Text 6 Title : A Successful Shop Owner

1

My friend, Jimmy, attended junior high school in his village ref. ref.

when he was a ref.

59

teenager. ref.
4

He was a very diligent student.

He studied hard when he was at junior high school. 5 Therefore, he finished his ref. ref. conj. ref. ref. study with good mark. 6 His parents were very proud of him. ref. ref.

He continued his study at senior high school near by his village. 8 He studied ref. ref. ref. ref. there for three years. 9 After he graduated from high school, ref. ref. ref.
10

he applied for a

job. 11 His father was poor 12 and could not afford a higher education for him. ref. conj. ref. 13 His first job was a book keeper 14 and he was able to use the computer well. ref. conj. ref. ref.
15

He worked there for ten years. ref. ref. run a shop in his village. ref.

16

He quitted his job ref. ref.

17

because he decided to conj. ref.

18

He wanted to become a successful a shop owner in his village 19 He was a hard ref. ref. ref. worker.

Text7 Title : A Good Manager

1

Ron Morton came to his office early this morning. ref. ref. ref.
5

He went to work by car.

When he arrived there, 4 he parked his car ref ref. conj.

3

and

(he) came into his private.

ellipsis ref.

office 6 He had so much work to do. ref ref

Miss. Linda, his secretary met him.

60

Mr. Matron talked to her for a while. ref. Then he studied statistic conj. ref.
10

and (he) wrote a report to his boss, Mr. Siregar. ref. conj . ellipsis ref.

11

He

got his statistics from his assistants. 12 His assistants helped him very much. ref. ref. ref. ref.
13

They collected information from other people. ref. His secretary didnt write report. 15 She wrote many letters for him. 16 She also ref. ref. ref. ref. opened his mail ref.
17

14

and (she) read the mail carefully. 18 Then she gave the conj. ref. ref. conj . ellipsis ref.

important letters to him. ref. a good manager.

19

Ron Morton could manage his work well. ref. ref.

20

He was

Text 8 Title : My Garden I have a nice garden in front of my house. 2 The garden is small but beautiful. ref. conj. 3 It has many flowers. 4 There are jasmines, orchids, sun flowers, roses and many ref. ref.
1

other plants in my garden.

5

The flowers have different colors. 6 They are red, white, yellow, and so on. ref. ref. They are not expensive flowers 8 but they look very interesting. 9 I water my ref. conj. ref. ref. ref.

61

garden in the afternoon. ref. ref.

10

I clean it in my spare time. ref. ref. ref.

11

Its really a neat ref.

garden. 12 I love it very much. ref. ref.

Text 9 Title : Lazy Shop Assistants

1

One day Mr. Eko went shopping in a big electronic shop. When he arrived there, ref. ref.

He wanted to buy an ref.

2

emergency lamp.

he met a young shop assistant. He said that he didnt have

The shop assistant didnt serve him well. Ref. ref. ref. ref.
5

emergency lamps. conj.

8

Then Mr. Eko asked another shop assistant. He didnt know the price of the lamps. ref. ref. ref.
9

He was a new shop assistant. ref.

10

Mr. Eko got annoyed. Mr. Eko met him. ref. ref. The manager served

11

Just then the manager came. ref. Mr. Eko kindly.

12

13

14

Mr. Eko was satisfied.

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Appendix 2 The percentage calculation of cohesive devices. Reading Text 1 Number of clause Reference 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Percentage : Reference = 16 15 x 100% = 93,7 % Ellipsis = 0% She She She She Her Her Her Her She She It, her She, her She Substitution Ellipsis But Conjunction

S 15 0 0 1

Substitution = 0 %

Conjunction = 16

1 x 100% = 6,3%

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Reading Text 2 Number of clause reference substitution ellipsis conjunction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 His He His His His They, him He His He He -

And And Because Because -

S 11 0 0 4 Percentage : Reference = 15 11 x 100% = 73,3% Ellipsis = 0%

Substitution = 0%

Conjunction = 15

4 x 100%=26,6%

Reading Text 3 Number of clause reference substitution ellipsis conjunction 1 My 2 3 I I, the -

64

4 5 6 7 8 Percentage : Reference =

My It There There I, My, The

S 11 0 0 0

11 11

x 100% = 100% Ellipsis = 0% Conjunction = 0 %

Substitution = 0%

Reading Text 4 Number of clause reference substitution ellipsis conjunction 1 This 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 It Their They The, the, their He She She Her, her -

Because -

65

17 18 19 20 21 22

He She Her He They

Because -

S 17 0 0 2 Percentage : Reference =
17 19

x 100% = 89,5% Ellipsis = 0% 2 x 100% = 10,5%

Substitution = 0%

Conjunction = 19

Reading Text 5 Number of clause reference substitution ellipsis conjunction 1 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 I I I I I I I, my My We We, the -

Then And After that Then And -

66

14 15 16 S 19 0 0 6 Percentage : Reference =

We, it I It, the, the

But -

19 25

x 100% = 76% Ellipsis = 0% 6 x 100% = 24%

Substitution = 0%

Conjunction = 25

Reading Text 6 Number of clause reference substitution ellipsis conjunction 1 My, his 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 He He He, he He, his His, him He, his, his He, there He He His Him His He, the He, there He, his His father -

Therefore And There -

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17 18 19 S 31 0 1 4 Percentage : Reference =

He, his He, his He

Because -

31 36

x 100% = 85,8% Ellipsis = 36

1 x 100% = 2,8%

Substitution = 0%

Conjunction = 36

4 x 100%= 11,2 %

Reading Text 7 Number of clause reference substitution ellipsis conjunction 1 His, this 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 He He, there He, his His He His, him Her He His He, his, his His, him They His She, him She, his He He -

And Then And -

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17 18 19 20 S 31 0 3 5 Percentage : Reference =

The She, the, him His He

She -

And Then -

31 39

x 100% = 79,4% Ellipsis = 39

3 x 100% = 7,7%

Substitution = 0%

Conjunction = 39

5 x 100% =12,8 %

Reading Text 8 Number of clause Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 I, my 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 S 19 0 1 2 The It There, my The They They They I, my, the I, it, my It I, it The garden is -

But But -

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Percentage : Reference =
19 22

x 100% = 86,3% Ellipsis = 22

1 x 100%= 4,54%

Substitution = 0%

Conjunction = 22

2 x 100% = 9,1%

Reading Text 9 Number of clause Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 S 15 0 0 2 Percentage: Reference =
15 17

Then Just then -

He He, there He The, him He, he He He The, the The Him The -

x 100% = 88,2% Ellipsis = 0% 1 x 100% = 11,7%

Substitution = 0%

Conjunction = 17