Geography Notes

Feb 8th/11

Maps can be divided into two main types: 1) Small scale maps and 2) Large scale maps Small scale maps These maps show a small amount of detail of a large area because they represent very general information such as elevation or political boundaries. The pull down of the world and Canada would be examples of small scale maps. Large scale maps These maps show a large amount of details for a small area because they are intended to be very specific. The school floor plan map, topographic maps (which are used by city planners, hikers, the military, etc) show a great amount of detail. They show the height of the land, individual buildings, etc., so they are good examples of large scale maps.

In general, maps with a scale of 1 : 250 000 or more are considered to be small-scale maps because they show only a little bit of detail of a large area (such as the

province of Ontario). Maps that have a scale less than that, such as 1 : 50 000 would be considered large-scale maps because they will show a lot more detail of a small area (such as the town of Preston).

Feb 11th/11 How to use an Atlas For places in CANADA, use the CANADA index. The index will list places alphabetically, so look up the name of the place you need to find and the index will tell you the province or territory where it can be found, its Latitude and Longitude coordinates. Example: NAME Prov./Terr. Page Alpha-Numeric Grid Lat. & Long. Co-ordinates Banks Island North West Territories 50 G5 73 (deg.) 15 N & 121 (deg) 30 W

Feb 15/11 Using Alpha-Numeric Grid Systems Of all maps, road maps are perhaps the most commonly used. A road map uses an alpha-numeric grid referencing system that people can use to locate places. The road map area will have a grid made up of horizontal and vertical grid lines over it. The columns are usually labeled with a letter (A,B,C, etc). Road maps

have an index of alphabetically listed places beside which is the alpha-numeric grid reference for the grid square the place located.

Road Map Symbols Most maps also use various colours and symbols to communicate information. For example, road maps will use various symbols for people to use and necessary such as hospitals, airports, etc. 32 33 Feb 16/11 Latitude & Longitude Hemispheres Earth can be divided into four parts: Northern, Southern, Western, Southern THE EQUATOR is a horizontal line that divides the earth into northern and southern hemispheres. It is an imaginary line that runs from east to west across globes and maps of the world. The equator is the starting line of latitude. LATITUDE is the distance we measure for places that are north or south of the equator. -Latitude starts from the equator at a measurement of 0 degrees -Latitude is measured north (N) or south (S) of the equator -The maximum measurement for latitude is 90 degrees for both hemispheres -Since lines of latitude run from east to west in a horizontal pattern across maps and globes they are also called "parallel

lines" -There are seven major lines of Latitude: North Pole 90 N, Arctic Circle 66.5 N, Tropic Cancer 23.5 N, Equator 0 Degrees, Tropic of Capricorn 23.5 S, Antarctic Circle 66.5 S, South Pole 90 S LONGITUDE is a vertical line that divides the earth into eastern and western hemispheres. It is an imaginary line that runs from North to South from the north pole to south pole across globes and maps of the world. The PRIME MERIDIAN is the starting line of LONGITUDE. -Longitude is the distance we measure for places that are east of west of prime meridian -Longitude starts as the prime meridian at a measurement of 0 degrees -Longitude is measured east (E) to west (W) of the prime meridian -The maximum measurement for longitude 180 degrees for both hemispheres -The prime meridian runs from the north to south pole through Greenwich, England at 0 degrees -The International Date Line runs from the north to south pole through the Pacific Ocean at 180 degrees -Line of longitude are also called meridians

Feb 18/11 Time Zones -Sir Sandford Fleming, a Canadian railway surveyor and engineer, proposed an international system of time zones which was passed in 1884. There are 24 time zones around the world for the 24 hours it takes for the Earth to complete one full rotation.

Local Sun Time -Prior to the establishment of time zones, most cities followed their own local sun times using a variety of tools, one of which was a sundial -This worked for the most part when most travel times took a long period of time by horse or boat, but with the invention of trains which needed to be on a schedule for specific arrival and departure times, using local sun time was very inaccurate and confusing! So, largely due to rapid transportation via trains, a standard system of time was needed Canada's Time Zones Canada is a huge country that covers over 90 degrees of longitude from coast to coast. For this reason, it has six different time zones. From east to west they are: -Newfoundland S.T. -Atlantic S.T. -Eastern S.T. -Central S.T. -Mountain S.T. -Pacific S.T. Calculating Time Zone Changes -Since the sun appears to rise in the East, the East coast of Canada receives sunlight long before places on the West coast. As a result, time is later in the East and earlier in the West. So, remember when moving West, subtract (-) 1 hour for each time zone. The one exception is Newfoundland where we only calculate a change of 1/2 hour. Feb 22/11 How Big is a Time Zone?

By definition, a time zone is a geographical region which uses the same time within that region. How many degrees are in each time zone? Sandford Flemming figured that if the earth rotates once in 24 hours then: 1 rotation of the earth also equals = 1 circle 1 circle= 360 degrees So, 360 degrees 24 hours = 15 degrees Since there are 24 hours in one full day, there are thus 24 time zones of one hour each in one full day so, 1 Time Zone also = 1 hour Thus, 1 hour = 15 degrees Time is set by the meridian line of longitude in the middle of a time zone so that people will experience the same time 7 1/2 degrees to the east of the line and 7 1/2 west of the line for a total of 15 degrees. (DIAGRAM IN NOTE BOOK!)

Feb 24/11 The International Date Line The IDL is an imaginary and irregularly shaped line of longitude that crosses the globe. It crosses from the North Pole to the South Pole over the Pacific Ocean, 180 degrees away from the prime meridian, thus it is twelve hours and twelve time zones away from the prime meridian. For this reason, when crossing the IDL in either direction, the day changes. For example, when traveling eastwards across the IDL on a

Monday (Such as when traveling from Tokyo, Japan to Vancouver, Canada) it will become one day earlier in time (upon arrival in Canada it will be Sunday). When traveling westwards across the IDL on a Monday (Such as California, USA to Sydney, Australia) it will become one day later in time (upon arrival in Australia it will be Tuesday) Feb 25/11 Converting Map Scales Often we need to convert from one type of map scale to another. In particular, when given a Representative (Ratio) Scale, we usually need to convert it to a Verbal (Direct Statement) Scale in order to understand the scale's real distance on the ground. Since we measure distance in km in real life, it is useful to be able to interpret a ratio scale. For example, we may want to know what 1: 50 000 means in km. First we need to remember that there are 100 000 cm in one km. So, to change from an R.F. scale of 1: 50 000 into a verbal scale we need to convert the 50 000 cm into a km distance. To do this we must divide 50 000 by 100 000: 50 00 100 000 = 0.5 km 000 = 1 cm equals 0.5 km left at end Scale) = e.g. (verbal scale) So, 1 : 50 or put decimal 5 spaces (R.F.

1: 250 000 = 1: 700 000 = 1: 80 000 = 1: 650 000 = 1: 75 000 =

1 cm = 2.5 km 1 cm = 7 km 1 cm = 0.8 km 1 cm = 6.5 km 1 cm = 0.75 km

When converting from a verbal scale to an R.F. scale, you need to multiply the distance given to you in km by 100 000 to change it into a cm distance. For example: If 1 cm equals 10 km then 10 km x 100 000 cm = 1 000 000 cm Therefore, 1 cm equals 10 km x 1 : 1 000 000 (verbal scale) (R.F. scale) e.g. 1 cm equals 75 km = 1: 7 500 000 1 cm equals 50 km = 1: 5 000 000 3 cm equals 21 km = 1: 700 000 page 48

March 1/11 TEST REVIEW 1. Map of Canada 2. Latitude and longitude (key terms, how to use it, etc.) (major lines and measurements)

3. STABLED criteria 4. Compass rose directions and degree bearings for each direction 5. map scales and scale conversions from R.F. to direct statement 6. Time zones (notes, local sun time, creator, how to calculate, how big are they etc) 7. Top map colours and symbols 8. day light savings time (why do we have it? Benefits, how does it affect you, etc) 9. International date line (day change, where it is, measurements, etc)

March 21/11 Lesson #1: Geologic History Canada is a land of great diversity. It is the world's 2nd largest country in area and it has the longest coastline in the world. Many geological events have taken place over 100's of millions of years to create Canada's diverse landforms like mountains, plains, rolling hills, and hundreds of lakes. Building up of the land Canada's land surface has been built up as a result of several forces of nature such as: 1) Movement of continental and oceanic crustal plates (plate tectonics).

2)Volcanic Eruptions where hot magma reaches the surface as lava through vents at the surface. This lava then cools forming new rock. 3) Folding of rock where enormous pressure below Earth's surface causes it to buckle and bend. 4) Faulting of the surface due to movement along cracks in the Earth's surface. Shaping of the land Canada has also been shaped by several forces of nature especially erosion. Erosion: Is the weathering away of the Earth's surface followed by movement of broken down rock material by: 1) Wind 2) Water (rain & rivers, etc) 3) Glaciers Q: How can we find out bout the Earth's historical physical, and biological development? A: By carefully analyzing landforms, rocks and fossils. Geologists have done this and found that the Earth can best be divided into four major geological time eras based on major geological (to do with mountain building or erosion) and major biological (to do with evolution of life) events. The four major geological time eras are: 1) Precambrian 2) Paleozoic 3) Mesozoic 4)Cenozoic

March 22/11 The Internal Structure of the Earth Extreme heat from the core causes movement in the mantle that in turn moves the crustal plates that surrounds the Earth.

This causes building up of the land's surface. At the same time there are forces that wear down the Earth's surface, reducing towering mountains to sand that can settle at the bottom of seas. The Core: 1) The Inner Core: is made up of solid iron and nickel. This layer is the very center and hottest of all the layers 2) The Outer Core: is made up of liquid iron and nickel. This layer surrounds in the inner core and is extremely hot. Together, they are about 3500 km thick. The Mantle: This layer is the thickest layer of the Earth in area. It surrounds the core and is made up of very hot solid rock. In the upper mantle layer is called the asthenosphere. The Asthenosphere layer is where convection currents occur. Here, solid rock is so hot it has the ability to flow in a circular motion, moving the pieces of the Earth's crust above it. This movement creates folded mountains, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, etc. From outer core to crust, this layer is about 2900 km thick. The Crust The crust is the thinnest layer of the Earth that surrounds the mantle. It is the surface layer of our planet and is made up of two things: 1) Continental Crust (the thicker part of the crust that makes up continental land masses)

2) Oceanic Crust (the thinner part of the curst that makes up the ocean floors). The crust is only 35 km to 70 km thick. Imagine! The Earth is like a hard boiled egg with a cracked shell. The Earth's crust is like the cracked shell of the hard boiled egg in the way that Earth's crust us broken into interlocking, jagged pieces. These pieces, move relative to each other changing the surface appearance of the Earth constantly.

tsunami- a long, high sea wave caused by underwater earthquakes magnitude- amount of energy of an earthquake measured by the Richter scale on a scale from 1 (small) to 9 (very large) eruption- ejection of lava from an active volcano subducting- sliding under (i.e., one plate is sliding under another plate) theory- explanation based on observation and reasoning convection- occurs when a heated fluid or gas rises and is replaced by a cool fluid continental drift- theory by German scientist Alfred Wegener stating that 300 million years ago all of the Earth's land masses, which were in constant motion, collided to form one supercontinent called Pangaea. About 200 million years ago Pangaea broke apart and the continents have drifted apart ro their present locations. According to his theory, only continents drifted. Pangaea- (meaning "all land")supercontinent that included all

Earth's land masses. It existed from about 300 million to about 200 million years ago. plate tectonics- theory that states that Earth's outer shell consists of plates that move causing earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and the formation of new crust convection current- circular movement in gas or liquid created by uneven heating

March 28/11 Learning Goals for Today -Understanding the stages of Continental Drift and the Theory -Understanding the Theory of Plate Tectonics and Convection Currents Success Criteria 1)I will put the stages of Continental drift in the correct order from Pagea to PResent 2)I will complete notes on the Theory of Continental Drift based on the slide show I watch 3) I will colour the plate boundries of the world on a map and draw a clearly labeled diagram of convection currents. 4) I will be able to explain the various landforms and events that occur as a result of the plates moving due to convection in the mantle Here Is What the World Could Look Like (Note in book)

April 6/11 What is a Glacier? A glacier is a large moving mass of ice and snow. It may be thousands of meters thick and many kilometers in length and width. The Formation of a Glacier Certain conditions must be present before a glacier can form: 1. Snow must be present all year round. More snow build up in winter than can melt away in the summer Physical Glacier Development Usually sea levels stay more or less constant as a result of evaporated water from the oceans that falls back to earth as rain, which eventually flows back into the oceans. This happens during an Inter-Glacial period (in between ice ages) During the Ice Age, this evaporated water turned into snow (due to cooler temperatures) and into glaciers. It never found it's way back to the sea. as the glaciers rose in height, the sea level sank. There have been 4 main glacial periods in Canada's history. The last glaciers retreated approximately 12, 000 years ago. The Movement of Glaciers

(IN NOTE BOOK) Glacial Ice Development During the ice age, this evaporated water turned into snow because of cooler temperatures and into a glacier. It never found its way back into the sea. as the glaciers rose in height, the sea level sank. (DIAGRAMS IN NOTE BOOK)

Region- part of the earth with similar characteristics

Vegetation Regions of Canada Canada's Diversity -Canada is so diverse that it has several major vegetation regions based on the various climate and soil conditions found here. Natural Vegetation refers to plants that grow without human interference. It was Canada's natural vegetation that attracted many early settlers from Europe to access the resources that these areas continue to provide. The Tundra -The northernmost vegetation region in Canada. -Located above the tree line which is the boundary between

the tundra and boreal vegetation region where trees stop growing due to increasingly cold temperatures. -Characterized by permafrost which is permanently frozen solid -Vegetation here is most lichens and moss and wildflowers in the very short summer season. The Boreal (and Taiga) Forest -Located south of the Tundra and the tree line -This is the largest of all vegetation regions. -Mostly coniferous trees (trees that bear cones and needles) grow here due to cool temperatures. The Mixed Forest -Located south of the boreal ad taiga forests -This vegetation is made up of both coniferous and deciduous trees (trees that have broad leaves that change colour in the fall and fall to the ground for the winter). The Deciduous Forest -The smallest of all the vegetation regions, it is located only in Southwestern Ontario. -Made up of primarily of deciduous trees such as maple, beech, hickory, ash and black walnut. -Most of this forest region has been cut down to make way for urban development and agriculture. The Grasslands -Also known as the Praries -Located in southern Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba

-Drier conditions enable mostly grasses to grow which makes it a good location for grassy crops like wheat, barley, etc. The West Coast Forest -Located on Canada's west coast of B.C. -Warm temperatures and high precipitation provides excellent growing conditions for large trees. -This is our temperate rainforest where vegetation is very lush and trees can be very large in width and height. -Much of this region is old growth forest (mature forest that has never been cut). Cordilleran Vegetation Region -Including a range of vegetation that grows in mountainous areas -Climate, soil and temperature changes with elevation (height above the ground), so the vegetation will change with elevation as well. -The Cordillera vegetation region has a combination of all types of vegetation mentioned! Human Component -These various vegetation regions provide Canadians with the raw materials needed for several of our natural resource industries including: -Lumber and pulp and paper -Ranch land to graze cattle on -Maple syrup -Fruit etc.

April 15/11 Climate Terms Weather is the day changes in the atmosphere (the layer of air that surrounds the Earth). For example: Today's weather will be partly cloudy with sunny periods, a high of 15 C and 30% chance of showers in the evening Climate is the pattern of weather conditions for a specific place over a long period of time. For example: Southeastern Ontario's climate includes cool to cold winters, warm to hot summers and an average amount of precipitation. Precipitation is water that falls to the ground as rain, snow, hail, etc. April 19/11 Factors that Affect Climate Latitude -Warmer -Colder at the poles The closeness or how far north or south of the equator a region is, influences how cold or warm it is. Mexico is warmer than Canada (DIAGRAMS IN NOTEBOOK)

Ocean Currents Canada is affected by three ocean currents (Labrador, Alaska and Gulf Stream), which influence the weather through their warming or cooling effects. Winds and Air Masses The weight of the air is called air pressure, and when pockets of air of different pressure meet up, wind is created. Prevailing Winds/Westerlies The main winds that affect the weather in Canada, move from west to east. Elevation/Altitude Air cools as it rises and eventually releases moisture in the form of precipitation. Rate of cooling 1C/100m

Relief Differences in the surface of the land (e.g. mountains, valleys, etc) result in different forms of weather for various Nearness to Water Large bodies of water like oceans and lakes influence climate, as air masses absorb moisture passing over them then releasing it over land. Lake Effect

Cooling of the land by the water in summer and the warming in winter Remember: LOWER NEAR WATER Latitude Ocean Currents Winds Elevation Relief NEARness to WATER

April 26/11 How the 6 Factors Affect Climate (LOWER Near Water) Latitude -The equator receives more sunlight than anywhere else on earth because of the rays of the sun are concentrated at this angle. -Therefore the equator has a warmer climate because the sun has less area to heat -It is cooler at the north and south poles as the sun as more area (wider angle) to heat up and the heat is spread over a wider area.

Ocean Currents -The Ocean currents act as a conveyor belt that brings heat from the equator to Northern latitudes and cold from the Arctic to Southern latitudes -The cold Labrador current collided with the Gulf stream off the coast of Newfoundland creating the foggiest part of the world. (Prevailing) Winds -Prevailing Winds take on the characteristics of where they are formed (i.e. Winds forming over warm ocean will be warm and moist, bringing these conditions to the land they blow over). -Canada's prevailing winds originate in the west over the Pacific Ocean and so are called the Westerlies. Elevation and Relief -Air cools as it rises -As it rises the air condenses to form clouds -From these clouds precipitation will fall on the windward sides of the mountain is drier -Relied refers to mountainous areas (such as the Western Cordillera) Nearness to Water

-Water moderates the temperature of the air above it. Warm ocean current = warm, moist air, Cold ocean current = cold, moist air. -Land heats up and cools down quickly, but water takes a long time to warm up and cool down. -The Water releases its heat slowly over the winter and releases cool air in the summer. -This makes areas near water have Summers that are cooler and Winters that are warmer. Maritime vs Continental Maritime Climate -These are areas which are very close to ocean and large lakes. -Cities close to oceans and lakes will have a milder climate (warmer winters, cooler summers) so they do not have a high temperature range (such as Halifax, N.S., St. John's, Nfld, and Victoria, B.C.) Continental Climate -Areas far from oceans and large lakes -Interior land masses -Air masses which originate over land and dry and do not cary moisture

-i.e. Prairie Provinces such as Saskatchewan experience continental climate.

1. What significance does the opening line have? People are not facing the facts and are the cause of climate change. 2. What is the relation between the lyrics and climate change? What message is the singer trying to send? Everything is falling apart and we're the only one who can solve it.
Defining Natural Resources -Natural Resources are non-man made components of the Earth which humans use >What are some examples of naturally occurring substances that humans use? >Wood from trees, minerals from rock, fish from oceans, food from ground, etc. Natural Resources come in two basic categories -Renewable resources which regenerate themselves naturally within 100 years or less (e.g. trees, fish, etc) -Non-renewable resources which take millions of years to regenerate themselves (e.g. fossil fuels such as oil, coal and

natural gas) Types of Industry -Primary Industries- Made up of 5% of Canadian Workforce >Local Examples: -Mennonite Farms around St Jacob's, Gravel pits in Kitchener and Waterloo -Location: These industries must be located near the natural resource or raw material being extracted -Secondary Industries- Made up of 22% of the Canadian Workforce >Local examples: -Toyota Plant, dover flour, Frito lay -Location: These industries must be located near the towns and cities and transportation networks like highways and railroads, etc. -Tertiary Industries- Made up of 73% of Canadian Workforce Location: These industries must be located in towns and cities, close to the people who need these products and services.

May 13/11 page 278 History of Fishing Fishing is Canada's oldest industry, beginning in the 1500

when ships from Britain and Europe coming back every summer to harvest the fishing grounds of Newfoundland. They set up fishing stations, but then set permanent fishing villages so the fish can be dried or salted before selling it to the US and the West Indies (Caribbean). Now, Newfoundland's economic base became dependent of its fishing industries. The Canadian commericial fishing occurs in three areas: 1) The East Coast of Canada 2) The West Coast of Canada 3) Freshwater inland lakes Types of Fish Caught by Canadian Fishers 1) Ground Fish 2) Pelagic Fish 3) Shellfish 1) Ground fish: feed and are caught off the ocean floor (e.g. Cod, Pollock, Haddock, Halibut, Redfish) 2) Pelagic Fish: feed and are caught near the ocean's surface, (e.g. Salmon, Herring, Mackerel, Tuna, Caplin) 3) Shellfish: are any molluscs and crustaceans. (e.g. Shrimp, Lobster, Oysters, Scallops, Mussels) Who Eats it? Canadadians as a whole don't eat much fish, so we end up exporting most of what we catch to places like the U.S.,

Western Europe in Japan. Unfortunately... many of our own commercial fishing methods are not sustainable methods of fishing. Fish as a renewable natural resource are in crisis due to... 1) Over fishing 2) Pollution 3) New Technology that makes it easier to catch fish 4) Increase in fishing vessels 5) Uncontrolled Foreign Fishing Impacts of these threats to the sustainability of fishing as a renewable natural resource industry can be long lasting and deadly...

Threats to Canada's Fishing Industry Although Canada is the world's second largest exporter of fish to places like the USA, Carribean and Asia, or fishing industry on the East Coast in particular is in a state of crisis. Many fishing villages in Newfoundland that were dependent on the fishing industry have collapsed and become ghost town because many fishing related business have gone out of business. Worldwide, the supply of fish is decreasing and some scientists believe that we may see the extinction of major sources of fish in just 40 years time. The fish in the ocean are linked closely to each other as one species such as northern cod, declines toward extinction it could trigger an entire

ecosysten collapse. This would also be an economic crisis as Canada's Fishing Industry is worth $3 billion annually. What can we do to stop fish decline? -enforce moratoriums and bans on fish that are already in low supply so fish can recover to sustainable levels (sustainable means to use or consume a resource responsibly to ensure future use -create protected area where fish cannot be caught to encourage a return of the natural biodiversity where much has already been lost -do not use fishing methods that lead to overfishing, waste and ecosystem destruction -prevent pollution and global climate change from affecting the Earth's waters

Canada's Forest Industry Canada has the third largest forested area in the world, covering close to half of Canada's land area. This is equal to the area of 15 western European countries combined! Canada has extensive deciduous and coniferous forests that are logged for profit. Forestry is one of Canada's most important industries for its economy as it is worth approximatly $80 billion per year. Caada is one of the largest exporters of softwood in the world and we sell most of it to the United States. Tree Cutting Methods: Canada uses three main methods of cutting down trees for its

industry. They vary in terms of cost, productivity and impacts on the environment and animal habitat. They are (in order of methods used most commonly): 1) Clear Cutting-- every tree is an area us cut down (cheapest, most productive method, but most destructive environmentally as a barren landscape is left behind). (Picture of stubs surrounded by a forrest) 2)Shelterwood Logging-- clear cutting part of an old-growth forest, leaving some seed-bearing trees standing to regenerate area (most expensive than clear-cutting still highly productive, some chance for natural regeneration of future forest) (Area with some trees surrounded by forests and tree stumps) 3) Selective Cutting-- harvesting of only mature trees of specific type, size of quality (most expensive and keast productive method but most environmentally friendly, as is causes the least amount of disruption to natural habitats) (Area with a lot of trees with only a few stubs) May 19/11 Aquaculture: The farming of fish. Fish are raised, fed and bread in captivity, in cages set in water Pros: Help more fish to reach maturity and reproduce themselves, easily managed by being in one place,avoid

some pollution by choosing best location, etc. Cons: Fish will fight, bite each other, fish can get infected, we treat this with antibiotics giving fish unnatural chemicals that become part of the food in captivity, process is expensive which can inflate costs for people to buy May 25/11 Agriculture in Canada Farming has been a long tradition for Canadians and historically, farms were run by families, who passed the land down from one generation to another. This is very different today, as most agriculture in Canada is now dominated by agribusiness which are large multinational corporations (companies) that own the majority of farms. Agribusiness farms produce mean from cattle, chicken and pigs as well as milk, grain and fruits and vegetables in farms across the country. Mechanization is largely responsible for the changes in Canadian farms. Mechanization took place when machinery took over the jobs of human and animal labour, such as a tractor which replaced a human and horse or oxen driven plough to prepare fields for crops. Pros -Work is not as physically difficult -Made work more efficient -Fewer workers needed to work farms -Farms generate higher incomes (makes more money) -Farm sizes increase

Cons -Requires a lot of money to pay and upkeep machinery -Led to high unemployment in rural areas -Smaller farms unable to compete and are bought up by larger farms -Number of farms decrease

Growing degree days (GDD)- A measure of heat in one day over a long period of time so we can see what crops will grow best where Fertilizers: substance, such as manuer or a chemical, put on agriculture land to produce a greater crop yield Herbicides- chemicals designed to kill harmful plants (weeds) Pesticides-Chemicals designed to kill harmful plants (herbicides) and harmful insects (insecticide) Growing season- the number of days when the mean daily air temp equals or exceeds 5 C Frost-free period- the number of days between the last frost in spring and first frost Evaporation- the movement of water into the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil ad transpiration from plants LeachingLand CapabilityMechanizationIntensive Farming- Farms that use a lot of equipment/people to farm a small land area. E.g. Fruits, vegetables, dairy,

poultry, etc. Extensive farming- Small amount of people and machinery used to farm a large area. E.g. cattle ranches, grain production, mixed farming May 26/11 Agricultural Products in Canada A big part of Canada's economy depends on the agricultural products that we sell across the country and as exports to other countries around the world. The farms and types of agricultural products are listed below in the parts of Canada that they can commonly be found in: (NOTE IN BINDER)

May 30/11 Canada's Mining Industry Canada has a large storehouse of minerals in its rock layers. Canada ranks 3rd in the world for the production of minerals after the US and Russia, but we are the biggest exporters in the world. 80% of what we produce is sold to other countries. Canada makes an average of $80 billion dollars a year by selling minerals. A mineral is a non-living material found in the rocks of the earth. Metallic minerals -Iron, nickel, golf, etc. -Found in the Canadian Shield -Found in igneous rock -Ontario has had such great quantities of these minerals that

Ontario is often called, "Canada's storehouse of metallic minerals" Non-Metallic Minerals -Precious gems such as diamond, sapphires, rubies, etc. Fuel or Fossil fuels -Oil, coal and natural gas -All fossil fuels are found in sedimentary rock -Alberta and off the coast of Newfoundland, and the Arctic Structural or Industrial minerals -Used mostly for construction -gravel and sand (used to make cement, roads, etc) -asbestos (used to protect other materials from fire and heat) -gypsum (used to make drywall) etc. -Industrial diamond (used for drill bits) Of all of these three types of minerals, Canada makes the most money by selling fossil fuels, than metallic minerals than industrial minerals. Impacts of Mining In order to extract minerals from rock they have to go through two processes: 1) milling and 2) smelting Milling Milling separates th emineral from the waste rock. Often there is more waste rock than mineral. For example, when mining from a concentration of copper, there is often 30% pure

copper, and 70% waste rock. Smelting Smelters are very expensive to build, often $1 billion follars or more so companies have to be sure that the mining operation will be worth the cost. Smelting incolves melting mineral ore with a substance called flux at very high temperatures in a furnace. The purpose of the flux is to mold with waste rock that will become lighter, seperating it from the pure metal. Tailings (or slag) are waste material made from this process. They are poisonous and need to be treated carefully. When they are not, they can kill wildlifem poison lakes and rivers and ground water. Threats to the Environment -In the past 20 years over $1 billion dollars has been used to control harmful emissions from mines and processing plants -Mining can produce a lot of pollution and acid rain -When minerals run out, mines are left abandoned which leaves scares on the landscape and leak pollutants into lakes and rivers What can we do? -Have environmental laws in place that protect wildlife and prevent pollution -develop new technologies that are "cleaner" -fine companies that do not dispose of waste mayerial effectively -provide modivation for companies to rejuvenate the land after

minerals run out for another purpose such as gardens or recreation areas

June 2/11 Urbanization Where people live in Canada has changed drastically in the last one hundred years. Urban places are densely populated communities such as towns and cities, while rural places are sparely populated communities such as hamlets and agricultural communities where people live great distances from each other. In the early 1900's only 37% of canadians lived in urban places such as towns and cities. Currently 79% of Canadians live in urban places, so in just over one hundred years, Canada has gone through a process of urbanization which is the process of a population moving from rural countryside locations to urban cities to love and work. Urban towns and cities are characterized by having larger populations living in a smaller area, with faster access to a greater number and variety of serbices such as health care, education, transportation networks, job opportunities, types of work, types of accommodation, etc.\ Ecumene is a Greek term meaning "inhavited world". So, Canada's ecumene (where most Canadians live) is the

southern part of the country. In fact, 90% of Canadians live in 10% of Canada's land area, which happens to be within 600 km of the US border from East to West across the country. The other 10% live in sparsely spread out communities in the remaining 90% of Canada's northern area. Canada's population therefore is concentrated in major towns and cities of the provinces bordering the United States.

June 10/11 Immigration in Canada Migration: is the movement of people from one place to another. Immigration: is the movement of people to another country with the intent of settling there (think Immigration=moving In) Emigration: is the movement of people from their native country to another country (think Emigration=Exiting or moving out) As a result of a long history of immigration to Canada our society has become multicultural as is it made up of many cultural groups from all over the world. 97% of Canadians are immigrants of descendents of immigrants to Canada. 3% of Canadians are native peoples. Historically, immigrants came to Canada from Europe and the United Kingdom for various reasons. Currently, most immigrants to Canada come from countries such as India, China, and other eastern and southern Asian nations as well

as from countries in South America, the Caribbean and Africa. What influences the movement of people from their country of birth to other nations? Push Factors- Reasons that make you feel that you have to leave your country -War/Crime -Political Oppression -Natural Disasters (flooding, earthquake, hurricane, volcanic eruption, etc) -Famine (long term hunger) -Religions Oppression -Racism -Limited Educational Opportunities (schooling) -Limited Economic Opportunities (jobs) Pull Factors- Reasons that encourage you to move to another country -Family already there -Civil/Human rights -Stable Political System June 14/11 Cultural Baggage Cultural Baggage is the cultural traditions and ways of living that a new Canadian brings to this country from their previous home. It includes: FOOD, its ingredients, preparation, presentation.

CLOTHING, it's styles, fabrics LANGUAGE HOUSING & ARCHITECTURE RELIGION & RELIGIOUS HOLIDAYS CUSTOMS FAMILY & COMMUNITY STRUCTURE CHILD REARING PRACTICES SKILLS CRAFTS & ART MUSIC & DANCE Demographics and Human Geography Demography is the study of population numbers, trends, distribution (e.g. where people live), and other issues. Doubling Time is how long it would take for a country's population to double at the country's current population rate. Dependency load is the portion of the population not in the workforce, under 14 years old and older than 65. This group is

dependent on those who do work for services they need to support them (i.e. schools, health care, etc). A Developed country has a highly developed and diverse economy. Its citizens have high incomes, abundant food, good housing, and can afford many many luxuries. They are sometimes also referred to as "first world", e.g. Canada, USA, Germany, and France A Developing Country has a poorly developed economy, usually based on agriculture. Its citizens have low incomes, food shortages, poor housing and can't afford luxuries. They are sometimes called "less developed" or "third world", e.g. Kenya, Sudan, Somalia, India, Mongolia Global Connections The Global Village is an idea that the world is becoming like one larger village because of improvements in communication. This idea reinforces that we should work together to ensure everyone on the planet has what they need to live a good life.