UNIVERSITY OF BUEA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCE

ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY OF NDONGO

STREAM IN THE BUEA MUNICIPALITY

By

NDAM EDMOND NKEHACHA

UB 026380

A Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the

Requirements for the Award of a Bachelor of Science
Degree in Environmental Science.

SUPERVISOR
DR YINDA G. SENDZE

June 2008

i
 CERTIFICATION

I hereby certify that this project entitled “Assessment of water quality of the Ndongo
Stream in the Buea Municipality” was carried out by Ndam Edmond Nkehacha (UB
026380) as a project for the requirement for a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) Degree in
Environmental Science.

Supervisor: ……………………………………… Signature: …………………

YINDA Godwin Sendze

PhD (Soil Fertility)
M.Sc. (Soil Science)
B.Sc. (Chem) Ibadan

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 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to the entire Ndam and Diyen families,

Especially to its young G.C.E writers.

But above all it is dedicated to God, the Eternal Deity

whose omnipotence made this imagination a possibility.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Co
ntent Page
Certification ...........................................................................................................i
Dedication ...............................................................................................................ii
Table of contents .....................................................................................................iii
List of tables ............................................................................................................v
List of figures ..........................................................................................................v
List of plates.............................................................................................................vi
Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................vii
Abstract ...................................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................1
1.1 – Background information .............................................................................1
1.2 – Problem Statement .........................................................................................2
1.3 – Rationale ........................................................................................................3
1.4 – Beneficiaries ..................................................................................................4
1.5 – Objectives ......................................................................................................4
1.6 – Hypothesis .....................................................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................6
2.1 – Definitions .....................................................................................................6
2.2 – Water and Sanitation ......................................................................................7
2.3 – Importance of water .......................................................................................9
2.4 – Water Quality .................................................................................................11
2.5 – Water Quality Management ...........................................................................18
2.6 – Pollution of stream water ...............................................................................22
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHOD ..............................................................................30
3.1 –Location of study .......................................................................................30
3.2 – Significance of stream ...................................................................................31
3.3 – Field Survey and Sampling ............................................................................33
3.4 – Water Analyses ...............................................................................................35
3.5 – Data Analysis .................................................................................................41
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................42
4.1 – Maps locating Study Area ..............................................................................42
4.2 –Anthropogenic and Natural Factors affecting the water quality of the stream 43
4.3 – Water Pollution Sources .................................................................................54
4.4 – Health Status around the Stream ....................................................................56
4.5 – Results of Physico-chemical Analysis ...........................................................60
4.6 – Results of Biological Analysis .......................................................................64
4.7 – Existing and Proposed water Quality Remediation techniques .....................67
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................68
5.1 – Conclusions ....................................................................................................68
5.2 – Recommendations ..........................................................................................70
REFERENCES........................................................................................................73
APPENDIX..............................................................................................................75

iv
 LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page
Table 1 – Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards ............................................14
Table 2 – Water quality and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content in ppm at 20°C ....................24
Table 3 – Major Categories of water pollutants ..................................................................26
Table 4 – Common Diseases transmitted to Humans through contaminated Drinking water
.............................................................................................................................................27
Table 5 – Physical and Chemical parameters of the stream for Early March (Dry season) 60
Table 6 – Physical and Chemical parameters of the Stream for Early April (Rainy season)
.............................................................................................................................................62
Table 7 - Results of the determination of water purity by measuring the Most Probable
Number (MPN) of Fecal Coliform in the Ndongo Stream .................................................65
Table 8 - Estimated Per Capita Contribution of Indicator Microorganisms from Humans
and Some Animals...............................................................................................................66
Table 9 - Various proposals, by people living nearby the Ndongo stream, to improve water
quality in the stream ...........................................................................................................67

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

Fig. 1 – World water consumption in percentage divided into three categories showing
differences between the various continents ........................................................................11
Fig. 2 – Map of Buea ..........................................................................................................32
Fig. 3 – Map of the Ndongo Stream showing Sampling Points .........................................42
Fig. 4 – Percentage of Respondents within the various age groups ...................................43
Fig. 5 – Literacy levl of the Respondents ...........................................................................44
Fig.6 – Household size and daily water consumption around the Ndongo stream .............45
Fig 7 -Types of wastes generated by households in the localities bordering the stream.....46
Fig 8-Waste disposal methods employed by the residents along the Ndongo Stream .......48
Fig 9 - Uses of water carried from the Ndongo stream......................................................50
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Fig 10 - Anthropogenic and natural activities on the stream...............................................52
Fig 11 - Stream pollution sources of the Ndongo stream...................................................55
Fig 12, 13 and 14 - Monthly Report on Water-related diseases in Solidarity Clinic Molyko
(For February, March and April) ........................................................................................58
Fig 15 - % Prevalence of water related disease around the Ndongo stream.......................59
Fig 16 - Pie Chart showing the abundance of organisms found in the stream...................64
Fig 17 – Basic steps in Domestic Waste management in minimal programmes as an
initiative to minimise street and stream dumping................................................................72

LIST OF PLATES

Plates Page

Plate 1 –Poorly sited dumps at residences along the Ndongo stream .....................49
Plate 2 –Waste disposal into a portion of the stream flowing behind a sampled household
.................................................................................................................................49
Plate 3 –Collection of Drinking water.....................................................................51
Plate 4 –Laundry exercise at the Ndongo Stream....................................................53
Plate 5 –Bathing in the Ndongo stream ..................................................................53
Plate 6 –Washing of cars in the Ndongo Stream .....................................................54
Plate 7 –Pesticide droplets from a nearby tomato farm...........................................56

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Sincere gratitude to God whose singular generosity made this dream a reality. In addition

may this piece of creative art serve as a sign for the glorification of the name above all

names on earth, JESUS, and in total appreciation for his infinite mercy.

I wish to express any thing above deep gratitude and appreciation to my Supervisor and

Idol Dr Yinda G. Sendze for his infinite patience and selfless sacrifices in making this

publication a priceless jewel. My appreciation to his constant encouragement and parental

assistance cannot be expressed in words, but only God will reward this kind gesture. Much

thanks to my Lecturers, Prof Ayonghe Samuel, Dr Oben Pius, Ms Manga Veronica, Dr

Nkwatoh A., and Mr Iyassa for their educational assistance.

I would also like to express my heart-felt appreciation to my mum, Mrs Ndam Genevieve

Martha, my uncles; Mr Diyen Colin, Mr Diyen Aloysius, Mr Diyen Jude, Mr Diyen

Cyprian, Mr Diyen Benjamin, Mr Diyen Valentine, Mr Charles Nyongo, Mr Emmanuel

Momjang and Mr Stephen Tanyi; not leaving out my aunts; Rev Sr Mary Gladys Diyen,

Mrs Diyen Gladys, Ms Marceline Sangle, Mrs Patricia Moki, Mrs Prudencia Fondong, Mrs

Susan Nonjang, Mrs Perps Nche for their financial, material and emotional support.

Immense thanks to my Grand mothers Mrs Diyen Cecilia and Mrs Ludwina Nkemasong

for their encouragement and endless prayers. Moreover sincere thanks to all my brothers

and sisters, wishing them success in their exams.

Special thanks to my bosom friends Fongwen Eric, Tankoh Daniel, Ebong Ernest, Ekane

Mary, Kilo Sylvia, the Ashu sisters, Stanley Tangyie, Laura Bakari, Tebo Abid, Oben

Doris, Njume Leslie, Yvonne Ijang, all Environmental Science students, all SHESANS and

to all my friends (you are all special).

vii
 ABSTRACT

This study centred on analysing the Biological, Physical and chemical parameters of the

Ndongo Stream in the Buea Municipality.

The specific objectives are; (1) To assess the impact of anthropogenic activities (of the

neighbouring human settlement) and natural processes (e.g. rainfall) on the Ndongo stream

and the attitude of the people towards the stream. (2) To determine the physico-chemical

and biological parameters of the Ndongo stream in relation to its sustainability for

agricultural and domestic utilisation. (3) To evaluate methods used and recommend the

best methods to manage water quality to ensure the sustainability of the resource.

The study area was stratified into four zones; Bokoko, Molyko, Mile 17 and Bulu

localities. Questionnaires were administered to 90 randomly selected households to assess

the impact of anthropogenic activities and natural processes on the stream. Rapid sampling

techniques such as interviews and short discussions also helped in data collection on the

health status of those living by the stream and existing water quality measures. In addition,

water samples were collected from three sampling points (i.e. source, mid course and lower

course of the stream) and analysed for the physico-chemical parameters (pH, temperature,

Dissolved Oxygen Level, turbidity and Flow rate) and Biological parameters (faecal

Coliform Count) of the stream.

The Mid and lower courses of the Ndongo stream were found to experience enormous

adverse effects on their Physico-chemical and Biological parameters particularly during the

rainy season. This could be due to acidic precipitation, increased anthropogenic activities,

influx of surface runoffs into the stream.

viii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Water is very important to the existence of man. A safe and potable water supply is critical

to the survival of human life. Society in general requires water for the maintenance of

public Health, fire protection, cooling water for electricity generation, use in industrial

process, irrigation of agriculture lands, and navigation (Malina, 1996). The horrors that

accompany drought, a myriad of diseases that accompany the use of polluted water and

other inconveniences that accompany lack of water, help to buttress the importance of

wholesome water (Olumese, 1991).

Surface-water pollution is often both highly visible and often one of the most common

threats to environmental quality. In many developing countries (Buea-Cameroon in

particular), reducing water pollution is becoming a priority nowadays. Millions of Dollars

have been spent a control-programs though with little but promising progress.

In Molyko, households bordering the Ndongo stream often discard their residential wastes

in this stream. In addition, some residents found close to the stream drain sewage form

their toilets or baths into it. This problem is aggravated during periods of water crisis in

this neighbourhood as some people living nearby the stream, use it as their toilets because

they could not use the water closets at home. This stream serves as a very good route for

various human diseases and their vectors, since it may have been contaminated by faeces

or urine from an infected person. As such, the incidence of malaria, filariasis and other

mosquito-borne diseases would increase mostly affecting those who use it. Lots of laundry

1
is also done in this stream especially during the dry season when water crisis becomes a

“Canker Worm” in the society This exposes the people to skin diseases such as bilharzias

and other skin irritations. Children are the most susceptible to these health defects and they

contract them through swimming and bathing in it. Water from the stream is also used to

process palm nuts for palm oil by stream and it may also be a source for gastrointestinal

problems. The Ndongo stream harbours some fish and crab species which constitute a vital

complement of the people’s diet and this fish must have been contaminated given the level

of pollution of the stream. Therefore, people who eat of this contaminated fish (now

infectious) as Beverley et al (2001) explains are likely to contract diseases such as liver

fluke disease(Fasciola infection), fish tapeworm(Diphyllobothriasis) and lung fluke

disease(Paragonimiasis).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The environmental problem of great priority in human societies is how to make available

enough water to satisfy the domestic, industrial and agricultural needs (UN, 1971). More

important than the supply of water is the quality of water supplied (Shraddhakar, 1974). It

is rare to find uncontaminated water. The ever-increasing population of the Ndongo

stream’s neighbouring human community due to high birth rate and immigration; and

above all the gross encroachment of this community of this community towards the stream

have resulted in persistent anthropogenic activities which consistently deteriorate the

stream’s water quality (physical, chemical and biological parameters). In addition natural

processes (such as rainfall, temperature changes etc) contribute significantly to episodic

(usually seasonal) water quality deterioration. The poor water quality of the Ndongo

stream has caused potential problems such as:

2
 I. Most critical and eminent is the prevalence of the following water-related diseases

due to the presence of harmful organisms in the stream; water-borne diseases

(cholera, typhoid, hepatitis); water-washed diseases (scabies, yaws, leprosy, typhus,

paratyphoid fever, conjunctivitis and trachoma); water-based diseases (caused by

aquatic worms and urinary and rectal infections); diseases with water-related insect

vectors (yellow fever, malaria, sleeping sickness and other viral fevers); diseases

related to faecal disposal.

II. There has been periodic drop in water supply fit for the various uses such as

agriculture, domestic purposes and swimming.

III. The fish population in the stream has also met persistent fluctuations; hence low fish

catch and consequently a drop in the income of fishermen and malnutrition in

households that depend on the fish as a source of protein.

IV. The aesthetics of the stream is greatly destroyed by littering.

1.3 RATIONALE

The study would assess the water quality parameters in the Ndongo Stream and the

probable sources of water contamination on the stream by the neighbouring community.

This will facilitate the resolution of the water quality crisis of the stream through the

provision of cost-effective water quality management measures so as to meet the quality

standards for its proposed uses by its immediate beneficiaries (the nearby community).

Moreover the study will also help raise the awareness of the neighbouring community of

the stream of the relationship between their activities that could be of potential risk to the

changing water quality of the stream and consequent health implications; and hence help

them develop skills in using the stream without depletive effects on its quality.

3
1.4 BENEFICIARIES

This project will be directly beneficial to the nearby human settlements of Lower

Bonduma, Molyko, Mile 17, Muea and Mile 16 localities.

The Ndongo Stream is a resourceful freshwater body that vitalizes 1/3 of the population of

Buea (about 33,333 inhabitants) in terms of their water needs. It is the primary source of

water for domestic and agricultural uses to half of the population of the Buea Urban Health

district i.e. inhabitants of Bonduma, Molyko, Mile 17 and Muea. The inhabitants of the

above localities constitute the direct (immediate) beneficiaries who maximize the resource

in domestic activities (the second largest water-consuming sector) and agriculture (the

largest water-consuming sector), particularly the cultivation of arable crops which are

either consumed by the communities or sold to other communities in and around the Buea

Municipality and constitute the indirect beneficiaries. In addition, there is some swimming

and some minor fishing by the neighbouring population along its course.

1.5 OBJECTIVES

The general objective of this study is to make known the existing problems and those that

could arise from improper water quality management of the Ndongo stream and propose

measures to be put in place that would curb the incidence of disease outbreak and make the

water suitable for its proposed uses.

The specific objectives are;

i. To assess the impact of anthropogenic activities (of the neighbouring human
settlement) and natural processes (e.g. rainfall) on the Ndongo stream and the
attitude of the people towards the stream.
ii. To determine the physico-chemical and biological parameters of the Ndongo stream
in relation to its sustainability for agricultural and domestic utilisation.
iii. To evaluate methods used and recommend the best methods to manage water quality
to ensure the sustainability of the resource.

4
1.6 HYPOTHESIS

The Ndongo stream is both physico-chemically and bacteriologially not potable due to

natural and anthropogenic activities on it.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 DEFINITIONS

a) Fresh water: Water having a salt concentration below 0.01% (100ppm). As a result of

purification by evaporation, all forms of precipitation are fresh water, as are lakes,

rivers, groundwater, and other bodies of water that have a throughflow of water from

precipitation (Taylor et.al, 2002).

b) Polluted water: Water that contains one or more impurities making the water unsuitable

for a desired use (Taylor et.al, 2002).

c) Purified water: Water that has had pollutants removed or rendered harmless (Taylor

et.al, 2002).

d) Water quantity: The amount of water available to meet desired demands (Taylor et.al,

2002).

e) Water quality: The degree to which water is pure enough to fulfil the requirements of

various uses (Taylor et.al, 2002). The quality of a body of water refers to its

temperature and the amount and character of its content of mineral particles, solutes

and organic matter (Olumese, 1991). Water quality assessment is the overall evaluation

of the physical, chemical and biological nature of water in relation to natural quality,

human effects and intended uses, particularly uses which may affect human health and

the health of health of the aquatic system itself (Brown and Barnwell, 1987). Streams

are small but important water systems that finely divide the landscape into drainage

areas (Miller and Hackett, 2008).

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2.2 WATER AND SANITATION
Clean drinking water and basic sanitation are necessary to prevent communicable diseases

and maintain a healthy life. Approximately 1.1 billion people lack access to safe drinking

water and 2.4 billion don’t have adequate sanitation (UNEP, 2002). By 2025 two thirds of

the world’s people will be living in water-stressed countries (defined by the U.N as a

consumption of more than 10% of renewable fresh water resources). Investments in rural

developments have brought significant improvements over the past decades (Miller and

Hackett, 2008).

The development of every nation depends on the well being of people of that country and

therefore the eminent need for their health conditions to be maintained through efficient

water supply of good quality (Olumese, 1991). To maintain health conditions certain

measures are applied which can broadly be categorized into two; the preventive measures

(concerned with rules of hygiene) and the curative measures (concern with treatment of

cases of ill health) (Smart, 1998). The health field concept, a broad approach that refers to

all matters that relate to health, includes four principal elements namely : Human biology;

Environment; Life-style, and Health care organization.

The environment here, on which man depends solely for his survival, has to be taken care

of and aspects of polluting or contaminating its components should be avoided as much as

possible. This gives reason why domestic waste must be managed properly to contain any

situation that could either create health problems or degrade the environment (e.g. Ndongo

stream).

Waste management (including generation and disposal) is a problem in urban as well as

rural areas. Many areas, particularly in developing countries, still have inadequate waste

7
management; poorly controlled open dumps illegal dumping along roadsides and in nearby

streams remain a problem (Botkin and Keller, 2000). Such dumping spoil scenic resource

pollutes soil and water resources and is a potential health hazard to plants, animals and

people.

The hydrologic cycle plays an important role in the quality of water. Runoff resulting from

precipitation may carry inorganic chemicals that dissolve into the water runoff flow over

different geological formation and soils; e.g. limestone dissolves in runoff, resulting in

hard water. Evaporation of water from streams, rivers and other impoundments tends to

increase the concentration of conservative substances in surface waters (Malina, 1996).

Environmental and/or water pollution control agencies in each state usually establish

beneficial uses of surface water such as; Municipal water supply, Industrial water supply,

recreation, agricultural irrigation, power, navigation and protection enhancement of fish

and wildlife. The Beneficial use of a water body is based on the quality of the water body

in question, existing and projected sources of pollution, acceptable alternate water

resources, historical use patterns and existing treatment systems for pollution abatement

(Wikipedia, 2008).

Water quality management requires an understanding of the physical, chemical and

biological characteristics of water and the interactions among the physical, chemical and

biological processes, transformations and conversions. Water quality requirements

associated with various beneficial uses of water also must be understood in detail (Miller

and Hackett, 2008).

2.3 IMPORTANCE OF WATER

8
Just about anything we do uses water. Reading a newspaper, driving a car, eating a

hamburger, or a bowl of rice, wearing cotton clothing, or drinking a beverage out of an

aluminium can involve processes or products that require large amounts of water. For

instance, it takes 7000litres of water to produce 1kg of grain-fed beef, and 5000litres of

water to grow 1kg of rice. In addition water keeps us alive, moderates climate, sculpts the

land, removes and dilutes wastes and pollutants, and filters out wavelengths of the sun’s

ultraviolet (UV) radiation that would harm some aquatic organisms (Miller and Hackett,

2008).

2.3.1 Water needs of man

Only about 0.01% of the earth’s water supply is available to us as freshwater, but this is

recycled. This magnificent water recycling and purification system works only as long as

we do not overload water systems with slowly degradable and non degradable wastes or

withdraw water from underground supplies faster than it is replenished. Adequate water

supply of standard quality is essential to meet the individual, domestic and agricultural

needs of man (UNESCO, 1975).

Individual needs

A human being needs daily approximately two litres of water to compensate for its loss

from the body through urine (1,000ml), breath and sweat (900ml) faeces (100ml)

(UNESCO, 1975). It fulfils this need by drinking and through food.

Domestic needs

Globally, 10% of the total freshwater available is used to satisfy domestic demands (Miller

and Hackett, 2008). To live a standard life a household of five persons needs daily a

minimum 500litres of water for drinking, cooking, bathing, laundry, cleaning and watering

9
potted plants (UNESCO, 1975). In addition, man has to find water to meet the needs of

domestic animals, to water loans or gardens and to wash vehicles for personal use.

Agricultural needs

Worldwide, irrigation is the biggest user of freshwater (70%) withdrawn each year from

surface waters and aquifers. This used to irrigate 1/5 of the world’s cropland to produce

40% of the world’s food, including 2/3 of rice and wheat (Miller and Hackett, 2008). Some

of this water is contaminated with salts and pesticides.

Industrial needs

Of the entire total freshwater on the earth, 20% is used in industrial processes (Miller and

Hackett, 2008). The industrial and commercial needs of water are tremendous. The

production of one ton of cotton fabric needs 250m3 water; man-made fabric (2,500 -

5,000m3); water woollen fabric (580m3); paper (150m3); paper board (57m3); cane sugar

(4m3); oil refining (18m3); steel (250m3); soda (320m3); sulphate (240m3); ammonia

(1,000m3); synthetic rubber ( 2,000m3), nickel (4,000m3) (UN, 1971).

There are great differences in water priorities between developed and developing nations.

According to the United Nations, for example the daily minimum amount of water needed

to support ¾ of the world’s people is equal to the amount of water used each day to irrigate

the world’s golf courses (Miller and Hackett, 2008). The world water consumption

(divided into three categories) is presented in fig 1.

100
80----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10
 60----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
40----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

20 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

World North & central Europe Africa Asia South America

America

Domestic Industry Agriculture

Fig 1: World water consumption in percentage divided into three categories showing
differences between the various continents. (WRI, 1992/1993, p. 161).

Human usage of water is divided among three major categories, as shown. The percentage

used in each category varies with climate and relative development of country. A dry-

climate, less-developed region uses most of its water for irrigation (e.g., Africa), whereas

moist-climate, industrialized countries (e.g., industrialized countries (e.g., Europe) require

the largest percentage for industry.

2.4 WATER QUALITY

This refers to the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water in relationship

to a set of standards (Wikipedia, 2008). Natural water bodies will vary in response to

environmental conditions. Environmental scientists are working to understand the

functioning of these systems, which determines sources and fates of contaminants.

Environmental water quality includes water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. In the

case of environmental water quality, the standards vary significantly due to different

environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses (Wikipedia, 2008). Toxic

substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard for

non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, and rafting, boating, and
11
industrial uses. These conditions may also impact wildlife which uses the water for

drinking or as a habitat. Modern water quality laws generally specify protection of

fishable/swimmable use and antidegredation of current conditions (Miller and Hackett,

2008).

2.4.1 Water Quality Standards

Water quality standards are created for different types of water bodies and water body

locations per desired uses (Wikipedia, 2008). The Surface Water Quality Standards

(SWQS) establish the designated uses to be achieved and specify the water quality

(criteria) necessary to protect the State's waters (NJDEP, 2007). These are reflected in use

classifications assigned to specific waters. The primary uses considered for such

characterization are parameters which relate to drinking water, safety of human contact,

and for health of ecosystems. The methods of hydrometry are used to quantify water

characteristics. The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work

in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human

consumption or in the environment. Designated uses include potable water, propagation of

fish and wildlife, recreation, agricultural and industrial supplies, and navigation

(Wikipedia, 2008).

In the setting of standards, political decisions are made about how the water will be used

and in the case of natural water bodies, some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions.

The SWQS Team in Water Monitoring and Standards within the Department of

Environmental Protection is responsible for developing, adopting and administering the

SWQS Program. In the United States, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

prescribes regulations that limit the amount of certain contaminants in the water provided

by public water systems for tap water. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

12
regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled water that must provide the same

protection for public health. Different uses have different concerns and therefore different

standards (NJDEP, 2007). Natural water bodies will vary in response to environmental

conditions. Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human

uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and

overuse (which may lower the level of the water).

The criteria applicable to different use classifications are numerical estimates of constituent

concentrations, including toxic pollutants, and protective uses. Narrative criteria describe

in-stream conditions to be attained/maintained or avoided. Waters of the State include, but

are not limited to, rivers, lakes, streams, wetlands, estuaries and near shore coastal waters.

The SWQS also contain technical and general policies to ensure that the designated uses

are adequately protected (NJDEP, 2007).

Water Quality Criteria Development

Water quality criteria for various beneficial uses, including drinking water have been

addressed in numerous documents. In 1952, the California State Water Pollution Control

Board published Water Quality Criteria, in which scientific and technical information

dealing with water quality for various beneficial uses was discussed . The criteria were

revised in 1963 by McKee and Wolf, and in 1971 the California State Water Resources

Control Board published a revision of these criteria (McKee and Wolf, 1963; 1971). These

documents were used extensively throughout the United States and in many counties

throughout the world.

2.4.2 Water Quality Measurement

13
The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of

measurements of water quality indicators (Wikipedia, 2008). Some of the simple

measurements listed below can be made on-site (temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen,

conductivity), in direct contact with the water source in question. More complex

measurements that must be made in a lab setting require a water sample to be collected,

preserved, and analyzed at another location. Making these complex measurements can be

expensive. Because direct measurements of water quality can be expensive, ongoing

monitoring programs are typically conducted by government agencies. Scientists monitor

water quality by using bacterial counts, chemical analysis, physical analysis, and indicator

organisms. One involves measuring the number of colonies of fecal coliform bacteria (such

as various strains of Escheria coli) present in a water sample.

However, there are local volunteer programs and resources available for some general

assessments. Tools available to the general public are on-site test kits commonly used for

home fish tanks and biological assessments (Wikipedia, 2008).

The water quality standards for drinking water are clearly stated in table 1.

Table 1: Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards

Contaminant Maximum contaminants Level, mg/L

Inorganic Chemicals
Asbestos 7MFL
Arsenic 0.05
Barium 2.0
Chromium 0.005
Lead 0.1
Mercury 0.002
Nitrate (as N) 10
Nitrite (as N) 1
Selenium 0.05
Silver 0.05
Fluoride 4
Pesticides/PCB
Endrin 0.0002
Lindane 0.004
Methoxychlor 0.04
Toxaphene 0.003
14
Contaminant Maximum contaminants Level, mg/L
2,4-D 0.07
2,4,5-TP Silvex 0.05
Ethylene dibromide 0.00005
Heptachlor 0.0004
PCB’s 0.0005
Chlordane 0.002
Volatile Organic Chemicals
Benzene 0.005
Carbon tetrachloride 0.005
1,1-Dichloroethylene 0.007
Trichloroethylene 0.005
Total trihalomethanes 0.1
Turbidity 1-5NTU
Coliform bacteria 1/100ml (mean)
Radiological
Gross alpha 15Ci/L
Radium 226and 228 5
Gross beta 50
Tritium 20,000
Strontium 90 8
Chloride 250
Colour 15colour units
Copper 1
Corosivity Non corrosive
Foaming agents 0.5
Iron 0.3
Manganese 0.05
Odour 3 threshold odour number
pH 6.5-8.5
Sulfate 250
Total Dissolved Solids 500
Zinc 5
Dissolved Oxygen 5-8
MFL= Million fibers per liter longer than 10μm
Source: Safe Drinking Water Act (1975, 1991 updated)

The following is a list of water quality assessment methods and their indicators often

measured by situational category:

Human consumption water quality assessment

To be considered safe for drinking, water should contain no colonies of coliform bacteria

in a sample of 100ml (about 1/2cup). To be considered safe for swimming, it should have

no more than 100 (200 in the United States) colonies per 100ml. By contrast, raw sewage

may contain several million coliform bacteria colonies in 100ml of water (Miller and

Hackett, 2008).

15
The following is a list of drinking water assessment indicators: Alkalinity, Colour of water,

pH, Taste and odour (geosmin, 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), etc), Dissolved metals and salts

(sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium), Microorganisms such as

faecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia,

Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, Mercury (element), arsenic, etc.), Dissolved

organics: Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM), Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC),

Radon, Heavy Metals, Pharmaceuticals, Hormone analogs1 (Wikipedia, 2008).

Environmental water quality assessment

a) Chemical Assessment:

Scientists use chemical analysis to determine the presence and concentrations of inorganic

and organic chemicals that pollute water. They measure sediment content by evaporating

the water in a sample and weighing the resulting sediment. Suspended sediment clouds

water. Scientists use an instrument called a colorimeter, or turbidity meter, to measure the

turbidity (transparency) of a water sample (Miller and Hackett, 2008).

A typical chemical analysis of water to determine its quality includes, hardness, specific

electrical conductance, hydrogen ion activity (pH), free carbon dioxide and Total Dissolved

Solids (TDS) (Olumese, 1991.) Below is a list of chemical indicators: pH, Conductivity

(also see salinity), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Nitrate-N, Orthophosphates, Chemical oxygen

demand (COD), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Pesticides (Wikipedia, 2008).

b) Physical Assessment:

Water supply should not be offensive to the senses of touch, sight, smell and taste.

Physical characteristics of water are determined qualitatively by these senses;

16
 i. Temperature (By Touch): Freshwater temperature varies normally from 0 to 35◦C

depending on the source, depth and season. Temperature variation affects important

physical characteristics of water. In addition chemical and biological reaction rates

increase with increased temperatures.

ii. Colour, Turbidity and Suspended Solids (by Sight): Colour is primarily a concern

for water quality for aesthetic reasons. Brown-coloured water indicates the presence

of decaying vegetation while green water depicts the presence of algae.

iii. Turbidity is a measure of the light transmitting properties of water and is comprised

of suspended and colloidal material. It is expressed as Nephelometric Turbidity

Units (NTU.) It is important for aesthetic and Health reasons.

iv. Taste and Odour (By Smell and Taste): These are human perceptions of water

quality. Human perception of taste include sour (Hydrochloric Acid), salt (sodium

Chloride), sweet (sucrose), and bitter (caffeine) (Malina, 1996).

c) Biological Assessment:

This involves measuring the number of colonies of faecal coliform bacteria (such as

Escherichia coli) present in a water sample. Various strains of these bacteria and other

animals and thus are present in their faecal waste. Although most strains of coliform

bacteria do not cause disease, their presence indicates that water has been exposed to

human or animal wastes that are likely to contain disease-causing agents. When dangerous

levels of faecal coliform bacteria are detected, scientists try to determine whether the

source is from humans, various types of livestock, or wild animals such as birds or

raccoons. A new field of science called Bacterial Source Tackling (BST.) uses molecular

17
biology techniques to determine subtle differences in strains of E. coli based on their

animal hosts (Wikipedia, 2008).

Biological monitoring metrics have been developed in many places, and one widely used

measure is the presence and abundance of members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera,

Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT). EPT indexes will naturally vary from region to region,

but generally, within a region, the greater the number of taxa from these orders, the better

the water quality. A number of websites originating in the United States offer guidance on

developing a monitoring program and identifying members of these and other aquatic

insect orders (Wikipedia, 2008).

Individuals interested in monitoring water quality who cannot afford or manage lab scale

analysis can also use biological indicators to get a general reading of water quality. One

example is the IOWATER volunteer water-monitoring program, which includes a benthic

macroinvertebrate indicator key (Wikipedia, 2008).

The level of dissolved Oxygen is related to the amount of oxygen-demanding wastes, so

called because they are broken down by oxygen-requiring bacteria, and plant nutrients in a

sample of water. Scientists also measure the Biological Oxygen Demanding (BOD), the

amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by aquatic decomposers (Miller and Hackett,

2008).

2.5 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Water quality management requires an understanding of the physical, chemical and

biological characteristics of water and interactions among the physical, chemical and

biological processes, transformations, and conversions (Malina, 1996). Water quality

requirements associated with various beneficial uses of water also must be understood in

18
details, for instance in Cameroon Law 98 -005 provides that water is a natural resource

protected and managed by the State (Law 98-005, art. 2 (1)).

All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and through bilateral or

multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and other relevant organizations as

appropriate, could implement the following activities to improve integrated water

resources management (UN, 2004) :

(a) Formulation of costed and targeted national action plans and investment programmes;

(b) Integration of measures for the protection and conservation of potential sources of

freshwater supply, including the inventorying of water resources, with land-use

planning, forest resource utilization, protection of mountain slopes and riverbanks and

other relevant development and conservation activities;

(c) Development of interactive databases, forecasting models, economic planning models

and methods for water management and planning, including environmental impact

assessment methods;

(d) Optimization of water resources allocation under physical and socio-economic

constraints;

(e) Implementation of allocation decisions through demand management, pricing

mechanisms and regulatory measures;

(f) Flood and drought management, including risk analysis and environmental and social

impact assessment;

(g) Promotion of schemes for rational water use through public awareness-raising,

educational programmes and levying of water tariffs and other economic instruments;

(h) Mobilization of water resources, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas;

(i) Promotion of international scientific research cooperation on freshwater resources;

19
(j) Development of new and alternative sources of water-supply such as sea-water

desalination, artificial groundwater recharge, use of marginal-quality water, waste-

water reuse and water recycling;

(k) Integration of water (including surface and underground water resources) quantity and

quality management;

(l) Promotion of water conservation through improved water-use efficiency and wastage

minimization schemes for all users, including the development of water-saving

devices;

(m) Support to water-users groups to optimize local water resources management;

(n) Development of public participatory techniques and their implementation in decision-

making, particularly the enhancement of the role of women in water resources

planning and management;

(o) Development and strengthening, as appropriate, of cooperation, including mechanisms

where appropriate, at all levels concerned, namely:

i) At the lowest appropriate level, delegation of water resources management,

generally, to such a level, in accordance with national legislation, including

decentralization of government services to local authorities, private enterprises

and communities;

ii) At the national level, integrated water resources planning and management in the

framework of the national planning process and, where appropriate, establishment

of independent regulation and monitoring of freshwater, based on national

legislation and economic measures;

iii) At the regional level, consideration, where appropriate, of the harmonization

of national strategies and action programmes;

iv) At the global level, improved delineation of responsibilities, division of

labour and coordination of international organizations and programmes, including

20
 facilitating discussions and sharing of experiences in areas related to water

resources management;

p) Dissemination of information, including operational guidelines, and promotion of

education for water users, including the consideration by the United Nations of a World

Water Day.

Protection of water resources (particularly the water quality) is a primordial element that

proposed water legislation needs to address, for instance in Cameroon, Law 98-005 of 14 th

April 1998 (which regulates all water resources except mineral waters and spring waters)

lays down detailed provisions for protection of water quality, forbidding any act, such as

discharging or outflows, that is likely to:

i. Alter the quality of surface and groundwater, or seawater within territorial

boundaries.

ii. Cause danger to public health, animal life, or aquatic or sub-marine flora.

iii. Call economic and tourist development into question.

The water legislation would need to specify the party or parties at each level of the

government (national, regional, and local) that are responsible for ensuring protection of

water quality, for instance in Cameroon, the ministry of Energy and Water is responsible

for examining the installations established for these purposes and for analysing the

quality of the water (Law 79-10, art. 10). The protection of water resources includes:

a) Prevention and abatement of both point source pollution and diffuse pollution.

b) Regulation of the discharge of wastewater and other wastes.

c) Regulation of land use, particularly land cultivation practices.

21
 d) Adoption of detailed procedures for enforcement of water quality standards,

particularly of water for domestic uses.

Some water statutes, like that of Armenia, have expanded the concept of protection to

require protection of water ecosystem, which is a wider concept. Such an ecosystem would

go beyond water to cover fauna and flora as well as the land contiguous to the water

resource, which should be used in a manner that does not harm the water resource. It

should be noted that the concept of protection of the entire ecosystem can be traced to the

Mar del Plata Conference of 1977, where it suggested that the legislation should aim at the

“protection of water and water-related ecosystem.” In addition, the European Commission

Directive and other European legislation, such as the Protocol on water and health, have

laid down more stringent requirements regarding water quality.

Efficient water management should fulfil the following conditions:

a) Potable water supply in adequate amount for both rural and urban populations.

b) Adequate water supply of standard quality to industries.

c) Optimal water supply of standard to agriculture in time minimising wastage of water,

soil and plant nutrients and maximising crop yields, providing proper

d) Drainage and preventing water logging and salination.

e) Full exploitation of potential resources for power generation.

f) Prevention of wastage and pollution.

g) Measures to check depletion of resources.

h) Purification of water and pollution control.

2.6 POLLUTION OF FRESHWATER STREAMS

22
Water pollution is any chemical, biological, or physical change in water quality that has a

harmful effect on living organisms or that makes water unsuitable for desired uses. Water

pollution is a large set of adverse effects upon water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans,

and groundwater caused by human activities. Flowing Streams can recover rapidly from

moderate levels of degradable, oxygen-demanding wastes and excess heat through a

combination of dilution and biodegradation of such wastes by bacteria. But this natural

recovery process does not work when streams are overloaded with pollutants or when

drought, damming, or water diversion for agriculture and industry reduce their flows. Also,

these natural dilution and biodegradation processes do not eliminate slowly degradable and

nondegradable pollutants (Miller and Hackett, 2008).

In a flowing stream, the breakdown of degradable wastes by bacteria depletes dissolved

oxygen and creates an oxygen sag curve. This reduces or eliminates populations of

organisms with high oxygen requirements until the stream is cleansed of wastes. The depth

and width of the oxygen sag curve and thus the time and distance needed for a stream to

recover depend on several factors. They include the volume of incoming degradable wastes

and the stream’s volume, flow rate, temperature, and pH level. Similar oxygen sag curves

can be plotted when heated water from industrial and power plants is discharged into

streams (Miller and Hackett, 2008).

2.6.1 Sources of pollution

Although natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes

also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water, water is only

called polluted when it is not able to be used for what one wants it to be used for. Water

23
pollution has many causes and characteristics. Increases in nutrient loading may lead to

eutrophication. Organic wastes such as sewage impose high oxygen demands on the

receiving water leading to oxygen depletion with potentially severe impacts on the whole

eco-system (Wikipedia, 2008). Industries discharge a variety of pollutants in their

wastewater including heavy metals, resin pellets, organic toxins, oils, nutrients, and solids.

Discharges can also have thermal effects, especially those from power stations, and these

too reduce the available oxygen. Silt-bearing runoff from many activities including

construction sites, deforestation and agriculture can inhibit the penetration of sunlight

through the water column, restricting photosynthesis and causing blanketing of the lake or

river bed, in turn damaging ecological systems (Miller and Hackett, 2008).

The level of dissolved Oxygen is related to the amount of oxygen-demanding wastes, so

called because they are broken down by oxygen-requiring bacteria, and plant nutrients in a
sample of water (Table 2). Scientists also measure the Biological Oxygen Demanding
(BOD), the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by aquatic decomposers (Miller and
Hackett, 2008).

Table 2: Water quality and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content in ppm at 20°C

Water Quality DO (ppm) at 20°C

Good 8-9
Slightly polluted 6.7-8

Moderately polluted 4.5-6.7

Heavily polluted <4.5

Gravely polluted <4

Source: Miller and Hackett (2008)

Point Sources discharge pollutants at specific locations through drainpipe, ditches, or

sewer lines into bodies of surface water. Examples include factories, sewage treatment

plants (which remove some but not all pollutants), underground mines, and oil tankers.

Because point sources are at specific places, they are easy to identify, monitor, and
24
regulate. Most developed countries control point-source discharges of many harmful

chemicals into aquatic systems. But there is little control of such discharges in most

developing countries (Miller and Hackett, 2008).

Non point Sources are scattered and diffuse and cannot be traced to any single site of

discharge. Examples include acid of deposition and runoff of chemicals into surface water

from croplands, livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses, and

parking lots. There has been little progress in controlling water pollution from non point

sources because of the difficulty and expense of identifying and controlling discharges

from so many diffuse sources (Miller and Hackett, 2008).

2.6.2 Major Categories of water pollutants

Pollutants in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical

chemistry or sensory changes (Brown and Barnwell, 1987). Table 3, lists the major classes

of water pollutants along with their major human sources and harmful effects. Note that

excessive heat is considered a water pollutant.

25
 Table 3: Major Categories of water pollutants

Pollutants Examples Sources Harmful effects

Infectious Bacteria, viruses, protozoa, Human and animal Disease.
Agents and parasitic worms. wastes.
Oxygen- Organic wastes such as Sewage, animal Large populations of bacteria decomposing
Demanding animal manure and plant feedlots, paper mills, these wastes can degrade water quality by
Wastes debris that can be and food processing depleting water of dissolved oxygen. This
decomposed by aerobic facilities. causes fish and other forms of oxygen-
(oxygen-requiring) consuming aquatic life to die.
bacteria.
Inorganic Water-soluble ; acids, Surface runoff, Can : (1) make freshwater unusable for drinking
Chemicals compounds of toxic metals industrial effluents, or irrigation, (2) cause skin cancers and
such as lead ,arsenic, and and household crippling spinal and neck damage, (3) damage
selenium, and salts such as cleansers. the nervous system, liver, and kidneys, (4) harm
sodium chloride in ocean fish and other aquatic life, (5) lower crop yields,
water and fluorides found and (6) accelerate corrosion of metals exposed
in some soils. to such water.
Organic Oil, gasoline, plastics, Industrial effluents, Can (1) threaten human health by causing
chemicals pesticides, cleaning household cleansers, nervous system damage (some pesticides),
solvents, detergents. surface runoff from reproductive disorders (some solvents), and
farms and yards. some cancers (gasoline, oil, and some solvents)
and (2) harm fish and wildlife.
PLant Water-soluble compounds Sewage, manure, and Can cause excessive growth of algae and other
Nutrients containing nitrate, runoff of agricultural aquatic plants, which die, decay, deplete water
phosphate, and ammonium and urban fertilizers. of dissolved oxygen, and kill fish. Drinking
ions. water with excessive nitrate lowers the oxygen-
carrying capacity of blood and can kill unborn
children and infants (‘blue baby syndrome ‘).
Sediment Soil, Silt Land erosion Can (1) cloud water and reduce photosynthesis,
(2) disrupt aquatic food webs, (3) carry
pesticides, bacteria, and other harmful
substances, (4) settle out and destroy feeding
and spawning grounds of fish, and (5) clog and
fill lakes, artificial reservoirs, stream channels,
and harbours.
Radioactive Radioactive isotopes of Nuclear and coal- Genetic mutations, miscarriages, birth defects,
Materials iodine, radon, uranium, burning power plants, and certain cancers.
caesium, and thorium. mining and processing
of uranium and other
ores, nuclear weapons
production, natural
sources.
26
Heat Excessive heat Water cooling of Lowers dissolved oxygen levels and makes
(Thermal electric power plants aquatic organisms more vulnerable to disease,
pollution) and some types of parasites, and toxic chemicals. When a power
industrial plants. plant first opens or shuts down for repair, fish
and other organisms adapted to a particular
temperature range can be killed by the abrupt
change in water temperature called thermal
shock.

Source: Adapted from Miller and Hackett (2008)

Typical diseases associated with water are listed in table 4 the common name of the disease
causative agent, and symptoms also are included.

Table 4: Common Diseases transmitted to Humans through contaminated Drinking water

Category and method Disease (and Causative agent) Symptoms

of contraction
Waterborne :ingesting Typhoid fever (Bacteria ;Salmonella Diarrhoea, severe vomiting,
contaminated water typhosa),cholera(Bacteria ;Vibrio enlarged spleen, inflamed
cholerae),Gastroenteritis(Virus ;enterovirus intestine, dehydration, jaundice
es), Giardiasis(Protozoan ;Giardia lamblia), fever ; all often fatal if untreated
Infectious hepatitis(Virus ;hepatits A virus),
Salmonellosis(Bacteria ;Salmonella),
Amoebic dysentery(or Amoebiasis),
Leptospirosis(Bacteria ;Leptospira) and
Shigellosis(Bacteria ;Shigella.)
Water-washed : washing Shigellosis(Bacteria ;Shigella), Mild to Severe diarrhea, skin
with contaminated water. Scabies(Mite), Trachoma(Virus) ulcers, eye inflamation, partial or
complete blindness .
Water based: worm Schistosomiasis(Worm ;Schistosomes), Tissue damage and blood loss in
infections water one Guinea Worm(Worm), Filariasis(Worm) bladder and intestinal venous
stage in cycle drainage, Arthritis of joints,
Blocking lymph nodes, permanent
damage to tissue.

Sources : Tchobanoglous (1985), as adapted from Hawkes (1971) and Salvato (1982).

These common diseases in Table 4 can be transmitted to humans through drinking water

contaminated with infectious agents. Each year, diarrhoea alone kills about 1.9million

people; 90% of them children under 5 in the developing countries. The number of children

27
killed by largely preventable diarrhoea in the past 10years is greater than the number of

people killed in all armed conflicts since World War II (Miller and Hackett, 2008).

2.6.3 Effects of Projected Climate change on Water Quality

Global warming projections include changes in precipitation; some areas will get much

more precipitation and other areas will get less. A moisture-laden atmosphere generates

more intense downpours, which can flush more harmful chemicals, plant nutrients, and

microorganisms into waterways. Massive flooding can spread disease-carrying pathogens

by contaminating water treatment facilities and wells. It can also cause lagoons that store

animal wastes, as well as sewer lines that carry both sewage and storm runoff, to overflow

and release raw sewage into rivers and streams (Miller and Hackett, 2008).

Prolonged drought can reduce river flows that dilute wastes. It can also spread infectious

diseases more rapidly among people who lack enough water to stay clean. Warmer water

temperatures can threaten aquatic life by reducing dissolved oxygen levels, and can

increase the growth rates of populations of harmful bacteria (Miller and Hackett, 2008).

2.6.4. Water Pollution Reduction Measures

In the UK there are common law rights (civil rights) to protect the passage of water across

land unfettered in either quality of quantity. Criminal laws dating back to the 16th century

exercised some control over water pollution but it was not until the River (Prevention of

pollution) Acts 1951 - 1961 were enacted that any systematic control over water pollution

was established. These laws were strengthened and extended in the Control of Pollution

Act 1984 which has since been updated and modified by a series of further acts. It is a

criminal offence to either pollute a lake, river, groundwater or the sea or to discharge any

liquid into such water bodies without proper authority. In England and Wales such

28
permission can only be issued by the Environment Agency and in Scotland by SEPA (UN,

2004).

In the USA, concern over water pollution resulted in the enactment of state anti-pollution

laws in the latter half of the 19th century, and federal legislation enacted in 1899. The

Refuse Act of the Federal Rivers and Harbours Act of 1899 prohibits the disposal of any

refuse matter from into either the nation's navigable rivers, lakes, streams, and other

navigable bodies of water, or any tributary to such waters, unless one has first obtained a

permit. The Water Pollution Act, passed in 1948, gave authority to the Surgeon General to

reduce water pollution (NJDEP, 2007).

Growing public awareness and concern for controlling water pollution led to enactment of

the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. As amended in 1977, this

law became commonly known as the Clean Water Act. The Act established the basic

mechanisms for regulating contaminant discharge. It established the authority for the

United States Environmental Protection Agency to implement wastewater standards for

industry. The Clean Water Act also continued requirements to set water quality standards

for all contaminants in surface waters (NJDEP, 2007).

29
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 LOCATION OF STUDY

The Buea municipality is divided into two health districts - the Buea Urban and the Buea

Rural Health Districts. A great majority of the over 100,000 inhabitants of Buea reside in

the Buea Urban Health District. This can be attributed to the availability of schools,

hospitals, good roads, water supply, recreational facilities and other social amenities. The

Buea Rural Health District constitutes the following localities; Bokova, Bova, Bokwai,

Bonakanda, Ewonda, Bwitingi and others. While Buea Town, Federal Quarters,

Bokwango, Clerks Quarters, Great Soppo, Bonduma, Molyko, Muea and Mile 17 are

within the Buea Urban Health District.

The Ndongo Stream is a minor inland freshwater body located in the heart of the Buea

municipality. Buea, a rural community (spreading at an altitude of between 900m from sea

level to 1100m on the slopes of mount Cameroon (Courade, 1970)) in the Fako Division, is

the political capital of the southwest province of Cameroon. Buea is a small town 69km

from Douala; 15km from Limbe; 28km from Muyuka; 75km from Kumba; and 315km

from Yaounde (Wala, 2002).It falls on latitude 4ْ۫ 09’N and 9ْ۫ 13’E with a population

density of 61 persons per sq. km (Matute, 2000).The Buea subdivision covers an area of

375sq.km with a total population of 140000inhabitants distributed in 70villages which are

all of Bakweri origin and of the Bantu stock (Matute, 2000). It has a cool humid climate

with a mean annual temperature of 25ْ۫ C and a mean annual rainfall of 2,850mm. The

rainy season starts generally in March and ends in November while the dry season begins

30
from December to march (Courade, 1970). Buea is characterized by a rugged topography

and very fertile volcanic soil good for agriculture.

The stretch of the Ndongo Stream in the Buea Municipality lies between latitudes

04°09.378’N to 04°08.061N and longitudes 009°16.284’E to 009°18.356’E of the equator.

It flows at a bearing of 117° northeast from Lower Bonduma (Bokoko) down southeast

through Molyko, Mile 17, Bulu and finally into another stream at Mile 16 (Bolifamba). In

the north, the stream is flanked by the Bokoko locality and in the south by Bolifamba.

Although the entire Ndongo Stream flows from Lower Bonduma and empties its content at

the Tiko Creek, the portion of the Stream that flows through half of the Buea Urban Health

District was chosen as study area (reason being that its population size of the human

settlement bordering the stream is constantly rising as well as its waste) considering parts

of Bonduma, Molyko and Mile 17 as case studies. The Ndongo stream takes its rise from

the slope of a minor hill (as a spring) carrying the Fakoship Residence in Bokoko (or

Lower Bonduma) (approximately 200m west of the Mile 17 – Buea Town Road). The

stream flows north to south from Lower Bonduma (or Bokoko), through Molyko; it

branches off in Mile 17 to Bulu and finally continues as a larger stream in Mile 16

(Bolifamba). These localities, which form the agricultural and educational powerhouse of

the Buea municipality apparently, constitute the most densely populated areas of the

Municipality. The map showing some of the main localities of Buea and the study site is

presented in fig 2.

3.2 Significance of the stream

A glaring evidence of the stream’s importance is in the Ndongo quarter in Molyko which

got its name from the stream. Besides the streams provides for the water needs of 1/3 of the

31
population of Buea (i.e. about 33,333inhabitants.) Moreover majority of the localities

bordering the stream depend largely on the stream for various needs such as agricultural,

domestic and domestic activities.

Fig 2: Map showing some of the main localities of Buea and the study site
32
Interestingly too, given the rapid urbanization in these localities, large volumes of water

collected from the stream is being channelled to construction activities; such the

construction of houses (particularly in the Molyko neighbourhood with the construction of

Hostels). There also exist enclosed sections along the stream profile which serve as car-

wash points.

The stream profile in most of the localities is also gradually being transformed into a

community waste dump. “To add insult to injury”, during water shortages in some

localities particularly in Molyko, Mile 17 and Bolifamba there stream is being used as

open toilets. All of these activities have grave impacts on the water quality of the stream.

3.3 FIELD SURVEY AND SAMPLING

3.3.1. Questionnaires

A total of 90 semi-structured questionnaires were administered to randomly chosen

households; 20 in Lower Bonduma (Bokoko), 30 in Molyko, 20 in Mile 17, 20 in Mile 16

(Dibanda). The respondents were people of all age groups and of all works of life.

Information to be provided in the questionnaires was about the anthropogenic and natural

activities taking place at the stream and their various impacts on its water quality. It also

unveiled the people’s attitude towards the stream vis-à-vis local water quality management

measures.

In the course of administering the questionnaires, the areas were also surveyed to see

firsthand the various activities carried out by those living by the stream. Some

photographs of striking activities were taken.

33
3.3.2. Interviews and Discussions

The interviews were carried out with persons in charge of Waste Management and

Pollution Control at the Rural Council to find out the council’s role in improving the water

quality of the stream. Discussions were held with Health Practitioners at Solidarity Clinic

and Divine Providence Clinic in Molyko to have an insight of the incidence and prevalence

of water related diseases from the patients they get.

3.3.3. Water sample collection

The course of the stream was sampled at the SOURCE, MID COURSE, AND LOWER

COURSE with these points marked using a GPS for exact location on a map. The water

samples were collected from the following points:

• SOURCE (in Bokoko) Elevation of 652m above sea level

Latitude 04°09.378’N

Longitude 009°16.284’E

• MID COURSE (in Molyko) Elevation of 568m above sea level

Latitude 04°09.071’N

Longitude 009°17.292’E

• LOWER COURSE (in Mile 16) Elevation of 472m above sea level

Latitude 04°08.061’N

Longitude 009°18.356’E

The water samples from the stream were collected in containers using the following

procedure;

Wearing protective gloves, the cap of the sampling container was removed. The sampling

container was then rinsed 2-3 times with the stream water and then it was plunged

34
(opening downward) below the water surface. The submerged container was turned into

the current and water was allowed to flow into it for 30seconds. The full container was

capped while submerged and was immediately removed from the stream.

3.4 WATER ANALYSES

The physico-chemical assessments were carried out immediately in the field while samples

were then taken to the laboratory for analysis of the biological parameters.

3.4.1 Physico - chemical assessment

These were carried out in the field using the World Water Monitoring Day Kit

(manufactured by LaMotte) containing: a thermometer, container for water sample

collection, Secchi disk icon sticker, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) bottle (0125), pH Test tube

(0106), DO Test Tabs (3976A), pH Test Tabs (6459A), DO Chart, pH Chart, Turbidity

Chart.

a) Temperature

The thermometer used had an adhesive back which was stuck to the sampling container

and submerged 10cm below the water surface for one minute. The container and

thermometer were removed from the water and the temperature read and recorded.

b) Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

First the temperature of the water sample was measured and recorded. The DO bottle

(0125) was submerged into the water sample. The bottle was carefully removed from the

water sample, keeping it full. Two DO Tes Tabs (3976A) were dropped into the bottle.

Water overflowed when the tablets were added. The cap was then screwed on and more

water overflowed as the cap was tightened. Care was taken so to prevent bubbles from

35
entering into the sample. It was then mixed by inverting the tube over and over until the

tablets had dissolved. The sample was allowed for five more minutes for the colour to

develop and then this colour was compared to the DO colour Chart. The results were

recorded in ppm.

To confirm the results obtained from the above method, the Winkler’s Titration method

was also used in the field. Here the oxygen bottle was rinsed several times with the sample

and filled until it overflowed.

• Four drops of Oxygen 1 were added.

• Four drops of Oxygen 2 were added.

• The bottle was closed with the stopper and mixed by shaking.

• After two minutes twelve drops of Oxygen 3 were added. The bottle was closed and

shaken again until the deposit is dissolved.

• The test tube was rinsed with solution from point ‘5’ and was then filled u to the ring

mark.

• One drop of oxygen 4 was added. The solution became blue-grey to light blue.

• The dropping tip was placed on the titration syringe. The Plunger was pressed down,

the tip was then dipped into the Titration solution TLSA 10 and the Plunger was drawn

back slowly until the lower edge of the black Plunger seal was level with value zero on

the scale. The small air cushion under the Plunger did not affect the determination.

Adding the titration solution

The syringe was held in the left hand and the test tube in the right; then the titration

solution was added slowly drop by drop, and at the same time the test tube was swirled

lightly until the test solution was completely colourless. Just before the end of the titration,

the solution changed colour to light blue. The final change to colourless was well followed

36
against a white background. The oxygen content in mg/L was read-off from the syringe

barrel (lower rim of the black plunger O-ring.) The titration was not carried out too slowly.

After the end of the titration, another colour change back to blue was ignored.

C) pH

• The test tube (0106) was filled to the 10ml line with the water sample.

• Open pH Wide Range Tes Tab (6459A) was added.

• The test tube was caped and mixed by inverting until the tablet has disintegrated. Bits

of material still remained in the sample.

• The colour of the sample was compared to the pH colour Chart. The result was

recorded as pH.

D) Turbidity

I. Using the Secchi disk icon method:

• The backing from the Secchi disk icon sticker was removed.

• The sticker was adhered on the inside bottom of the large white jar (kit container). The

sticker was positioned slightly off centre.

• The jar was filled to the turbidity line located on the outside kit label.

• The turbidity Chart was held on the top edge of the jar. Looking down into the jar, the

appearance of the secchi disk icon in the jar was compared to the chart. The result was

recorded as turbidity in JTU.

II. Using the Turbidity tube and meter rule method:

• A Transparency tube with one end open and the other end closed with a patch.

37
• A quantity of the water sample was poured into the transparency tube and carefully

observed from the open to end of the tube, with the unaided eye.

• The point where the white patch at the bottom of the tube just disappears was noted and

read-off (in cm) at the meter rule.

• Alternatively, the tube then filled to the brim with water sample. The water was then

removed gradually until the point where the white patch just reappeared. This was also

read-off (in cm) using the meter rule.

• The average of both readings was calculated and this value gave the level of

Transparency of the water sample.

• Nevertheless, in cases where the white patch at the bottom of the tube was still seen

when the tube was filled to the brim, then the clarity was greater than 117cm, so the

water was considered clear.

E) Nitrate Nitrogen (0-1mg/L)

• One of the colour viewing tubes was filled to the mark with the sample to be tested.

The tube was stoppered and shaken vigorously. The tube was emptied and the

procedure repeated.

• The colour viewing tube was filled to the mark with the sample.

• The clippers were used to open to one NitraVer 6 Reagent powder pillow. The contents

of the pillow were added to the sample to be tested. The tube was stoppered and shaken

for three minutes. The sample was allowed to stand undisturbed for an additional

30seconds. Unoxidized articles of cadmium metal remained in the sample and settled

to the bottom of the viewing tube.

• The prepared sample was poured into a second colour viewing tube carefully so that

the cadmium particles remained in the first tube.

38
• The Clippers were used to open one NitriVer3 Nitrite reagent powder pillow. The

contents of the pillow were added to the sample. The tube was stoppered and shaken

for 30 seconds. A record colour developed if nitrate was resent. It was allowed for at

least 10minutes, but not more than 20minutes, before completing steps 6 through 8.

• The tube of the prepared sample was inserted into the right to opening of the colour

comparator.

• The unoxidized cadmium metal was rinsed from the colour viewing tube used in Step

2. The tube was filled to the mark with the original water sample and placed in the left

top opening of the comparator.

• The Comparator to a light source such as the sky, a window or lamp and viewed

through the openings in front. The disc was rotated to obtain a colour match. The

results as mg/L nitrate were obtained by multiplying the reading on the scale by 4.4.

F) Stream flow Rate

The method involved using a measuring tape, buoyant material (floating leaf), vertical

sticks and stop watch.

• A 10m straight profile was found along the stream’s course.

• The width across this profile was measured with measuring tape from bank to bank.

• Vertical sticks were placed at various distances from both stream banks in a straight

line across the profile.

• The depth of water at the points where the sticks were pinned was measured and the

cross sectional area was measured.

• A leaf was then released at one end of the profile and using a sto pwatch the time it

takes to get to the other end of the profile (covering a distance of 10m) was measured

in seconds.

39
• The velocity of the leaf was calculated.

• With the velocity and the cross sectional area of the profile, the Discharge rate was then

calculated.

To ensure a high degree of accuracy for the results, each of the measurements and tests

were performed thrice, all the realized values recorded and then averaged, to get a

representative of the true value.

3.4.2 Biological Assessment

Determination of the presence of faecal Coliform bacteria in water samples from the

source and mid course of the Ndongo stream.

• 1.56g of Lactose was weighed and dissolved in 60ml of distilled water in a conical

flask (single Strength) and was shaken for it to dissolve.

• Another 1.56g of Lactose was weighed and dissolved in 30ml of distilled water in

another conical flask (Double Strength) and was well shaken.

• The conical flasks were covered with cotton wool. They were sterilized in a pressure

pot using the heat source (Bunsen flame) at 121°C for 15minutes.

• 18 test tubes were placed on a test tube rack in 3series.

• The 10ml Double Strength Lactose Broth (DSLB) was poured into each of the 6 test

tubes which constitute the first series.

• The 10ml Single Strength Lactose Broth (SSLB) was poured into each of the 12 test

tubes of series 2 and 3 (i.e.6 for each of the series).

• Durham tubes were inverted in all the test tubes to trap gas in case of growth of

organisms in lactose broth.

• The test tubes were tightly covered with cotton wool.

40
• The test tubes were then placed in a beaker and were sterilized in the pressure pot at

121°C for 15minutes, after which they were removed from the pressure pot and

allowed to cool.

• A bold marker was used to label the test tubes according to the amount of water sample

that was to be dispensed to it: 10ml in each of the test tubes of series 3, 1.0ml in each

test tube of series 2 and 0.1ml in each of the tubes of series 3 respectively.

• Each of the bottles containing the water samples to be tested was mixed by shaking 25

times.

• A 10ml pipette was used to transfer 10ml of water sample to each of the DSLB tubes.

• A 1.0ml pipette was used to transfer 1.0ml of water sample to each of the series 2 test

tubes and, 0.1ml to each of the series 3 SSLB tubes.

• This was done strictly observing septic conditions observing.

• The tubes were then incubated at 35°C for 24hours.

• The tubes were then examined and the number of tubes in each series with 10% gas or

more was recorded.

• The MPN was determined by referring to the MPN Global standard for examination of

Water and Wastewater.

• The data was recorded

3.5 Data Analysis

Simple descriptive methods such as frequency tables were used to analyze responses to

questionnaires. Microsoft Excel was used in setting up Frequency tables and graphs, pie

charts, bar charts, which were used for data presentation.

41
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Maps locating the study area

The study area is shown though not with details of the sampling points in the Map of Buea

(Fig 2). With the aid of a GPS device a map of the study area was designed with visible

details of water samples collection points (fig 3).

Fig 3: Map of the study area showing visible details of water sample collection points on

the Ndongo Stream, Buea

42
4.2 ANTHROPOGENIC AND NATURAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE WATER

QUALITY OF THE NDONGO STREAM.

A total of 90 questionnaires were administered to randomly chosen households in the

quarters (or segments) of the study area. The methodology applied was for efficient

administration and easy recovery of all the 90 questionnaires. Data provided by

respondents about their ages, Literacy levels, number of individuals per household and

their daily water consumption, waste generation and disposal techniques, Domestic uses of

the stream, activities at the stream and possible sources of water pollution are represented

in the following figures, tables and plates.

4.2.1 The people’s attitude towards the stream as a function of age and literacy level

The various age groups sampled (see fig 4) may reflect the actual age structure of the

human communities near the Ndongo stream.

Fig 4: Percentage of Respondents within the various age groups

43
Of all the 90 Respondent households, majority of them belonged to the age group 25-

34years (i.e. 35.6%), followed by the age group 15-24years (i.e. 30%), then those of ages

35 and above (i.e. 22.22%), while individuals of ages less than 15 formed the minority

group (i.e. 20%) (Fig 4). This variation can be explained by the following parameters;

period of sampling, target age group for valid information and literacy level (see fig 5).

Firstly the questionnaire sampling was carried out as from 3:30p.m when most of the

workers returned home. The majority group being the active group and the most literate, it

is most likely that individuals of this group be present at the time of sampling. In addition

it is obvious since they constitute the most literate group they will definitely form the

target group for reliable information. Those of the minority group only got the opportunity

to be interviewed in the absence of all elderly individuals of the household, hence the

reason for their low percentage.

The literacy level of the people living by the stream is presented in fig 5.

Fig 5: Literacy levl of the Respondents

44
The Literacy level of respondents was measured at 40.0%, educated above high school

level, 42.2% were between Form one and High school and 5.6% represented the illiterates

(see fig 5). From this it can be expected that a reasonable majority are aware of

environmental issues and the effect of their activities on the environment (in this case the

water quality of the stream). Hence full dissemination of recommendations concerning

remedial techniques on water quality management would also be expected to be easy.

4.2.2 Anthropogenic Activities around the Ndongo stream

Household size water consumption

. Water consumption/day varies with the number of individuals in each household as can be

seen in fig 6.

Fig 6: Household size and daily water consumption around the Ndongo stream

45
Basically about 95.5% of those living in the locality bordering the stream, depend on tap

water treated and distributed by SNEC (National Water Corporation) for drinking and

culinary activities. Everybody (100%) admitted using water from the stream for one

activity or the other.

From fig 6, households harbouring 4-7 individuals had the highest proportion (39%), while

those with 11-14 individuals had the lowest (11%). These varying water consumption

patterns coincide with the standards set aside by UNESCO (1975), as normal for daily

human consumption. Most households admitted consuming larger water quantities from

the stream (particularly during periods of water shortages) for domestic purposes than tap

water because it is cheap, available, accessible and easily affordable.

Waste generation and disposal by those living by the stream

The characterisation of the wastes generated around the stream is presented in fig 7.

Plastics
11.0%
17.4%
Papers

Glass

Metals
24.8%
Sweepings(yard
19.3%
waste)
Ash

Food waste
2.3%
5.5%
3.7% Waste water
16.1%

Fig 7: Types of wastes generated by households in the localities bordering the stream

46
The data gathered from the households sampled, showed that above 77.7% harboured

more than 3 persons (fig 7). The number of persons per household may reflect the amount

of household waste generated which is at an increase. The rapid population growth is a

significant factor behind the poor environmental sanitation around the stream and in Buea

at large. One reason for this may be because of urban drift given that Buea municipality is

rapidly urbanizing for greener pastures and better facilities. This in agreement with Jimoh

and Ifabiyi (2000) who came to the conclusion that urban drift geared towards the

development of any rural setting is accompanied by a reasonable increase in wasteful

activities. It was observed that littering was a problem too, as people were spotted dropping

dirt just anywhere (including the stream as noticed in Molyko). This explains why the

municipal streets and the streams are increasingly becoming poor in aesthetics.

As shown in fig 7, 24.8% of the respondents believed that food waste constituted the

greatest proportion of residential wastes generated. This could be attributed to that fact

that culinary activities and feeding are inevitable, on a daily basis, in every household. The

plastics are rapidly becoming a significant part of the waste stream, as shopping activities

are on the rise. These plastics are discarded after use and it reduces the waste ability to be

used as good compost and may finally end up in the stream. Waste water from laundry

activities, washing kitchen utensils and above all bathrooms also constitute part of the

waste stream. In addition sweepings produced after household chores end up in the stream

in diverse ways. Waste waters from baths and poorly drained laundries can be a breeding

ground for disease vectors especially mosquitoes that cause malaria. This water when

stagnant presents an ugly sight and exudes pungent smells.

47
Before disposal, over 60.0% of households sampled practiced safer ways of keeping their

waste before disposal. This they did using porous bags or buckets with lids. Those who

used buckets without lids exposed the waste to flies and other disease vectors that could

enter their homes, contaminate food or water and spreading diseases such as typhoid,

cholera, malaria, amoebiasis and others.

The various waste disposal methods can be seen in fig 8.

Fig 8: Waste disposal methods employed by the residents along the Ndongo Stream

The period of time the waste spends at the home before disposal matters, as those with

high organic content, will begin to decay, releasing an unpleasant stench, attracting more

flies, rats and other organisms that feed on it. Some 89% of the 90 homes sampled had

particular spots behind their homes where they disposed their waste, some in dug holes

(see fig 8). This is not a bad option for those who control these dumps, but as observed,

48
some were poorly sited, overfilled dug hole and measures to control or cover it were not

pre-designed (as seen in Plate 1).

Plate 1: Poorly sited dumps at residences along the Ndongo stream

This was the case in and around some students’ residential areas in Molyko. In addition, a

significant portion of those who disposed their waste behind their houses did so directly

into the Ndongo Stream (see plate 2).

Plate 2: Waste disposal into a portion of the stream flowing behind a sampled household.

Those who did some level of composting where at the right track of waste reduction – the

first steps in domestic waste management as recommended by Wentz (1998). This is

49
beneficial to them as it enriches their farms since many of them disposed the degradable

directly to their farms. Burying was not really in practice as disposal method.

The community dump sites were most commonly used as the last stage of disposal by 55%

of the community. These community dumps do not follow laid down principles for siting

them but are decided by the nature or topography of Buea, or just at a ‘convenient’ place in

the locality.

Roadside dumps are observably and increasingly becoming a problem in the localities

bordering the Ndongo Stream as 50% of the people admitted to this practice. People find

just anywhere to empty their household waste along roadsides.

4.2.3 Anthropogenic Activities on the stream

Domestic uses of the Ndongo Stream

Water can be collected from the stream for various uses as seen in fig 9.

Fig 9: Uses of water carried from the Ndongo stream

50
With respect to domestic activities above 75% of the population living near the stream

testified to the utilization of water from the stream. Considering this sector of water use,

the various sub-activities such as; laundry, drinking, culinary activities and bathing were

considered to be utilized by 77%, 50%, 57% and 79% respectively those living by the

stream (see fig 9). Water collection from the stream, for drinking and other domestic uses

can be seen in plate 3.

Plate 3: Collection of Drinking water.

Other uses such as watering of gardens, domestic pets, construction works and irrigation

of farmlands occupy 76%, 36%, 80% and 25% respectively.

During the process of water collection for the above uses, those involved could have

possibly altered the water quality and quantity of the stream.

Direct uses of the stream

Activities carried out directly on the stream can be seen in fig 10.

51
Fig 10: Anthropogenic and natural activities on the stream

Activities such as fishing by 5%, irrigation by 27%, stream laundry by 65%, stream

bathing by 28%, toilet use by 5%, Car wash by 3%, Waste Dumping by 45% and the

mixing of agrochemicals by 5% of the population respectively. All these anthropogenic

activities alter the physico-chemical parameter of the stream, hence affecting its water

quality. Stream laundry, bathing and car washing can be seen in plates 4, 5 and 6

respectively.

52
Plate 4: Laundry exercise at the Ndongo Stream

Plate 5: Bathing in the Ndongo stream

53
 Plate 6: Washing of cars in the Ndongo Stream

4.2.4 Natural Activities on the stream

From fig 10, 70%, 5%, 15% and 12% of the population admitted to the effects of rainfall,

Temperature changes, Soil creeps and Decomposition respectively on the Physical,

chemical and biological composition of the stream. These natural activities could possibly

alter the water quality of the stream.

4.3 WATER POLLUTION SOURCES

The various sources of water pollution are categorised into point and Non-point Sources as

in fig 11 below.

54
 Point Sources Non Point Sources

Fig 11: Stream pollution sources of the Ndongo stream

4.3.1 Point Sources

These include specific or easily identifiable sources of pollution. Waste dumping

(including sewage from kitchen drainage pipes) is practised by 34% of the population as

opposed 6% who testified to the deposition of faecal pellets and sewage from toilets into

the stream (see fig 11). These wastes could be the possible reason for the rampant water-

borne disease outbreaks in the localities around the stream.

Six percent of the people admitted soil creep (especially the stream’s banks) is also a

source of pollution.

55
The influx into the stream of ground particles from these creeps could possibly account for

the turbidity of the stream and its flooding of neighbouring farmlands especially affect

heavy rains.

4.3.2 Non-Point Sources

These are diffused sources and are highly episodic. Agricultural land runoffs, Roadside

Runoffs, Pesticide Droplets and Construction site runoffs were found to contribute 24%,

18%, 27% and 15% respectively to stream pollution. Plate 7 shows pesticide droplet as a

potential source of pollution.

Plate 7: Pesticide droplets from a nearby tomato farm

4.4 HEALTH STATUS AROUND THE NDONGO STREAM

Below are bar charts for monthly water-related disease incidence obtained from Divine

Providence and Solidarity Clinics all in Molyko, as in fig 12, 13 and 14.

56
57
Fig 12, 13 and 14: Monthly Report on Water-related diseases in Solidarity Clinic Molyko

(For February, March and April).

Although the stream’s water quality is poor and it may contain reasonable concentrations

of pollutants and breeding sites for the causative agents of water-related diseases such as

Filariasis, Malaria, Typhoid and Diarrhoea; its only redeeming grace is that, there no

recorded lethal cases as in figs 12, 13 and 14.

Children under five years of age, were found in march to be the most vulnerable age group

to Typhoid, diarrhoea and other water-related diseases (fig 12), but had no registered case

in April of this diseases (fig 13) probably due to the implementation and enforcement of

medical measures to combat these diseases and fully prevent their incidence through

vaccination. There was a sudden rise of these diseases in this age group (fig 14) probably

due to the myopic nature of the prevention campaign.

58
The above data obtained for water-borne diseases for February, March, and April 2008,

show a remarkable fluctuation from one month to another, and from the hot dry season to

cool rainy season. The diseases under study include Diarrhoea, Typhoid fever,

Schistosomiasis, cholera and Intestinal worms.

From fig 12, 13 and 14 above, it is quite evident that water-borne diseases spread and

prevail more in the hot dry season (early march) when water is scarce and expensive,

causing the users to resort to dirty and often untreated stream water for cooking and

drinking.

Fig 15 below demonstrates annual % prevalence of water diseases around the stream.

Fig 15: % Prevalence of water related disease around the Ndongo stream

Fig 15 shows the percentage prevalence of common water–related diseases over the last

three years (i.e. 2005, 2006, and 2007). Diarrhoea was found to be the most prevalent with

70%, Typhoid (25%), Dysentery (15%), Cholera (10%) and finally Schistosomiasis (5%).

59
4.5 Results of Physico-Chemical Analysis

Tables 5 and 6 below present a comparison of the physico-chemical parameters of the

stream’s water quality.

i) Table 5: Physical and Chemical parameters of the Ndongo stream for Early March

(Dry season)

Stations Samples Dissolved Oxygen Water pH Nitrite Clarity

(s) (DO) Level Temperature (mg/L)
(mg/L) (ppm) (°C) (cm) (JTU)
Source S1 7.0 7.0 22 6.7 0.19
S2 6.6 6.6 23 7.0 0.19
S3 7.2 7.2 24 6.4 0.19
Average 6.9 6.9 23 6.7 0.19 >117 0
Mid S1 6.6 6.6 24 7.5 0.47
S2 6.4 6.4 25 8.5 0.45
Course
S3 6.4 6.4 26 8.6 0.49
Average 6.5 6.5 25 8.2 0.47 70.4 40
Lower S1 6.2 6.2 26 8.2 0.58
S2 6.2 6.2 26 8.3 0.56
course
S3 6.0 6.0 26 8.4 0.54
Average 6.1 6.1 26 8.3 0.56 57.5 45

The results in Table 5 above, the temperature increases from the source through the mid

course to the lower course of the stream. Given the high specific heat capacity of water,

this change is quite gradual (23, 25 and 26°C respectively).This temperature change

though quite infinitesimal, has mild effects on the ecological quality of the stream given its

effects on the Dissolved Oxygen Level (i.e. Temperature is inversely proportional to

Dissolved Oxygen level). This quite evident in the reports showing a systematic drop in

‘fish catch’ of recent provided by some subsistence fishermen.

The change in transparency along the stream’s course is very significant as it shows a non

discrete drop from the source through the mid course to the lower course, i.e. from

>117cm, through 70.4cm to 57.5cm respectively. This gives an indication of the Total

Dissolved Solids (TDS) and the Total Suspended Solids (TSS) content at the source, mid

and lower courses of the stream. This is expected as the effects of the activities (natural and

anthropogenic) on the stream are on an increase down its course. However, the variations
60
are so exorbitant that the aspect of sedimentation of particulate settling in water bodies is

properly handled. Furthermore, natural and anthropogenic activities contributing to the

turbidity of the stream include; soil particles from the creeping slopes bordering the stream,

soil particles from the eroding banks and bed of the stream as it flows, and runoffs from

agricultural sites, construction sites automobile garage, direct waste dumping, and bathing,

washing of clothes and automobiles at the stream.

The pH of the stream shows a change from slightly acidic through neutral conditions at the

source to slightly alkaline at the mid and lower courses; i.e. 6.7, 8.2, and 8.3 respectively.

The pH of the water at the source depicts the water is slightly affected by the geology of

the area for it flows from an underground aquifer. This pH falls within permissible WHO

standards for drinking water and culinary activities.

Like the investigated parameters above, the Dissolved Oxygen Level of the stream is on a

decrease down the stream’s course, i.e. 6.9mg/L at the source, 6.5mg/L at the mid course

and 6.1mg/L at the lower course. This as mentioned earlier is due to increasing

temperatures down the stream. Moreover given the increased microbial activity

(particularly Oxygen demanding bacterial action) down the stream’s profile.

The gradual but steady increase in the nitrate concentration from the source through the

mid to the lower course (i.e. 0.19mg/L, 0.47mg/L and 0.56mg/L respectively) is a clear

indication of the addition of plant nutrients and washing agents into the water body.

Fertilizers applied in gardens and farms close to the stream in all the localities bordering

the stream in the Buea municipality are washed off or leached into the stream. The values

are infinitesimal. In some localities plants such as Cocoyams and Colocasia are planted

directly in the stream. These crops pick up some of the available nutrients (leached nitrates

61
inclusive). This may be the reason for the almost negligible nitrate level despite the

increased utilization of the stream for nitrate-related activities such as irrigation, washing

and laundry.

During field survey, it was observed as the day goes by from the cool mornings through

the hot afternoons to the warm evenings; the change in the water parameters of the stream

is quite significant; i.e. there were increments in temperature, pH, and nitrate level through

the day, and a decrease in transparency and dissolved oxygen.

To investigate the variation in the water quality through the seasons, a second set of data

was collected after rain must have fallen for a couple of times. The data was collected in

early April.

Table 6: Physical and Chemical parameters of the Ndongo Stream for Early April

(Rainy season)

Stations Samples Dissolved Oxygen Water pH Nitrite Clarity

(s) (DO) Level Temperature (mg/L)
mg/L (ppm) (°C) (cm) (JTU)
Source S1 6.6 6.6 23 6.9 0.23
>117 0
S2 6.5 6.5 24 6.9 0.22
S3 6.4 6.4 25 6.9 0.24
Average 6.5 6.5 24 6.9 0.23
Mid S1 6.2 6.2 27 6.5 0.50
Course 80.4 35
S2 6.3 6.3 26 6.7 0.53
S3 6.1 6.1 25 6.9 0.47
Average 6.2 6.2 26 6.7 0.50
Lower S1 5.9 5.9 27 6.4 0.70
Course 59.5 47
S2 5.8 5.8 26 6.4 0.72
S3 5.7 5.7 28 6.4 0.71
Average 5.8 5.8 27 6.4 0.71

Following results from Table 6, there is an appreciable change in the values obtained. With

the advent of the rains series of bio-physico-chemical changes due to the nature of the

62
aerosols in the atmosphere, dissolved and brought down by the rain during particle fusion,

condensation and ultimate precipitation.

There is a slight increase in the average temperature of the stream’s source water from

23°C in the dry season to 24°C after the rains. One would have expected a decrease due to

the cooling nature of the incoming water. This is however not the case because the rain

cools the atmosphere as it falls, thus absorbing its heat content which it then pours down

into the stream, increasing its temperature. Same holds for the mid and lower course of the

stream, all with an appreciable increase of 1°C.

There is no change in the transparency of the various samples. There may have been a

change, as one expects that the rain would wash down the aerosols in the atmosphere,

which in streams will perturb its transparency. The scale of the transparency tube however

gives no room for examining higher values >117cm of transparency.

There is a general slight decrease in pH, thus increase in acidity. This can be explained by

the presence of acid gases of nitrogenous and sulphurous nature, which may have

emanated from the small-scale agricultural activity in the municipality. This when

dissolved in the rainwater may cause acid rain especially at the beginning of the rainy

season when much of these gases prevail in the atmosphere.

The dissolved Oxygen concentration and nitrite levels remain approximately constant with

very small difference. The small difference of about 0.1 and 0.03mg/L respectively, is not

negligible if the impact on the water quality is considered.

iii) Results of measurement of Discharge/year of the Ndongo Stream

Distance considered= 10m

63
Time taken for experiment= 31.67s

Velocity of buoyant leaf =Velocity of stream (V) = Distance covered

Time taken
=10m = 0.32m/s
31.67s

Cross sectional area (A) = 2825sq.cm = 0.2825sq.m

The discharge (Q) = VA

= 0.32m/s x 0.2825sq.m

= 9.04 x 10-2m/s

For a year,

Q = 9.04x10-2 x 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60

= 2.853 x 106 m/yr

The discharge rate of a water body give a clear indication of the annual volume water

supply especially to those who depend on it for livelihood. The discharge rate is also a

powerful and reliable indicator of water quality, as it expresses the rate of reoxygenation

and self purification of the stream due to aeration. In addition this unveils the mystery

behind the Turbidity in the stream.

4.6. Results of Biological Analysis

Fig 16: Pie Chart showing the abundance of organisms found in the stream.

From fig 16 above, Algae is the most abundant visible organism particularly along the

stream’s course close to student hostels in Molyko. Excessive algal blooms can result in
64
supersaturated oxygen conditions in the daytime and anaerobic conditions at night. Algae

also affect water quality, since some algae cause tastes and odours in natural water. In

addition, some algae can obtain carbon from the bicarbonates and carbonates in natural

waters. The pH of the water generally increases as the bicarbonates are used. Some algae

also can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and may grow in site of control of nitrogen

sources.

Pond skaters, tadpoles, crabs and grasses are the next in terms of abundance in the stream.

They are also permanent residents of the stream. They contribute to the water quality as

well through their individual or group (interspecific and intraspecific associations) actions.

They are very good indicators of water quality as their abundance and distribution depict

levels of the various physico-chemical parameters of the stream.

Finally at the rest of the organisms; lizards, birds, and insects are not permanent residents

of the stream, but their activities mostly hamper water quality. Their effect is most apparent

in view of microbiological parameters as they also contribute to fecal coliform in the

stream.

Table 7 shows the faecal coliform count of the Ndongo stream

Table 7: Results of the determination of water purity by measuring the Most

Probable Number (MPN) of Fecal Coliform in the Ndongo Stream.

Water samples Number of tubes with 10% gas or more in the 3 series MPN Index per
Series 1 (10ml in Series 2 (1.0ml in Series 3 (0.1ml in
100ml
each tube) each tube) each tube)
Source 3 3 2 1,100
Mid Course 3 3 3 >1,100

From Table 7 above the faecal Coliform count Test performed for samples from the

stream’s source and mid course showed MPN of 1,100 faecal Coliform per 100ml of water

and >1,100 faecal Coliform per 100ml of water respectively. Comparing these with the
65
WHO standards (1990) for Drinking water this implies the Ndongo Stream is heavily

polluted. Since the population around the stream depends on it for their water needs, the

mystery behind the unceasing and increasing prevalence and incidence of water-borne

diseases (especially those arising from drinking this water) is unveiled.

Air produced by Coliform accumulated in the Durham tubes. The Broth became more

turbid (cloudy) at the end of the exercise indicating the proliferation of Coliforms. Below

in table 8 is an inventory of the various sources of fecal Coliform in the stream.

Table 8: Estimated Per Capita Contribution of Indicator Microorganisms from

Humans and Some Animals

Average indicator organisms, Average contribution, per

Animal number/g faeces (Faecal capita/24hr (faecal Coliform)
Coliform) 106 106

Human 13.0 2000

Chicken 1.3 240

Cow 0.23 5,400

Duck 33.0 11,000

Pig 3.3 8,900

Sheep 16.0 18,000

Turkey 0.29 130

4.7 Existing and proposed Water Quality Remediation techniques

Table 9, shows the various proposals for and existing measures implemented by those

living near Ndongo for water quality management.

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Table 9: Various proposals, by people living nearby the Ndongo stream, to improve water
quality in the stream

Proposals to improve water quality Percentage (%)

Disinfect or/and boil stream water before use 92

Ensure there is constant water supply for everybody 23

Sensitize the public on common water treatment options 21

Only “grown-ups should fetch from the stream to ensure good hygiene 33

Clean all the water fetching points of stream 16

Discourage all forms of waste dumping in and around the stream 75

To include environmental education in all schools 45

Discourage farming and the use of agrochemicals close to the stream 55

From Table 9, 92% of the population practise boiling and disinfection of stream water as a

sound domestic method of making it good for drinking, while the rest of the proposed

measures represent approaches for on-site stream water quality management

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

Water resources globally are facing tremendous and ever-increasing pressures. The

population of the world has more than tripled over the last century, presenting a major

challenge particularly in the water sector, to governments around the world (Cosgrove and

Rijsberman). Environmental degradation and hydrological variability, urbanization and

industrialization have compounded the challenges. Disputes resulting from competing

demands between uses and users at the local, district, provincial, national and international

levels keep multiplying.

The Ndongo Stream passes through 6 localities of the Buea municipality as indicated on

the map of the study site (fig 1) above: Bokoko, Molyko, Mile 17 and Bolifamba. As such,

much of the quality stream is affected by the socio-economic activities of the inhabitants.

Drinking, cooking, washing, laundry, plant watering, are amongst the most inevitable

domestic uses of water from the stream. Washing and laundry (particularly at the stream)

pose more problems since they are exhibited directly in the stream and all the waste

released at the end of the exercise affects the water quality rendering the stream unable to

satisfy its designed uses. With the accumulation of such particles in the stream, what then

is fate of the health status of the masses that depend soly on this resource for water supply?

68
It was discovered that the local peasant farmers in the course of processing their foodstuffs

and because of water scarcity, allow their cassava to ferment (in bags) in the stream for the

days. Moreover microorganisms and Cyanide released from the fermenting compressed

cassava paste are very detrimental to the health of the population. More so, ‘Water Fufu’

consumers are not left out of the dilemma.

The effects of pollution are more intense as one moves down from the source to the lower

course of the stream and during the day when human activities are at their maximum, than

in the early hours of the day. Therefore it is worthwhile for residents that depend on the

stream for water needs to fetch in the early hours of the day or very late in the night when

anthropogenic activities and pollutants are quite infinitesimal.

The results of the water quality analysis executed on the Ndongo stream, indicated it is

both physico-chemically and bacteriologically (with respect to Fecal Coliform count) not

potable due to its widespread use as an open Toilet (especially during moments of acute

water crisis) and other complementary anthropogenic and natural activities. Consequently

the predominant dependence on the stream for water needs may be the most rational

explanation to the aggravating water related health hazards on the local population.

In general, the stream is not fit for drinking, cooking, and even bathing. Hence its

utilization in the above domestic sectors should be strictly forbidden unless after treatment

observing strict internationally accepted directives. Uses such as laundry, washing and

watering of plants have little harm associated to using the stream water; as such these uses

can be compromised.

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5.2 Recommendations

Natural impurities of the stream as well as alarming deterioration in the quality of water

through physical, chemical and bacteriological pollution resulting from human activities

pose problems meriting special attention. The search for solutions to water quality

problems has extended across various paths including; the managerial, technological,

financial, social, economic, political, institutional, and legal, confirming the

multidisciplinary, or transdisciplinary, nature of water, as recognized by the Marrakech

Declaration. To this effect, below are recommendations (adopted from international

provisions) for efficient water quality management of the stream and supply to the

neighbouring population:

• The local councils should provide easily comprehensible laws prohibiting

indiscriminate stream dumping and stipulate sanctions in cases of non compliance. The

relevance and importance of water legislations to the proper management and

protection of water resources was recognized a long time ago. This recognition has

been underscored by more recent international conferences on water starting with the

Mar del Plata United Nations Water Conference (1977); paving the way in Cameroon

to the drawing-up of Law No 79/10 of June 1990 amended by Law No 90/16 of August

1990, which regulates spring water and mineral water; and Law No 98/005 of 14th April

1998, which regulates all water resources except spring and mineral waters.

• The local council should involve the quarter heads, and elites to assist in the

implementation of their laws, with the help of the local law enforcement officers

inclusive.

• The population should be duly sensitized and educated on the ills of illegitimate and

uncouth street and stream dumping, poor sanitation and poor health.

• The environmentally-active villagers should make the effort to make provisions for

better prevention and abatement of both point and diffuse pollution sources.
70
• Feasible regulations of discharge of wastewater and other wastes must be designed

according to context.

• Villagers must be sensitized on land use techniques, particularly land cultivation

practices. Better farming techniques such as leaving crop residue on fields and ground

cover on the drainage ways, intercropping, use of mulches, reduction in the use of

agrochemicals and low-volume irrigation could reduce water losses dramatically vis-à-

vis guaranteeing safe water supply.

• The adoption of detailed procedures for the enforcement of water quality standards

particularly for water for domestic uses must be at the pinnacle of water quality

management. Activities such as faecal and municipal waste deposition in streams,

which do not only destroy its aesthetics but also hampers its physico-chemical and

biological fitness, should be vehemently discouraged.

• For those who lack alternative sources of water, water collected from the stream must

be treated at the domestic level through thorough boil and filtration prior to

consumption.

• There is need to allow for Stream recycling through self purification so as to minimize

organic impurities.

• The natural vegetation cover on the stream’s bank should be maintained so as to

prevent sediment pollution from eroding banks and runoffs flowing into the stream.

• There should be strict respect and adequate protection of the stream’s ecosystem,

especially in fish-catch; i.e. fishermen must practice sustainable fishing and avoid the

use of non-degradable chemicals which might alter the water quality.

71
 Assign Classify and Identify reuse Properly
responsibilities assess waste options dispose of
generation waste water

Train Ensure Ensure Encourage and

personnel safe workers’ incorporate
and waste storage safety public
workers participation

Seek experts’ advice Discourage open dumping on grounds of

when needed public health and safety

Recycling of Waste Composting of

materials segregation degradable

Disposal of domestic waste

Treatment
Of clinical waste entering the system separately
Disinfection of stools from cholera patients and of other
infectious bodily fluids.

Final disposal
Municipal landfill
Burring on premises
Discharge into sewer
Fig 17: Basic steps in domestic waste management in minimal programs as an

initiative to minimize street and stream dumping.

72
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Brown L.C. and Barnwell T.O., Jr. (1987). The enhanced stream water Quality Models
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Athens, Ga.

Courade G. (1970) The Urban Development of Cameroon and essay in Social Geography.
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Hawkes H.A. (1971) Microbial Aspects of Pollution. Academic Press, London.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_quality (2008).

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Jimoh H. I. and Ifabiyi I. P., (2000). Contemporary Issues in Environmental Studies.

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McGraw-Hill New York. pp. 8.3-8.49.

Matute D.L. (2000) Buea at Glance. Pressbook and Co. Cameroon

McKee J.E., and Wolf H.W. (1971). Water quality Criteria, 2d Ed., Publication No 3-A.
California State Water Quality Control Board. Sacramento. Cal.

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Thomson Canada Ltd, Canada.

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP). (2007). Quality Assurance

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Shaddhakar Supkar (1974). Water resources Law. Sambalpur University Journal,
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Tchobanoglous G., and Schroeder E.D., (1985). Water Quality. Addison-Wesley, Reading,
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 APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE
For the Interviewer Only:
Name: ……………………………………………………………………………………
UB No: …………………… Institution ………………………………………………
Project-Title: ………………………………………………………………………………

Dear respondents this questionnaire is anonymous and will be used purely for academic
purposes. PLEASE, tick the correct answers and feel free to add any comments you have
on the reverse side of the questionnaire.
For Households:
Structural Questions
1. How far from the Stream is your house? …………………………………………
2. How many people stay in your house? ……………………………………………
3. Who has the highest qualification in the house? Father? Mother? Child?
4. What is the person’s qualification? University degree, High School, Secondary
school, Primary school
5. What type of things do you throw away in your house? Plastics, Metals and
tins, Food wastes, Old Batteries, Papers
6. Where do you throw these wastes? …………………………………………
7. How much water do you think the house uses everyday? …………………
8. Do you use water from Ndongo for anything in your house? Yes, No
9. If yes, then what do you use it for? (Tick or Cross-). –Agriculture Drinking,
washing, cooking, bathing,
10. Do you go to the stream for any reason? Yes, No,
11. If yes then what do you do in the stream? Toilet use, Fishing, Washing of
clothes and utensils, Do some traditional rites,
12. If No, what alternative sources of water do you use? ……………………………
13. Do you think that any of the above uses have an effect on the water quality? Yes, No,
14. Do you think that any of the uses above could contaminate the stream? Yes, No,
15. Which of them (you can name more than one if necessary) ………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………….
16. Do you think that the Ndongo stream is good enough for drinking? Yes?
No,
75
17. Do you know of any diseases that can be contracted through bad water? Yes,
No,
18. Has any body in you house ever fallen sick with one of these diseases? Yes, No
19. How often does this happen? Monthly Twice a year yearly
20. Have you ever noticed any change in the colour of the stream? Yes No
21. When did you notice this change? Dry season. Beginning of the rainy season.
The heart of the rains.
22. When this happens do you still use water from Ndongo? Yes. No
23. Is there anything you can do to make the water from the stream drinkable? Yes,
No,
24. If yes, state them. …………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………
25. Do you think they are effective enough? Yes, No,

76